LESSON 1 The Treaty-Making Period

holes were drained by heavy use.

KEY IDEAS
A Changing Natural grasslands were depleted, so
• The need for land Relationship wild animals had trouble finding food.
Always looking for fresh meat, the

W
for white settlement
prompted treaty hen sea traders, fur trappers, travelers hunted along the way. This
and missionaries first came to meant that the supply of deer, elk, and
negotiations with
the Pacific Northwest, Indians buffalo that Indians relied on for food
Indians.
were willing to trade with them, and dwindled.
• The Stevens Treaties most got along well. Indians worked Pioneers observed Indians and
required Indians to for the fur companies and helped wrote about them in diaries. A woman
give up their lands and missionaries build homes and churches. named Catherine Washburn observed:
move to reservations. As you read in chapter 2, Native “Indians ketch crickets and dry them,
• Misunderstandings Americans helped Lewis and Clark in pound to powder, mix with berries, and
of Indian culture and their journey through the Northwest. bake it for bread.”
the American belief in However, as thousands of settlers came The dwindling food resources as
west on the Oregon Trail, relations well as disease took a toll on the Indian
white superiority led to
between Indians and whites changed. population. And, as more whites settled
many problems.
As pioneers moved west, thousands in the territory, there was conflict over
of oxen, mules, and horses followed, land ownership. The changes brought
KEY TERMS grazing their way west. They often by settlers and the increasing conflict
spread out for a mile or more beside sparked an era of warfare that lasted
assimilation the wagons. So many animals passed 30 years.
council through each summer that watering
infringe
paternal The painting shows the Battle of Seattle during
the Yakama War. The artist, Emily Inez Denny,
relinquish
was three years old at the time of the battle.
reservation How would you describe the activity and
sovereign emotions in the painting?
stipulate
superiority
treaty

84
 the land. They also wanted to make
Cultural Conflict money by mining, cutting down trees
Why were there so many problems? to sell, and raising food and cattle to
Why couldn’t both groups live side by sell to others. They needed buildings,
side in the vast territory? roads, railroads, and shipping
harbors. They didn’t mind changing
• Indians and settlers had different the land so they could make a living.
ways of getting food. In some parts
of North America, Indians had • Language was another
farmed before Columbus arrived, problem. When people spoke
but not in the Pacific Northwest. different languages, there was
Native people here lived by hunting, miscommunication.
fishing, and gathering plant foods. • Leadership ideas were different.
White settlers expected native people Settlers chose leaders to speak for
to settle down on one spot of land, them and make rules and laws.
grow crops, and raise livestock. Native Americans had tribal councils
• Land ownership meant different that made decisions. The Indian
things to each group. American chief had to get the support of the
Indians had hunting and fishing council regarding all decisions.
grounds within tribal boundaries • The concept of white superiority
but did not own land individually. gave settlers the belief that “good”
They used the natural resources on meant “civilized our way.” They did
the land to provide food and shelter. not respect the cultures of the native
They were satisfied with the ways people. The settlers thought the
they used the land. The settlers, Indians should eat, dress, work and
however, wanted to own pieces of worship like the white people.
land. They wanted to grow crops on

The Cayuse War

The Whitman Massacre marked the beginning of a bloody period in relations between
white settlers and native peoples. The murder of Dr. Whitman, his wife, and 12 others at the
Waiilatpu mission sparked the Cayuse War. Settlers organized a volunteer militia and asked
for assistance from Washington, D.C. Over the next several years, Cayuse Indians battled with
local militia and U.S. troops.
In an effort to end the violence, a Cayuse chief ordered five warriors to surrender to U.S.
troops for the murder of the Whitmans. The warriors were hanged, but the violence continued.
By 1855, the Cayuse were defeated. Those who survived were placed on a reservation (land set
aside for Native Americans).

White settlers and Native Americans were both

guilty of savage cruelty. Some history books,
however, have presented a skewed account
of the conflicts. When whites slaughtered
Indians, the conflict was usually a “battle,”
but when Indians slaughtered whites, it
was a “massacre.” What do you think is the
reasoning behind these word choices?

A medicine man attends to a sick Indian.

The Cayuse thought Dr. Whitman had
deliberately infected them with measles.

