PART 1

Chapter 7
FOOD AND DRINK

Many of the recommendations of dina-carya- and

OBJECTIVES r.tucarya- would be incomplete without the inclusion
● To understand and review the influence of of a system of knowledge that guides the myriad
specific dietary articles upon the humoral -
- choices available to us in our diet. Ayurveda divides the
system of Ayurveda. classification of diet in two basic categories,
dravadravya vijñanı-ya (‘knowledge of liquids’) and
annasvaru- pa vijñanı-ya (‘knowledge of food’).
-
Despite the fact that more recent texts on Ayurveda
suggest that there are certain dietary regimens that are
best suited to the individual dos. as, this is not a concept
-
found in any traditional text on Ayurveda. Traditional
-
Ayurvedic physicians recognise that there are certain
foods that influence the individual dos. as, and that
a true understanding of diet comes from appreciating
each individual dietary article, rather than memorising
a list of dietary ‘dos and don’ts’. Most of the foods men-
tioned in these ancient texts, however, are outside of
India, and thus we are left to consider non-Indian foods
-
from an Ayurvedic perspective. Beyond any regimen, all
diets for all people should be healthy, diverse and whole-
some, and attempt to reflect the season and the local
ecology.

7.1 WATER

Of the liquids, water is considered to be the most

-
important in Ayurveda. The biological activity of
water is said to be different if it is hot, tepid or cold, and
its qualities are dependent upon the location from
which it is collected. It is fairly clear from the ancient
texts that the utmost importance was attached to mak-
ing sure the source of water was pure and uncontami-
nated.
In ancient India freshly collected rainwater was
highly valued for health. It is said to be rejuvenating

NOT FOR PUBLIC RELEASE 79

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80 PART 1: Theory and practice of Ayurveda

(rasāyana), strength promoting (balya), life giving promotes congestion, weight gain and aggravates
(jı̄vanı̄ya), promotes contentment (sukha), enhances kapha. Drinking small amounts of water after every
the intellect (medhya), and alleviates all three dos. as. few mouthfuls with meals enhances digestive function
In this industrial age, however, rain often contains the and promotes the normalcy of the dos. as.
residue of airborne pollutants. These industrial pollu- Cold water relieves the effects of aggravated pitta
tants are now dispersed widely across the entire surface and poison, inhibits digestion, and is useful for intoxi-
of the earth, and although one may live in a pristine cation, exhaustion, fainting, fatigue, vertigo, thirst,
environment this does not mean that the rainwater is heat and sunstroke. Cold water is contraindicated in
not contaminated. constipation, flatulence, throat diseases, nascent
-
According to Ayurveda the water from fast-flowing fevers, rhinitis, upper respiratory tract infections,
glacial rivers is considered to be the best substitute for coughs, hiccoughs, chest pain, urinary tract disorders,
rainwater; it is rasa-yana (‘rejuvenative’), and allevi- cataracts, anorexia, anaemia, poor circulation and
ates all three dos. as. The water from slower flowing tumours. Cold water is not taken after snehapa-na,
rivers and streams, which is murky and brown, con- a therapy in which a large amount of oil is ingested
tains algae and other plant material said to promote orally (see 11.3 Pu-rva karmas: snehana).
congestion, parasitic infection, circulatory distur- Warm water stimulates digestive function, soothes
bances, and aggravate all three dos. as. The water from throat irritations, cleanses the urinary tract, relieves
underground springs alleviates kapha, promotes hiccoughs and dispels intestinal fermentation. It is par-
digestive function, and is hr.daya (‘cardiotonic’). The ticularly suitable for both va-ttika and kaphaja condi-
water collected from artesian wells stimulates diges- tions, and finds its best use in the nascent symptoms of
tion function, alleviates kapha, and aggravates an upper respiratory tract infection. Water that has
pitta. Lake water can relieve the symptoms of exces- been boiled to three quarters of its original volume is
sive pitta, whereas water taken from ponds and small stated to alleviate va-ta; that which has been boiled to
pools aggravates va-ta. Water that has been collected one half its original volume alleviates pitta; and water
and allowed to sit in a crystal vessel and exposed to that has been boiled to one quarter of its original vol-
the rays of the sun all day, and then exposed to the ume is constipative and alleviates kapha. This ability
rays of the moon all night, is said to be rasa-yana to modify the effect of boiled water is a useful factor to
(‘rejuvenative’), balya (‘strength-promoting’), med- take into account when preparing decoctions (kva-tha)
hya (‘intellect-promoting’), and alleviates all three for individuals. Hot water is contraindicated in physi-
dos. as. cal and mental exhaustion, convulsions, bronchial
Water in excessive amounts is considered detrimen- asthma, hunger and haemorrhage. Boiled water that
tal for persons suffering from agnima-ndya (weak has been cooled is best for both kaphaja and paittika
digestive function), and is thus consumed in lesser conditions, but if left overnight will aggravate all three
quantities in such situations. Clearly the modern prac- dos. as.
tice of consuming eight glasses of water a day is not Water is an extremely important substance, and in
appropriate for every person. Small amounts of water many respects is the ultimate anupa-na, acting as
on a frequent basis are better for hydration, whereas a solvent and carrier for the medicinal substances it is
large amounts of water consumed all at once is mixed with. Depending upon its quality and source,
mūtravirecana (‘diuretic’) and virecana (‘purgative’). water can energise and potentise a medication, or it
With regard to the seasons, water should be consumed can impinge or inhibit a medicinal effect. Water also
in greater quantities in the summer, and less so in the appears to have the ability to record influences upon
other seasons, but as it is essential to life it is never pro- itself, and can be energised by succusion, meditation
hibited completely. The best guide to water consump- and prayer. To some extent these ideas are supported
tion is to rely on one’s desire for it (e.g. thirst), and to by scientific research, most notably in the work of
watch for symptoms associated with dehydration such physicist Louis Rey of Lausanne, Switzerland, who
as dryness of the oral cavity, constipation, headache or suggests that water has a kind of ‘memory’ of mole-
low blood pressure. The consumption of water before cules that have been diluted away, demonstrated by
eating inhibits digestive function, promotes weight loss a technique that measures thermoluminescence (Rey
and aggravates va-ta. Consuming water after meals 2003).
 Food and drink 81

