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The Importance of Teacher Agency and Expertise in Education Reform and

Policymaking

Article · June 2019

DOI: 10.21814/rpe.17669

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 educação
revista portuguesa de

The Importance of Teacher Agency and Expertise

in Education Reform and Policymaking
Ken Zeichneri
University of Washington, United States of America

This paper asserts that teacher agency and expertise are often underutilized
in education systems throughout the world, and that by encouraging
greater teacher agency and better leveraging and utilizing the collective
expertise of teachers, educational systems can become more successful
and more equitable. It summarizes several arguments for government
officials who are responsible for education in their countries to support
the development of genuine teacher agency with regard to their teaching
and professional learning experiences, and to give teachers collectively
a greater voice in the conceptualization and development of education
policies. The goal here is to support teacher agency and to benefit
from teachers’ expertise in ways that are connected to system goals to
provide everyone’s children with access to well-prepared teachers and a
high quality and enriching education that addresses academic, social-
emotional, and civic aspects of learning and that reflects the multicultural
and global realities that affect all nations.

Keywords: Teacher agency; Teacher policy; Teacher expertise

Introduction education systems around the world that were

deemed to be high performing, both because
In this paper1, I argue that teacher agency of the overall quality of student learning, and
and expertise are often underutilized in the equity in their distribution of educational
education systems throughout the world, resources and student learning outcomes
and that by encouraging greater teacher (Darling-Hammond, Burns, et al., 2017). These
agency and better leveraging and utilizing the thoughts also are based on my experiences over
collective expertise of teachers, educational the last 43 years in supporting and studying
systems can become more successful and more teacher professional learning and teacher
equitable. The thoughts that are expressed in policy especially in relation to issues of equity
this brief paper are based on my participation and social justice (e.g., Caro-Bruce, Flessner,
as a researcher in a recent study of teacher Klehr, & Zeichner, 2007; Zeichner, 1993).
policy and practice in several high performing

1 This paper is based on a keynote address presented at the Seoul International Education Forum, sponsored by the Seoul
Metropolitan Office of Education, in October 2018.

Revista Portuguesa de Educação, 32(1), pp. 5-15. doi: 10.21814/rpe.17669

6 Zeichner, K.

1 . Te a c h e r a g e n c y 2 . Te a c h e r e x p e rt i s e

Teacher agency is a term that has been used Individual teachers have knowledge and
to refer to situations where teachers have skills that they have brought to and have
the capacity to exercise their discretion and acquired in their initial teacher education
judgment in adapting their instruction and programs, in their teaching, and in their
curriculum to meet the diverse and changing ongoing professional learning experiences,
needs of their students (Priestley, Biesta, & that are often underutilized by education
Robinson, 2015). It has also been used to refer systems. In using the term teacher expertise,
to “the capacity of teachers to act purposefully I am referring to more than individual teacher
and constructively to direct their professional knowledge and skills. I am also identifying
growth, and to contribute to the growth of the teacher expertise achieved and employed
their colleagues” (Calvert, 2016, p. 4). Finally, by teachers collectively in individual schools
teacher agency has also been used to include and across educational systems (Priestley
teachers’ capacity to have a genuine voice in et al., 2015). Hargreaves and Fullan (2012)
helping to shape educational policies (Atkin, argue that teacher expertise (or what they call
1994). professional capital) consists of the confluence
I have decided to use the term teacher agency of three kinds of expertise: human capital,
rather than autonomy because I believe that the social capital, and decisional capital. Human
term agency better reflects the responsibilities capital refers to the individual talent that
of teachers, administrators, and policymakers teachers have and continually develop. Social
to support both teachers’ judgments with capital refers to the collective expertise that
regard to their own students’ ongoing learning, comes from genuine teacher collaboration.
their own professional growth, their voice Decisional capital comes from creating
in the policies that affect their work in the conditions to enable teachers to exercise
classroom, and the achievement of education their professional judgment with regard to
system priorities that seek to guide the learning student learning, teacher learning, and from
of students and staff toward the provision of teachers’ voices being heard by educational
a high quality and equitable education for all policymakers.
students. This view of teachers as professionals who
A choice does not have to be made between work in conditions and in a culture that support
teacher agency and compliance. High their agency with regard to teacher learning,
performing and equitable education systems student learning, and educational policy was
around the world have demonstrated that it found in all of the high performing education
is possible to both support genuine teacher systems that we recently studied (Darling-
professionalism by enabling their agency with Hammond, Burns, et al., 2017) and is supported
regard to student learning, teacher learning, by much international research on teacher
and education policymaking, and to support professional learning (e.g., Asia Society, 2017;
system guidance towards achieving a more Day, 2012; Hill, Beisiegel, & Jacob, 2013; Jensen,
enriching and equitable education for all Sonnemann, Roberts-Hull, & Hunter, 2016;
students (Darling-Hammond, Burns, et al., Stewart, 2012; Tatto, 2007; Villegas-Reimers,
2017). 2003). It is a view that considers teachers to
be both critical consumers and producers of