From Treaties to Statehood 85

 In this painting, Chiefs at
Dinner at the Walla Walla
Council, Governor Stevens
and General Joel Palmer
are serving food at each
end of the banquet. What
appears to be the mood
of the dinner? How might
the atmosphere help with
treaty discussions?

(agreements between two or more

The Stevens Treaties independent nations) that resulted in
the relinquishing (giving up) of Indian
The murders of the Whitmans
lands. By signing the treaties, Indians
sparked the Cayuse War between the
agreed to move to reservations. On the
Cayuse people and white settlers backed
reservations, native groups would be
by the U.S. Army. It would not be the
concentrated in much smaller and less
only war, however.
desirable lands.
In an effort to address the increasing
The treaties also specified that on
tension between white settlers and
some reservations free agricultural and
native peoples, Washington’s newly
industrial schools would be established
appointed governor, Isaac Stevens,
to teach Indian children the values
embarked on a tour of the territory
and practices of white society. On the
and held meetings with representatives
reservation, Indians also would have
of the largest Indian groups. In just
free access to health care. These benefits
over a year, Stevens signed 10 treaties
would be available for up to 20 years in
most cases.
The treaties that Stevens negotiated
What Is a Treaty? were an example of the mindset of
A treaty is a written agreement between two many Americans at the time. They
reflected a belief in manifest destiny
states or sovereigns (independent nations). The
as well as the paternal (fatherly)
federal government considered native groups living attitude that many Americans had
in the United States and its territories to be sovereign toward the Indians. The government
nations. According to the U.S. Constitution, the federal thought that moving the Indians to
government has the responsibility of negotiating reservations would protect them from
treaties with other nations. As an agent of the U.S. white settlement and encourage them to
government, that’s exactly what Governor Stevens was become more civilized.
doing—negotiating agreements with Indian nations. [T]he great end to be looked
The United States signed about 800 treaties with to is the gradual civilization of
Native Americans between 1789 and 1871, although the Indians, and their ultimate
incorporation with the people of the
less than half were approved by Congress. This made Territory.
treaty enforcement difficult. All of the Stevens Treaties, —Governor Isaac Stevens
however, were among those approved by Congress.
To settlers, becoming more civilized
Nevertheless, misunderstandings and disagreements meant that Indians should abandon
over treaty terms continue to this day. their “savage” ways. The idea of
assimilation was the cornerstone of

86 The Washington Journey

 Indian policy throughout the 19th
A group of Native Americans
century. Native Americans paid a heavy
pose for a photo in front of a
price for this policy, as it not only took teepee at the Colville Indian
away their land, but it chipped away at Reservation in Northern
their cultural traditions and practices. Washington. In what ways
do they appear more
American than Indian?

Broken Promises
The treaties promised much to the
native peoples, but often the terms of
the treaties were either broken or only
partially fulfilled. Additionally, treaty
terms were open to interpretation and
revised when the needs of white settlers
changed.
Although the Indians were to be
paid for their land, they were often paid
very little and sometimes not at all.
The money that was promised would
be divided into payments spread over Indian Reservations in Washington Territory
a period of years. The president of the Lummia
United States would retain the right to Makah Swinomish Colville
Kutenai
Indian
dispense the money as he saw fit. Tulalip Reservation
Quileute Spokane
For example, the Treaty of Point Quinault
No Point promised to pay natives of Skokomish Muckleshoot Coeur 0 100 miles
Puyallup d’Alene
“said tribes and bands the sum of sixty Shoalwater Nisqually
thousand dollars” over a period of 20 Bay Chehalis
Yakama
years. The treaty further stipulated that: Nez Perce
Grand Ronde
All which said sums of money shall Umatilla
be applied to the use and benefit of Siletz Warm
the said Indians under the direction Springs
of the President of the United
States, who may from time to time
determine at his discretion upon
what beneficial objects to expend Fort
the same. Hall
Klamath Duck Valley
False Assumptions
As you can see, the language of
the negotiations and the treaties could The Stevens Treaties required that Indians move to confined reservations that
be confusing. Stevens and other U.S. were much smaller than the lands they gave up. Which reservations are the
largest? Why do you think some tribes got more land?
officials did not speak native languages,
and the natives did not speak English or
very little. As a result, negotiations and The treaty policies also did not
treaties were translated into Chinook account for the different lifestyles of
Jargon. Because the jargon (language) Indian groups. For example, those who
included only about 500 words, lived along the coast remained where
negotiations were hampered by this they had always lived and continued
significant language barrier. fishing as they always had. They were
Adding to the difficulties was the not as upset with the land treaties as
fact that many whites assumed that all those Indians who lived inland on the
Indian culture was the same. In creating plateau. Plateau Indians needed more
the reservation system, government space to hunt animals and gather
officials ignored the fact that some seasonal plants. They were not willing
tribes were enemies and assigned these to give up their land because it would
enemy tribes to the same reservation. change their lives too much.