(‘nourishing’), stanyajanana (‘galactagogue’), and

7.2 DAIRY PRODUCTS bhedhana (mildly ‘laxative’), alleviating va-ta and
pitta. Go dugdha increases kapha and promotes sro-
-
Milk is given much importance in Ayurveda, and the torodha (srota ‘congestion’) in a-ma conditions. The
milk of different animals has distinct dietary and ther- milk of a black cow is considered to be the most whole-
apeutic applications. As in the West, cow’s milk is by some, whereas the milk of a white cow is stated to
far the most commonly consumed milk in India, aggravate kapha. Although all milk is best consumed
although for many people (especially in non-urban fresh, if cow’s milk must be pasteurised it is best
areas) milk is obtained fresh, unpasteurised and decocted with kat.u dravyas such as Śu- n.t.hı- rhizome
unprocessed. In constrast, the industrial product called (Zingiber officinalis), Ela- seed (Elettaria cardamomum)
milk in the Western world that is heavily promoted by and Tvak bark (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) and drunk
government agencies, marketing boards and the dairy warm.
industry, is in many respects an entirely different sub- Takra (‘buttermilk’) is the somewhat acidic liquid
stance to the health-giving food that cow’s milk was separated from butter during churning, considered to
-
considered to be in the ancient Ayurvedic texts. be śita in nature, dı-panapa-cana (enhances agni
Herbicide and pesticide residues that act as carcino- and ‘cooks’ a-ma), and stambhana (‘constipating’). It
gens and endocrine disrupters, pathogenic bacteria, is useful in the treatment of throat irritation and
the presence of growth hormones, antibiotic residues inflammation, but like cow’s milk is avoided in sro-
and heavy metal contaminants like cadmium have all torodha. Takra is especially useful in the treatment of
contributed to make industrial cow’s milk an unfit and recovery from dysentery, often boiled with
product for regular consumption. At the least I recom- herbs such as Haridra- rhizome (Curcuma longa),
mend that cow’s milk be as fresh as possible, preferably Śūn. t.hı- rhizome (Zingiber officinalis), and fresh curry
from a local supplier or one’s own animals, unpas- leaves (Bergera koenigii).
teurised and free from herbicides, pesticides, hormones Aja- dugdha (‘goat’s milk’) is similar to cow’s milk in
and antibiotics. many respects, but is laghu (‘light’) in nature, dı-pana
Besides those factors mentioned above, there are (enhances agni), stambhana (‘constipating’), and is
two more factors to consider before consuming any particularly useful for cachexia, haemorrhoids, diar-
kind of milk: rhoea, menorrhagia and fever. In many areas of India
aja- dugdha is the first choice when weaning children
1. Sa-tmya: the consideration of whether milk is an
off breast milk. Like cow’s milk, goat’s milk should be
appropriate food for a particular person, based on
consumed warm, and can be similarly decocted with
cultural and racial differences. Most East Asian
kat.u dravyas. Due to their instinsic nature, goats can-
people, for example, do not produce the enzyme
not be intensively farmed like cows, require large pas-
lactase needed to break down the milk sugars, and
tures to browse in, and thus typically eat a broader range
can experience severe intestinal cramping and
of foods than cows. Thus goat’s milk is in every way
bloating after dairy consumption. Other people
superior to industrial cow’s milk, and often contains a
regardless of race also exhibit allergies and sensi-
broader range of nutrients.
tivities to cow’s milk, in all likelihood because of
Avi dugdha (‘sheep’s milk’) can also be thought of as
its premature introduction into the diet as young
an alternative to cow’s milk. It is guru (‘heavy’) and
children or infants.
snigdha (‘greasy’) in nature, and is considered to be
2. Agni and a-ma: the digestive capacity of one who
almost identical to cow’s milk, useful in paittika and
wishes to consume milk must be taken into
vāttika conditions, dry hacking coughs, and alopecia.
account. When digestion is weak, there is usually
Mahisi dugdha (‘water buffalo milk’) is excessively
a-ma. If milk is consumed in such a scenario, agni
guru (‘heavy’), snigdha (‘greasy’) and śita (‘cold’) in
will continue to be impaired and the undigested
nature. It is most often used by the poorer classes in India
milk will feed a-ma.
instead of cow’s milk, and imparts a similar flavour to
Go dugdha (‘cow’s milk’) is considered to be guru goat’s milk. Given its heavy and greasy properties
(‘heavy’) and snigdha (‘greasy’) in nature, śita (‘cold’) mahisi dugdha is used therapeutically for a condition
in action, rasa-yana (‘rejuvenative’), br.mhan. a called bhasmika, in which dietary articles pass through
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82 PART 1: Theory and practice of Ayurveda