Revista Portuguesa de Educação, 32(1)

 Teacher Agency and Expertise 7

new education knowledge (Cochran-Smith & the improvement of educational quality and
Lytle, 1993; Zeichner, 1995), and that views equity (Hargreaves & Shirley, 2012). In some
the relationship between policy and practice as cases, like in Shanghai, teacher action research
a democratic and interactive one, rather than is built into the way in which teachers’ work is
one that moves only top down from policy to constructed (Campbell, Zeichner, Lieberman,
practice. & Osmond-Johnson, 2017). In other
I discuss three examples of cases in the U.S. situations, teacher action research is an added
and Canada where supporting the agency professional learning opportunity for some
of professional teachers and taking better teachers beyond their contracted teaching
advantage of their individual and collective hours (Zeichner, 2003).
expertise has led to influences on policy and to There is substantial evidence that teacher
greater equity and social justice in education action research, conducted under particular
for students. Before I briefly describe these conditions (Zeichner, 2003; Zeichner &
three cases here, I will outline several different Noffke, 2001), benefits not only the teachers
strategies that have been used in successful conducting the research, but also other
education systems to support teacher agency educators as well, and that action research
and access teacher expertise. is a mechanism for both knowledge creation
and professional learning. For example, in
3 . S t r at e g i e s f o r d e v e l o p i n g the Madison Wisconsin school district in
and benefiting from teacher the U.S., where I supported the research of
a g e n c y a n d e x p e rt i s e teachers for 25 years, at the end of each school
year teachers present the findings of their
There are several strategies that have been year-long action research to other educators
utilized in successful education systems for in the school district and to school district
enabling and benefiting from teacher agency administrators. The studies done by teachers
and expertise. These include supporting are also published by the school district each
teacher action research for both individual year and copies are sent to the libraries in each
teachers and groups of teachers within an school. In addition, some teachers here and
education system (Caro-Bruce et al., 2007). in other parts of the U.S. choose to present
In some cases, teacher researchers focus on their research at national and international
issues and topics that are given to them by educational research conferences and to
administrators, while in other cases teachers publish their work in journals or in book form
determine the substance of their collaborative (Caro-Bruce et al., 2007; Zeichner & Noffke,
work. Some research groups are led by the 2001).
teachers in the groups while in other cases Another closely related inquiry strategy that
outside facilitators are present. has been used to support teacher agency and
In one notable case in Alberta, Canada, to leverage and benefit from their expertise is
the provincial government funded action lesson study (Lewis & Lee, 2018). Lesson study
research projects by teachers, principals, is a particular form of classroom-based inquiry
and communities in individual schools and that exists in several countries in which small
groups of schools over a 14-year period, and groups of teachers collaboratively plan, teach,
demonstrated, through independent research, observe, revise and reteach individual class
the achievement of a substantial impact on lessons. In some cases, as in Japanese primary

Revista Portuguesa de Educação, 32(1)