From Treaties to Statehood 87

 The Stevens Treaties
1855 1856
Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan.

December 1854 January 1855 June 1855 July 1855 October 1855 January 1856
Medicine Creek Treaty of Treaty with the Treaty of Treaty with the Quinault Treaty
Treaty Point Elliot Walla Walla, Hell Gate Blackfeet
Cayuse and
Treaty of Point
Umatilla
No Point
Treaty with the
Treaty of Neah Bay
Yakima
Nez Perce Treaty In just 14 months, Territorial Governor Stevens
negotiated 10 treaties with Native Americans
living in what is now Washington State as well
as parts of Idaho and Montana.

What do you think were the pros and

cons of negotiating so many treaties
in such a short period of time?

Tribal Sovereignty
One important concept that the
treaties were to uphold was the idea of
tribal sovereignty. Tribal sovereignty
refers to the right of Native Americans
to govern themselves. Although the
treaties required native peoples to give
up land and move onto reservations, the
Indians would retain the right to govern
themselves.
Today, this right of self-government,
however, does have limits. While
Indians can govern themselves
according to tribal law and custom
within Indian reservations, federal law
is still considered supreme. This means
the U.S. government can overrule tribal
laws and even overrule decisions made
by tribal courts.

Treaties allowed Indians to retain tribal sovereignty. Here, an Indian chief leads
a tribal council among his people. What do you imagine the chief is telling his
people? How would you describe the chief’s role in the council?

88 The Washington Journey

 By the turn of the century,
fishing had become an
important economic activity
for Indians and whites.
How does the photo justify
concerns about overfishing?

Fishing Rights
Since fishing was a source of food
and trade, and because it was significant
to Indian values and customs, most
of the treaties included fishing rights. Disputes over fishing rights led Indian activists to stage “fish-
Indians would be allowed to continue to ins” in the 1960s and ’70s to protest state regulations that
fish in “usual and accustomed” places undermined treaty rights promised them 100 years earlier. Indian
even if those places were not on the activists modeled their protests after those of black Civil Rights
reservation. activists who staged sit-ins, wade-ins, and other “ins” to protest
Initially, granting these tribes segregation in public facilities, including restaurants, movie
fishing rights off the reservation was theaters, swimming pools, beaches, and schools.
not a problem. Most white settlers
Tribal groups repeatedly challenged state laws throughout the
were interested in other economic
20th century and finally succeeded in securing their rights in a
activities such as farming and logging.
1974 Supreme Court ruling known as the “Boldt Decision.”
Indian fishing rights posed no threat
to those activities. However, by the According to the ruling, treaty tribes could continue to fish in
turn of the century, commercial fishing traditional places outside of reservations. Further, the Court
was a significant livelihood for many ruled that treaty and non-treaty fishermen would have an equal
Americans. This led to competition— share of the harvestable fish.
and conflict—with Indians when they
continued to fish on land considered
to be private property outside of the like salmon, would disappear if there
reservation. was too much fishing. State officials
Besides fueling conflict, the responded to the fears by setting size
competition started to make a limits on fish catches. Native Americans
noticeable dent in the fish supply. saw these regulations as infringing on
This sparked fears that some fish, their treaty rights.

What Did You Learn? 1

1. What was the purpose of the treaties between the United States
government and the Indians?
2. What problems resulted from broken promises and false assumptions?
3. Explain how the treaties represented American attitudes about Indians at
the time.

From Treaties to Statehood 89