the patient very quickly and the hunger is insatiable. Bifidus), it is generally not recommended for daily con-
-
Water buffalo milk is also said to be stambhana (‘consti- sumption in Ayurveda. Generally speaking, dadhi pro-
pating’), balya (‘enhances strength’), and nidra-- motes digestion, is constipative and strengthening. It is
janana (‘promotes sleep’). specific for diarrhoea and dysentery, anorexia, dysuria
Navanı-ta is fresh butter churned from cow’s milk, and in chronic fever where a-ma has been removed
and is vajı-karan. a (‘aphrodisiac’) and specific to (nirāma jvara). Dadhi is thought to promote conges-
va-ttika and paittika complaints. Ghr. ta or ghee is tion (kleda) and burning sensations (daha), which can
made by heating fresh unsalted butter over a low heat lead to fever, diseases of the blood, cold sores and other
and rendering the pure butter oil from the milk solids, skin diseases. There are different varieties of dadhi,
the latter of which are discarded. The rasa of ghr. ta is however, each classified on the basis of the fermentation
madhura (‘sweet’), its vı-rya is śita (‘cold’), and its period. Dadhi that has been fermented for a short period
primary gun.as are guru (‘heavy’) and snigdha of time is stated to have a madhura (‘sweet’) rasa, and
(‘greasy’). When applied topically ghr. ta is anti- can be helpful to relieve va-ta and pitta, whereas dadhi
inflammatory and finds special utility in skin condi- that has been fermented for longer has a kat.u (‘pun-
tions such as eczema, rashes, ulcers, and herpetic gent’) rasa, better used in kaphaja conditions.
-
lesions, especially when medicated with raktaprasa- Ayurveda recommends that dadhi should be consumed
dana (‘blood-cleansing’) dravyas, e.g. Maha-tikta by itself, or with honey or jaggery, and never in the
ghr. ta. Medicated ghr. ta preparations are also used in evening. The watery portion of dadhi, called mastu,
.
oleation therapies (abhyanga) for their ability to treat has all of the benefits of dadhi but none of its disadvan-
psychological disturbances (e.g. insanity, bipolar disor- tages and is an excellent food, containing the highest
ders) and other nervous system disorders (e.g. epilepsy, amounts of beneficial bacteria.
paralysis). Ghr. ta is an important medicament used in Panir is a cultured dairy product that very much
the treatment of many ophthalmological disorders, resembles what in the West is called cottage cheese or
and is often decocted with the formula Triphala for kefir. Panir is guru (‘heavy’), snigdha (‘greasy’)
this purpose. Internally, ghr. ta is used with other herbs and mildly śita (‘cold’) in nature and is a good food in
as an anupa-na and is yogava-hı-, meaning that it con- va-ttika and paittika conditions only as long as agni
tains the ability to augment the effects of any medici- is strong enough to digest it. Panir tends to promote
nal agent combined with it. Ghr. ta is especially suited kleda (‘congestion’), and hence is an especially poor
to paediatrics and geriatrics, and is a rasa-yana in choice in kaphaja conditions. Most other kinds of
paittika conditions. Ghr. ta is considered a highly aus- cheese that are available in the West such as cheddar,
picious food within Hindu culture, and is used in many montery jack and mozzarella are excessively guru
forms of pu-ja (‘worship’) ceremonies as an agent of (‘heavy’) and snigdha (‘greasy’) in quality, and are
purification. Ghr. ta is often combined with honey for intolerable in anything except small amounts or in
its nutritive effects, but never in equal quantities. those people with a tiks. n. a agni. Aged and hard
Although it is a rasa-yana and can help to improve cheeses such as parmensan, romano and feta have
digestive function, ghr. ta can block the channels of a kat.u (‘pungent’) rasa and can be used in va-taja and
the body (srotorodha) and promote the accumulation kaphaja conditions in small amounts.
of a-ma if agni is weak. Ghr. ta that has been aged in Even though many people within the last few gen-
excess of 10 years is thought to be much stronger in its erations in the West missed out on it, it is now clearly
overall action than fresh ghr. ta, and has a kat.u (‘pun- established that human milk should be the first food of
gent’) vipa-ka, is prama-thi (decongests the srota-- any newborn. Therapeutically, the milk of lactating
m.si), medhya (‘intellect promoting’) and alleviates all women alleviates va-ta and pitta without aggravating
three dos. as. It is a tradition among some Indians to kapha, nourishes the dha-tus, and stimulates digestive
bury well-sealed vessels that contain ghr. ta that are to function. Breast milk finds special therapeutic utility in
be dug up several years later and used by succeeding diseases of the eye, such as conjunctivitis, and can be
generations. mixed with other herbal preparations for more serious
When cow’s milk is allowed to ferment the resultant ophthalmological conditions. Breast milk is also used
preparation is dadhi or curd (yoghurt). Although high in nasya for diseases of the head and in neurological
in beneficial commensal bacteria (e.g. Lactobacillus, disorders.
 Food and drink 83