8 Zeichner, K.

schools, lesson study is part of the structure the Center for Teaching Quality and Teaching
of most teachers’ work, and in other cases the Partners, two NGOs in the U.S., teachers
availability of this inquiry practice to teachers conduct webinars and online workshops
is more limited. where they share aspects of their practice
A third general approach to support (including videos of their practice) with
teacher agency and benefit from teacher national audiences of other teachers and
expertise is the use of professional learning school administrators2. Various terms, such as
communities (PLCs). PLCs have emerged in “learning walks”, “demonstration lessons”, and
many educational systems across the world “teaching rounds”, have been used to describe
as an alternative to a focusing on individual peer observations, but the basic idea is that
teacher development and to foster greater the teaching practices of individual teachers
collaborative teacher learning (McLaughlin becomes more visible to the community of
& Talbert, 2006). Many versions of PLCs have teachers and a collaborative culture within
been conceptualized and implemented within schools is fostered (Asia Society, 2017; City,
particular countries and around the world Elmore, Fiarman, & Teitel, 2009; Darling-
(e.g. Qiao, Yu, & Zhang, 2017; Vescio, Ross, Hammond, Burns, et al. 2017; Ginsberg, 2011).
& Adams, 2008). In critically reflecting on
the wave of support internationally for PLCs, 4 . B e yo n d s t ru c t u r e : It i s t h e
Hargreaves (1994) distinguished between s u b s ta n c e a n d c u lt u r e t h at
genuine collegiality, in which teachers have m at t e r
agency within PLCs to collaborate about
issues that matter to them in ways that support One important thing to know about these
genuine and deep dialogue, and what he called and other strategies for developing teacher
“contrived collegiality”, where teachers are agency and expertise is that each of them
told to collaborate about particular issues in has been conceptualized and implemented in
ways that are often prescribed and that often many different ways. It is not merely a question
undermine authentic communication. of the general structure of these forms of
A fourth general approach to supporting professional learning that determine their
teacher agency and benefiting from teacher value in supporting teacher agency. It is also
expertise is to de-privatize teaching and the culture that exists within these structures
provide teachers opportunities to observe that gives them meaning and potential value.
other teachers in action and to analyze what is Whose knowledge counts in these forms of
observed, sometimes with the participation of professional learning? Who gets to decide
the teachers observed. Here, as is the case with what teachers focus on and how they do so? Do
the strategies previously mentioned, there is teachers feel emotionally safe and supported
great variety in how these observations are so that they can be authentic? Do they feel
structured. For some teachers, observation intellectually challenged? There are many
of their peers is a regular part of their daily questions like these that need to be addressed
workday. In other cases, peer observation is before we can determine the usefulness of a
a special activity that is available to teachers particular instance of any of these strategies
only occasionally. In one effort organized by in supporting genuine teacher agency and in

2 https://teachingpartners.com/workshops/archived/

Revista Portuguesa de Educação, 32(1)

 Teacher Agency and Expertise 9

creating opportunities to benefit from teacher that address both the structure and culture
expertise. of these learning experiences (e.g., Learning
In the U.S., for example, all of the forms of Forward, 2011). These features of high quality
teacher learning mentioned here have become teacher professional learning opportunities
very common, yet teachers still largely find call for professional learning that is ongoing,
their professional learning experiences to be job-embedded, connected to practice,
not helpful. For example, in 2014, a Bill and aligned to school and school district goals,
Melinda Gates Foundation national evaluation and genuinely collaborative (Calvert, 2016).
found that: The literature also stresses the importance of
teacher ownership of what they are working
The majority of school systems struggle on, and a culture that provides an emotionally
to provide valuable professional learning safe space where teachers feel they can be
experiences to teachers. The more than 1,600 authentic and are supported and where they
teachers surveyed characterized their professional are also intellectually challenged (Zeichner,
development as irrelevant, ineffective, and not 2003).
connected to their core work of helping students
learn. (cit. in Calvert, 2016, p. 2) 5. E n a b l i n g t e a c h e r s ’ vo i c e s
to be heard in e d u c at i o n
In another recent national evaluation, two policymaking
prominent NGOs, the National Commission
for Teaching and America’s Future and Generally, education officials around the world
Learning Forward, found that: view the process of education reform as one
involving the translation of policy initiatives
into practice. In some parts of the world, these
Even professional learning communities, a
reforms are strongly directed by the visions and
common form of professional learning, were
priorities of transnational organizations and
consistently described (by teachers) as broken or development agencies such as the Organization
seriously off track. One science teacher described for Economic Co-operation and Development
PLCs as “a total cliché”. An English teacher (OECD) and the World Bank, in addition to, or
explained our conversation is superficial. We are rather than, by internal governments (Robertson,
afraid to bring up a situation that we are having, 2012). Regardless of the specific situation, it is
a problem, for fear of being judged. We are just very uncommon internationally for teachers to
going through the motions. (Calvert, 2016, p. 7) be given opportunities to help shape education
policies and their implementation (Stromquist,
2018).
A robust body of research exits identifies the
There are examples, though, in some of the high
features of professional learning experiences performing countries that we studied, in other
for teachers that are highly valued by teachers countries, and in my own personal experience,
and that enhance education quality and equity of different strategies for engaging teachers
for students (e.g., Calvert, 2016; Darling- in the conceptualization and development of
Hammond, Hyler, & Gardner, 2017; Hargreaves education policies. For example, the Center for
& O’Connor, 2018; Leana & Frits, 2017; Qiao et Teaching Quality (CTQ) in North Carolina,
al., 2017; Randi & Zeichner, 2004; Vescio et al., a NGO, has been very active in the U.S. in
helping policymakers become more aware
2008). This research has been translated into
of classroom teachers perspectives on policy
professional standards for teacher learning