7.3 FRUIT Pacifies kapha

● Small amounts of dried fruit, cranberry, grapefruit,
Most fruits generally aggravate kapha and relieve lemon, lime, and sour-tasting fruits.
pitta because of their śita (‘cold’) and guru (‘heavy’)
qualities, and depending upon the kind of fruit, may
-
aggravate or pacify va-ta. Of all the fruits Ayurveda 7.4 VEGETABLES
- -
considers draks. a (‘grapes’) to be among the best, but
these of course must be organically produced or other- Among all the different foods, vegetables stand out for
wise naturally grown, and I believe, also refers to eat- their health-giving properties and their generally ben-
ing the seeds along with them, which contain potent eficial effects upon all three dos. as. In this respect veg-
anti-oxidant compounds. The following list describes etables are closely allied with medicinal plants, some
the actions of fruits upon the dos. as: such as Śu-n.t.hı- (Zingiber officinalis) and Laśuna
(Allium sativum) straddling the definition of food and
Aggravates va-ta medicine. Although all vegetables are generally bene-
ficial each dos. a may require that these vegetables be
● Dried fruit, cranberries, sour and acid-tasting prepared by a specific method.
fruits, unripe fruit. The consumption of raw vegetables is generally not
-
advised in Ayurvedic medicine due to their excessively
Pacifies va-ta śita (‘cold’) vı-rya, and are specifically contraindicated
● Most local and seasonal fruits, consumed individu- in va-ttika and kaphaja conditions. To some extent
ally and in small amounts, e.g. raspberry, straw- the issue also relates to potentially pathogenic microor-
berry, pear, blueberry, peach, grape, and apple. ganisms that can be found on raw vegetables, espe-
● Cooked fruits such as baked apples, baked pears, cially in developing countries that often lack sufficient
and stewed fruit (e.g. prunes, raisins, etc.), prepared sanitation. In most cases raw vegetables should be
with ghr.ta and dravyas such as Tvak bark avoided, and at the least should be lightly steamed or
(Cinnamomum zeylanicum) and Ela- seed (Elettaria juiced, preferably with dravyas that have an us. n. a
cardamomum). (‘hot’) vı-rya such as fresh ginger root, garlic and shal-
● Any tropical fruit, e.g. mango, pomegranate, lots. In contrast, paittika conditions may benefit from
papaya, guava, litchi (lychee), melon, banana, etc. limited amounts of raw vegetables such as celery and
carrot sticks to cool the body and reduce excess heat.
Fried vegetables are only really indicated in va-ttika
Aggravates pitta conditions, and aggravate both pitta and kapha, and
● Sour and acid-tasting fruits, including lemons, sour can promote a-ma. Most deep-fried foods are similarly
oranges; papaya or strawberry consumed to excess. congesting and even toxic considering their transfatty
acid content – at the least, deep-frying should use heat-
Pacifies pitta resistant oils such as ghr.ta and coconut oil. The fol-
lowing lists the interaction between vegetables and the
● Most local and seasonal fruits can be eaten freely, dos. as:
such as raspberry, plum, pear, cranberry, grape,
and apple; sweet citrus fruits can also be consumed
in moderation. Aggravates vāta
● Most tropical fruits, e.g. mango, pomegranate, ● Raw vegetables generally, mushrooms,15 potatoes.
papaya, guava, litchi, melon, banana, etc.

Aggravates kapha Pacifies vāta

● Most fruits are generally avoided because of their ● All cooked vegetables generally, but especially root
excessive water content (snigdha) and cold (śita) vegetables and winter squashes, steamed, boiled,
nature. baked or stir-fried.
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84 PART 1: Theory and practice of Ayurveda

● Well-cooked onions and garlic. aggravate all three dos.as, promote a-ma and should be
● Cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, cabbage, etc.) are avoided. Whole grain flour, although largely considered
śita (‘cold’) and laghu (‘light’) in nature, and to be better than white flour, can still impair gastric
should be cooked with ginger or other herbs such as motility and aggravate kapha, weaken agni, and facili-
cumin, rosemary, and garlic, and consumed with tate the production of a-ma due its guru and picchila
fats such as butter, olive oil or ghr.ta. nature. Whole grain flours are also particularly suscepti-
● Seaweed, in soups and broths. ble to rancidity, due to the polyunsaturated fat content,
● Fermented vegetables, e.g. sauerkraut, pickles, and should be freshly ground and used as soon as possi-
umeboshi plum. ble. Generally speaking, it is best to consume boiled or
naturally fermented grains, such as oatmeal and
steamed rice, or homemade idli (fermented rice/urad
Aggravates pitta
bean cakes) and sourdough bread. It has become
● Onions, chilies, tomatoes, eggplant (aubergine), increasingly clear that a long-term diet rich in grains and
garlic, turnip, radish, avocado, watercress, seaweed, cereals poses several potential health problems. Foods
pickles. with a high glycaemic index can promote alterations in
blood sugar, leading to hypoglycaemia, as well as induce
a state of hyperinsulin secretion and insulin resistance,
Pacifies pitta
leading to diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Grains
● Most vegetables, preferable steamed, juiced or raw, and cereals also contain a chemical called phytic acid
especially cooling vegetables such as leafy greens, that binds to certain minerals such as calcium and iron,
cucumber, lettuce, dandelion, cilantro, sprouts and and minimises their absorption in the digestive tract to
celery. promote nutrient deficiencies. Further, a diet rich in
grains may also be abundant in compounds called
lectins, which irritate and inflame the gut wall. Thus, in
Aggravates kapha
many cases, a grain-based diet is contraindicated in
● Raw vegetables, mushrooms. inflammatory bowel disorders, and in autoimmune con-
● Fried vegetables. ditions like a-mava-ta (rheumatoid arthritis) that are
thought to have an enteropathogenic origin. Despite the
fact that the modern Indian diet obviously relies upon
Pacifies kapha
grains and legumes to feed an enormous population,
● All vegetables, steamed or baked. there is no indication in the extant Āyurvedic literature
● Bitter or pungent tasting leafy greens. that a primarily grain-based or vegetarian diet should
-
● Raw vegetables only with us.n.a (‘hot’) dravyas take preference over a more balanced diet: indeed, the A
such as cayenne and black pepper. yurvedic texts recommended a wide assortment of
● Sprouted beans and seeds in moderation. foods, including meat, to maintain health.
● Small amounts of fermented vegetables and The following list details the effects of grains and
unsweetened pickles. cereals upon the dos. as:

Aggravates vāta
7.5 GRAINS AND CEREALS
● Insufficiently cooked grains; grain foods with light
Most grains and cereals have a madhura (‘sweet’) rasa, (laghu) and dry (ru-ks.a) properties such as gra-
a guru (‘heavy’) and us.n. a (‘hot’) vı-rya, and are mostly nola, muesli, corn, millet, yeasted bread, popcorn,
br.mhan. a (‘nourishing’) in action. Grains and cereals rice cakes, puffed grains, tortilla chips.
are thus generally considered to be most appropriate in
va-ttika conditions, although certain grains, such as
Pacifies vāta
rice, barley, quinoa or amaranth appear to be suitable to
all three dos.as.16 Refined cereals such as white flour that ● Boiled and fermented grains, including oats, rice,
have been stripped of their original nutrient content rice noodles, quinoa, amaranth, buckwheat, khus-
 Food and drink 85