Revista Portuguesa de Educação, 32(1)

10 Zeichner, K.

problems and their possible solutions. Utilizing 6 . Three examples of the impact
their philanthropic support, they have organized of Teacher Agency and Expertise on
teacher leadership groups across the country that educational equity practices and
interact with local and state policymakers. These policy
teacher leaders share their perspectives through
their blogs, teacher written policy briefs3, and
6 . 1 E x a m p l e # 1 – Th e A l b e rta I n i t iat i v e
through their public testimony to state education
officials and legislators. A few years ago, I attended f o r S c h o o l I m p r ov e m e n t ( A I S I )
a meeting in Seattle where one of the local CTQ
groups presented the findings contained in a In 2000-2001, the Ministry of Education in the
policy brief on student and teacher assessment Canadian province of Alberta invested $75,000
that they had written to state policymakers and (about 2% of its annual Education budget) in a
representatives from local foundations such as comprehensive effort to support a three-year
the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. cycle of action research conducted by teachers,
Another example I became aware of in my principals, students and community members
research in Alberta, Canada, where I learned focused on the creation of locally developed
that teachers are frequently seconded from innovations to address both local needs and
their classrooms for several years to work in the provincial priorities. This investment continued
Ministry or teachers’ association and then return for three more 3-year cycles plus an additional
to the classroom to be replaced by other teachers. two years, and in the end, after 14 years, over
The constant flow of teachers in and out of the 1,800 action research projects had been funded
Ministry of Education and the classroom ensures in about 95% of Alberta’s schools (Campbell
that teachers’ perspectives are always present in et al., 2017). In addition to the local benefits
the policy arena (Campbell et al., 2017). achieved by each local community from their
Additionally, many states in the U.S. have own reform-based inquiries, the designers of
Professional Educator Standards Boards that the project built into AISI a deliberate strategy
advise the state Board of Education and Chief of “cross pollination” across schools. Several
School Officer about the governance of the externally conducted evaluations of this work
teaching profession within individual states, have documented the improvements in student
including teacher education and the certification learning and equity, as well as a number of other
and professional learning for teachers. These outcomes (e.g., Hargreaves & Shirley, 2012).
teacher advisory groups advise the governmental One of the major areas in which both policy
bodies legally responsible for governing and practice were impacted by AISI is with
education on such things such as standards regard to the education of Aboriginal students.
for teacher education programs and teacher For example, Gunn, Pomahac, Striker, and
certification, and regulations for teacher license Tailfeathers (2011) examined 16 AISI projects
renewal. In reality, there is much variation across focused on Aboriginal learning and identified
states in the U.S. in the scope of responsibility a number of themes they addressed. These
and the degree to which the recommendations included improving the academic potential
of these boards are acted on by government and learning of Aboriginal students, increasing
officials4. the involvement of and communication with
Aboriginal parents/guardians, creating a more

3 https://www.teachingquality.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/How_better_teacher_assessment_can_power_up_learning.pdf
4
http://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/725/Wsipp_The-Washington-Professional-Educator-Standards-Board-Scope-of-Authority-
and-Governance_Full-Report.pdf

Revista Portuguesa de Educação, 32(1)