khus (couscous), whole wheat pasta, whole wheat ent in prepackaged foods and meat, and many people are
chapatti, corn flour tortilla, sourdough bread allergic or have sensitivities to soy. As legumes will typi-
(lightly toasted). cally provoke va-ta in most people, they should be soaked
overnight, cooked with ginger and other us.n. a (‘hot’)
dravyas, and eaten with fat such as ghr. ta. In countries
Aggravates pitta
like Japan, beans such as soy are rarely consumed with-
● None, except light or toasted grains consumed to out first being fermented, as in natto, miso and tempeh,
excess (e.g. granola, muesli, corn, millet, bread, which helps to deactivate some of the health-damaging
popcorn, rice cakes). constituents. Another frequent error that is made when
preparing bean dishes such as dahl is using too great a
volume of beans. According to traditional Indian cook-
Pacifies pitta
ery, dahl is a thin, watery broth made with beans and
● Boiled and toasted grains, including oats, rice, rice spices. In a given meal, the actual volume of beans con-
noodles, quinoa, amaranth, buckwheat, khuskhus, sumed is actually fairly small. Many Westerners that
whole wheat pasta, whole wheat chapatti, corn flour emulate an Indian diet prepare far too large an amount
tortilla, sourdough bread (lightly toasted). needed for one meal, and mistakenly rely upon this as
their primary source of protein, eschewing the benefits
of egg or dairy in an otherwise vegetarian diet. The pri-
Aggravates kapha
mary reason why most people in India exlusively rely
● Most grains, especially white rice, yeasted bread, upon legumes as their primary source of protein is
pasta, wheat, rye and oats. because of extreme poverty, although some believe
a vegetarian diet more beneficial to cultivate a sattvic
state of mind.17
Pacifies kapha
The following lists the effects of legumes upon the
● Boiled and fermented rice, quinoa, amaranth, millet, dos. as:
barley, corn; grain foods with light (laghu) and dry
(ru-ks.a) properties such as granola, muesli, corn,
Aggravates vāta
millet, popcorn, rice cakes, puffed grains, etc.
● All legumes, including soy, lentils, split peas, kidney,
garbanzo, lima, pinto, navy, peanut.
7.6 LEGUMES
Pacifies vāta
Although legumes are an important non-animal source
of protein, they typically display a ru- ks.a (‘dry’), laghu ● There are no beans that truly pacify va-ta, but
(‘light’) and śita (‘cold’) vı-rya, and hence most are con- some legumes and legume products such as urad
traindicated in va-ttika conditions. Similar to grains and dhal (black gram), adzuki, mung, soft tofu, natto,
cereals, legumes have been shown to contain potentially and tempeh can be consumed in moderation if
toxic or health-damaging constituents, such as lectins, prepared with warming herbs and spices such as
phytates and protease inhibitors. Thus legumes may ginger, cumin, garlic, basil and oregano.
promote nutrient deficiencies, which is in keeping with
-
the Ayurvedic perspective, as well as inflame the intes- Aggravates pitta
tinal wall, and thus are contraindicated in inflammatory
● Peanut.
bowel disease and autoimmune disorders. Like grains
and cereals, most legumes are rich in carbohydrates,
Pacifies pitta
and should be avoided in hypoglycaemia and diabetes, or
at least be consumed with fats and oils to lower the gly- ● Most legumes are acceptable for pitta, but because
caemic index. Some legumes such as soy are now very they have a laghu (‘light’) vı-rya they should not
common in our modern diet, often as a hidden ingredi- be consumed to excess.
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86 PART 1: Theory and practice of Ayurveda

Aggravates kapha Aggravates kapha

● Peanut, urad dhal. ● Most nuts and seeds are generally avoided in
kaphaja conditions because of their snigdha
(‘greasy’) and guru (‘heavy’) vı-rya.
Pacifies kapha
● Most legumes are useful for relieving kapha, used
Pacifies kapha
in moderation.
● Pumpkin, melon seeds.

7.7 NUTS AND SEEDS

7.8 MEAT AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS
Nuts and seeds are the most br. mhan. a (‘nourishing’)
foods of the vegetable kingdom, and are an excellent Of all the food groups, meat and animal products are
source of dietary fat. Nuts and seeds are the fruit of the the most br. mhan. a (‘nourishing’), and are generally
plant, the final dha-tu produced, and are closest in considered to have a guru (‘heavy’), snigdha
quality to śukra/an. d.a-n.u (semen/ovum) in humans. (‘greasy’) and us. n. a (‘hot’) vı-rya. Meat and animal
Thus nuts and seeds directly nourish the reproductive products generally pacify va-ta, but some can aggra-
organs, if taken in appropriate amounts. The vı-rya vate both pitta and kapha.
of most nuts and seeds is guru (‘heavy’), snigdha Although India is renowned for its vegetarian cul-
-
(‘greasy’) and us.n.a (‘hot’). Care should be taken to eat ture, Ayurveda does not prohibit meat as a dietary arti-
nuts and seeds as fresh as possible, as many will cle, and nor are the vast majority of people in India
become rancid shortly after being hulled. Many nuts vegetarian, at least by choice. It is clear that traditional
-
such as pistachio also contain high levels of fungal Ayurvedic medicine considered meat to be an excellent
mycotoxins that result from improper storage and act food to relieve deficiency (langhana) conditions. In the
as liver carcinogens. If taken in excessive amounts, West, however, gross nutritional deficiency is rarely an
nuts and seeds facilitate the production of a-ma and issue, although many people feel much better when they
will aggravate kapha. The following lists the effects of consume good quality meat on a daily basis, especially if
nuts and seeds on the dos. as: they live in cold, dry climates. In northern climes it is
clear that animal products have always been an impor-
tant staple to people that reside in these areas, and if liv-
Aggravates vāta
ing in such a climate, it is as well to follow these
● None, except in large amounts (i.e. more than practices. It is important to remember, however, that
a small handful), and improperly chewed. meat carries with it a greater investment in the econ-
omy of cause and effect, when a sentient being is killed
and eaten to nourish another. Above all, meat is a
Pacifies vāta
medicinal food, and should be consumed when needed,
● Flax, hemp, sesame, pumpkin, walnut, cashew, sun- with respect and honour for the animal which has sac-
flower, coconut, pecan, filbert, brazil, almond, etc. rificed its life to nourish your own. If such an approach
were taken in the West, much of the objectionable and
cruel practices of the meat industry would be replaced
Aggravates pitta
by those that preserve and honour the dignity of the
● Most nuts and seeds are generally avoided in animal. Further, industrially produced meat is typically
paittika conditions because of their snigdha deficient in key trace minerals, low in omega-3 fatty
(‘greasy’) and us.n.a (‘hot’) vı-rya. acids, high in saturated fat, and rife with antibiotic and
hormone residues. Such meat and animal products
should be avoided in all conditions in favour of those
Pacifies pitta
that are organically grown, pasture-raised and free-
● Pumpkin seeds, coconut, almond, melon seeds. range.
 Food and drink 87

The consumption of the different kinds of meat can Acceptable animal products include eggs, poultry
be based upon the nature of the animal in relation to (especially duck and goose), wild fish, shellfish, wild
the dos.as. Thus, timid animals such as rabbit and veni- game, beef, pork, goat, lamb, mutton, etc.
son might be avoided in va-ttika conditions but are used
in kaphaja conditions because of their comparatively
Aggravates pitta
laghu (‘light’) and ru- ks.a (‘dry’) vı-rya. Passive and
sedentary animals such as beef and buffalo are con- ● Pork, beef, tropical fish, shellfish.
traindicated in kaphaja conditions, but are useful in
va-ttika conditions because of their sthira (‘stable’),
Pacifies pitta
sa-ñdra (‘solid’) and madha (‘slow’) qualities. Red meat
is generally avoided in paittika conditions, but is useful ● Poultry (particularly the white meat), cold water
in va-ttika conditions because of its comparatively fish (salmon, halibut, herring, etc.), fish roe, rabbit,
us.n. a (‘hot’) vı-rya (indicated by the red colour of the goat, lamb, mutton.
meat). The us.n. a property of lean red meat can be
appropriate in kaphaja if the animals are not seden-
Aggravates kapha
tary, such as venison, moose or elk. Goat meat and mut-
ton are two of the few red meats that are tolerated in ● Pork, beef, lamb, fish, shellfish.
paittika conditions, are similarly helpful in vattaika
conditions, and can even be used in kaphaja condi-
Pacifies kapha
tions in small amounts. Most fish is good for all three
dos. as but tropical fish is said to have an us. n. a (‘hot’) ● Poultry, wild game, goat, rabbit.
vı-rya and is traditionally avoided in paittika condi-
tions. Cold water fish, however, is unlikely to have this
effect, although cold water fish with a high fat content 7.9 FATS AND OILS
is contraindicated in kaphaja conditions.
The following details the effects of the different Fats and oils are an important food, medicament and
-
kinds of meat upon the dos.as: vehicle (anupa-na, see Ch. 6) in Ayurvedic medicine.
Generally speaking, oils and fats are a primary treat-
ment to va-ta due to their generally moistening and
Aggravates vāta
warming nature. They are typically used to a lesser
● No meat is contraindicated for va-ta, but some extent in paittika and kaphaja conditions, although
meats such as pork and beef can be difficult to some oils are an exception to this rule.
-
digest, and should be consumed in small The most commonly used oil in Ayurvedic medicine
amounts and with herbs and spices that enhance is sesame oil (taila). Taila is the cold-pressed oil from
digestion. raw tila (‘sesame seed’) and is the primary medium
-
● As va-ttika conditions speak of an extreme sensi- for the many medicated oils used in Ayurveda. Taila
tivity to psychic stimuli, the act of killing an animal has a madhura (‘sweet’) rasa, an us. n. a (‘hot’) and
for food carries with it a downward moving, nega- guru (‘heavy’) vı-rya, and is bhedana (‘aperient’),
tive energy that can act in opposition to the nour- vajı-karan. a (‘aphrodisiac’), balya (‘strength pro-
ishing qualities of the meat. In such conditions, the moting’), varnya (‘enhances complexion’), and paci-
kind of meats should be chosen carefully, selecting fies va-ta. Taken internally in large amounts taila is
only meat that has been cared for lovingly during vida-hi (‘promotes burning sensations’), and can
its life and sacrificed humanely. be used in the treatment of intestinal parasites
(kr. mighna). Used topically taila is medhya (‘intel-
lect promoting’), romsañjanana (‘promotes hair
Pacifies vāta
growth’), dı-pana (‘enhances agni’), and balya
● Almost all meats pacify va-ta, especially those (‘counters fatigue’).
cooked in soups and stews with kat.u (‘pungent’) Besides taila, ghr.ta is the next most commonly
dravyas such as onion, shallots, garlic, ginger, etc. used oil, used in both cooking and as a medicine.
 -
88 PART 1: Theory and practice of Ayurveda