 Teacher Agency and Expertise 11

inclusive sense of belong for Aboriginal students, to innovation in their classrooms and improved
and enhancing cultural awareness of Aboriginal outcomes and equity for students. Importantly,
culture and history throughout the education this evaluation was also able to show how the
system. These inquiry projects show evidence research completed by the teachers (which
of increasing attendance and the learning of was usually presented at a teacher research
Aboriginal students and resulted in policy conference at the end of the school year and
changes that led to the creation of Aboriginal was also published by the district) influenced
parent advisory councils and a provincial effort policies in the district with regard to the teaching
to prepare more Aboriginal teachers for Alberta’s of students with disabilities and the professional
schools (Campbell et al., 2017). learning provided to teachers to do so (Bixby,
Klehr, Zeichner, Caro-Bruce, & Lyngaas, 2001).
6 . 2 E x a m p l e # 2 – Te ac h e r C l a s s r o o m
Ac t i o n R e s e a r c h i n M a d i s o n Wi s c o n s i n 6.3 Example #3 – Inclusive vs. Elite
(USA) I n t e r nat i o na l B ac c a l au r e at e P r o g r a m s

In 2000, a small pilot program was initiated by The International Baccalaureate (IB) Program
the district’s professional learning department is a curriculum at the primary, middle and
to support teachers and other practitioners in secondary levels that in 2016 existed in nearly
Madison schools to conduct year-long research
4,500 schools in 16 countries. This curriculum
about their own practices. After 30 years
engages students in rigorous academic
and several hundred studies that have been
published by the district, the program continues work. At the secondary level, students who
today. Many of the teachers in the research participate in IB courses are engaged in college
groups were given one day per month released level work, based on a standard IB curriculum,
time for the group meetings and support from and are taught by teachers who are trained
the district’s librarians in accessing research and certified to teach IB courses. One problem
studies related to their topics. The groups are that has been faced with this program is that it
led by facilitators who are teachers and other has often served as an elite program that has
practitioners (e.g., counselors, social workers)
excluded many students living in poverty from
who have experienced the action research process
participating in IB courses. This problem has
themselves. Teachers select their own research
topics within broad group themes that are linked been recognized by the IB organization that
to priorities of the school district, such as race now provides grants to schools to help address
and social class equity and closing achievement the issue5.
gaps, multicultural education, inclusion, and In the Seattle Public Schools, the IB program
teaching English learners. They have intellectual exists in three high schools. In each of these
control of their own projects and the norms and high schools, teachers have worked very hard to
structures within the research groups (see Caro- make the IB courses widely accessible to many
Bruce et al., 2007) ensure that the projects are
students in the school, instead of the common
teacher-directed.
practice of the IB program serving as an
An externally funded evaluation of the program
for which I was one of the lead researchers exclusive program for academically successful
(Zeichner, 2003) documented the many ways students. In one of these schools, Ranier Beach
in which teachers’ action research projects led High School, the adoption of the IB program

5 https://www.ibo.org/excellence-and-equity/

Revista Portuguesa de Educação, 32(1)

12 Zeichner, K.

was one of the key elements in changing this quality and enriching education that addresses
school that was about to be closed by the school academic, social-emotional, and civic aspects of
district, making it one of the most successful learning and that reflects the multicultural and
schools in the district serving a diverse student global realities that affect all nations. The reality
today, in every country in the world, is that
population in a high poverty area of the city. In
there are inequities both within their education
this school, in which about 40% of the students
systems and in the larger societies. I have argued,
are refugees or immigrants, about 95% of the in this paper, that support for genuine teacher
students are students of color, and where 75% agency and consistent and honest leveraging
of students live in poverty, teachers and parents teacher expertise can help ameliorate educational
worked together to bring the IB program into inequities.
their school. Importantly, they insisted that Another one of the most important points that
the IB program serve all of the students in I have tried to make in presenting my arguments
the school with particular attention given to is that the structure of professional learning
activities alone (e.g. teacher research, lesson
the neighborhood’s most underserved and
study, professional learning communities) says
marginalized students. This move to start an
very little about the quality of these experiences
inclusive IB program in this school, and the in relation to teacher agency and expertise. In
agency of teachers and parents, in pushing order to understand how well these activities,
for IB courses to be inclusive, resulted in the in fact, support genuine learning and teacher
high school being selected for a national award agency and enable the system to benefit from
(as a “School of Opportunity”), a process that individual and collective teacher expertise, we
documented many of the achievements of the need to examine the culture and social relations
school after the introduction of the IB program that exist within them. The evidence suggests that
both teacher and student learning are enhanced
in improving the learning of students and
if a genuine culture of mutual trust, support,
equity within the school6.7
and intellectual challenge is present in teacher
professional learning activities (Hargreaves &
Conclusion O’Connor, 2018).
Do teachers have opportunities to focus their
This paper has summarized an argument professional learning on issues that matter
for government officials who are responsible to them? Do they feel emotionally safe and
for education in their countries to support the respected as well as intellectually challenged
development of genuine teacher agency with in these activities? All of the different forms of
regard to their teaching and professional learning professional learning that are described in this
experiences, and to give teachers collectively paper can be used in ways to empower teachers or
a greater voice in the conceptualization and to disempower and control them in more subtle
development of education policies. The goal here ways that provide only an illusion of professional
is to support teacher agency and to benefit from learning. There is still much important work to
teachers’ expertise in ways that are connected be done on all of the issues that are raised in this
to system goals to provide everyone’s children paper.
with access to well-prepared teachers and a high

6 https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-sheet/wp/2016/10/31/this-school-was-on-the-brink-of-closure-heres-how-it-
saved-itself/?utm_term=.09c01ce41370
7
https://www.seattletimes.com/education-lab/seattles-rainier-beach-high-earns-national-spotlight-in-hbo-show-wyatt-cenacs-problem-areas/

Revista Portuguesa de Educação, 32(1)

 Teacher Agency and Expertise 13

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 Teacher Agency and Expertise 15

A i m p o rtâ n c i a da a g ê n c i a e L a i m p o rta n c i a d e l a a g e n c i a
d o conhecimento profissional y del cono cimiento profesional
dos professores na reforma d o c e n t e e n l a r e f o r m a e d u c at i va
e d u c at i va e n a d e c i s ã o p o l í t i c a y en l a formul ación de p olíticas

Resumo Resumen
O artigo sustenta que a agência e o El artículo sostiene que la agencia y el
conhecimento profissional dos professores são conocimiento profesional de los profesores son a
frequentemente negligenciados nos sistemas menudo descuidados en los sistemas educativos
educativos internacionais e que, instigando internacionales y que, instigando una mayor
a sua maior capacidade de ação e melhor capacidad de acción de los profesores y mejor
aproveitando e usando o seu conhecimento aprovechando y usando su saber colectivo, los
coletivo, os sistemas educativos podem tornar- sistemas educativos tienen más éxito y son más
se mais bem-sucedidos e mais igualitários. igualitarios. Se sumarían varios argumentos
Sumariam-se vários argumentos para que as para que los funcionarios gubernamentales que
entidades responsáveis pela educação nos seus son responsables de la educación en sus países
países apoiem o incremento de uma genuína apoyen el incremento de una genuina capacidad
capacidade de ação dos professores, no que de acción de los profesores, en lo que respecta
respeita às suas experiências de ensino e de a sus experiencias de enseñanza y de desarrollo
desenvolvimento profissional, bem como lhes profesional, y les otorguen una voz más activa,
confiram uma voz mais ativa, coletivamente, colectivamente, en la conceptualización y el
na conceptualização e implementação de desarrollo de políticas educativas. El objetivo
políticas educativas. O objetivo do artigo é del artículo es apoyar esta capacidad de acción
apoiar esta capacidade de ação dos professores de los profesores y demostrar las ventajas
e demonstrar os benefícios de usufruir do de beneficiarse de su saber y experiencia, en
seu saber e experiência, em articulação com articulación con los objetivos del sistema de
os objetivos do sistema de proporcionar a proporcionar a todos los niños una enseñanza
todas as crianças um ensino por professores por profesores bien preparados y una educación
bem preparados e uma educação de elevada de alta calidad y enriquecedora, que lidia con
qualidade e enriquecedora, que lide com os los aspectos académicos, socio-emocionales y
aspetos académicos, socioemocionais e cívicos cívicos del aprendizaje y que refleja las realidades
da aprendizagem e que reflita as realidades multiculturales y globales que afectan a todas
multiculturais e globais que afetam todas as las naciones.
nações.
Palabras-clave: Agencia de los profesores;
Palavras-chave: Agência profissional dos Política docente; Conocimiento profesional
professores; Política docente; Conhecimento docente
profissional docente

I
College of Education, University of Washington, United States of America.

Toda a correspondência relativa a este artigo deve ser enviada para:

Ken Zeichner
University of Washington, College of Education
2012 Skagit Lane, Miller Hall, Box 353600 Recebido em 16 de abril de 2019
Seattle, WA 98195-3600 Aceite para publicação em 16 de abril de 2019
Email: kenzeich@uw.edu Revista Portuguesa de Educação, 32(1)

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