A number of other oils are also used, however, and in essential omega-3 fatty acids than that found in pas-
the following is a list of common food oils used in ture-raised, grass-fed animals.
-
both Ayurveda and in the West, and their effects
upon the dos. as. Needless to say, perhaps, but this list
refers only to high-quality, fresh, cold-pressed ‘extra- 7.10 SWEETENERS
virgin’ oils, and generally not to those that have been
-
refined or rendered with the use of chemical solvents There are many kinds of sweetener used in Ayurvedic
or heat: -
medicine, mostly as anupana. Sweets are also very
popular as a food and condiment in India, but this is
1. Olive: decreases va-ta, increases pitta and
not reflective of the perspectives found in ancient texts
kapha
like the Caraka sam.hita- or As..t a- ñga Hr. dayam.
2. Coconut: decreases va-ta and pitta, increases
Intensely sweet foods such as cane sugar and honey
kapha -
are considered to be a kind of medicine in Ayurvedic
3. Sunflower: decreases va-ta and pitta, increases
medicine, with powerful healing properties. Used to
kapha
excess, however, or simply to feed the impulses of the
4. Safflower: decreases va-ta and pitta, increases
tongue, sweet foods are a kind of poison that aggra-
kapha
vates all three dos. as.
5. Walnut: decreases va-ta, increases pitta and
Madhu (‘honey’) is a highly valued sweetener in
kapha -
Ayurveda, and is considered to be ru- ks.a (‘dry’), us.n. a
6. Flax: decreases va- ta and pitta, increases
(‘hot’) and somewhat guru (‘heavy’) in nature. Madhu
kapha
is dı-panapa-cana (‘enhances agni’ and ‘cooks’ a-ma),
7. Hemp: decreases va-ta and pitta, increases
gra-hı- (‘checks excessive secretion’), śon. itastha-pana
kapha
(‘antihaemorrhagic’), varnya (‘enhances complexion’),
8. Castor: decreases va-ta and kapha, increases
medhya (‘promotes intellect’), vajı-karan. a (‘aphro-
pitta
disiac’), and alleviates kapha. Taken internally madhu
9. Mustard: decreases va-ta and kapha, aggravates
is used in the treatment of peptic and duodenal ulcer,
pitta
bronchitis, asthma, hiccoughs, vomiting and diarrhoea.
10. Almond: decreases va-ta and pitta, aggravates
Externally, honey is used to heal bruises, soothe inflamed
kapha
skin, resolve ulcers, unite broken bones and enhance the
11. Canola: decreases va-ta and pitta, aggravates
complexion. Like ghr.ta, madhu is yogava-hı-, enhanc-
kapha
ing the activity of the medicaments taken with it.
12. Peanut: aggravates all three dos. as
Madhu may be used safely with ghr. ta (but only in
13. Fish: decreases va- ta and pitta, increases
disproportionate quantities) for va-ttika disorders,
kapha.
and as an anupa-na for rasa-yana (‘rejuvenative’) and
Although there is no mention of them in the vajı-karan.a (‘aphrodisiac’) therapies. Madhu is a mild
-
Ayurvedic literature it is clearly wise to avoid both irritant to pitta, which is offset if at least twice the
hydrogenated oils and trans-fatty acids, as the con- amount of ghr.ta is used in combination. Aged
sumption of these fats has been shown to promote a madhu has less of the nourishing, br. mhan.a qualities
wide range of diseases, including cancer and cardio- of fresh honey, but has a greater ability to alleviate
vascular disease. This includes margarine, most oils kapha.
-
added to packaged foods, blackened meat from high Ayurveda prohibits the internal use of heated honey.
heat broiling, and any vegetable, fruit or seed oil sold in This is because wild bees gather nectar indiscriminately
a clear container without refrigeration (monounsatu- from any kind of plant, regardless of whether the plant is
rated fats such as olive oil are to some extent an excep- toxic or not. Thus all honey contains a certain amount of
tion to this rule). In a similar fashion, the fat of meat toxins,18 and because the nature of poison is us.n. a, when
from animals raised in large industrial operations and honey is heated the latent toxins become active. This is
fed only grain-based fodder is exceptionally unhealthy, also why the internal consumption of madhu is avoided
much higher in saturated fat and concomitantly lower in hot weather.19
 Food and drink 89

Gud.a, or jaggery (solidified cane sugar juice), is (‘sweet’) and amla (‘sour’) rasa, and is us. n. a (‘hot’),
snigdha (‘greasy’), śita (‘cold’) and guru (‘heavy’) in laghu (‘light’), and snigdha (‘heavy’) in quality, con-
nature, and is by far the best sweetener and anupa-na to sumed with meals in small amounts to treat va-ttika
use in paittika conditions. It may be used in va-ttika and kaphaja conditions. Distilled alcohol (e.g. scotch,
conditions as well, as long as the dravya accompany- bourbon, vodka) has a kat.u (‘pungent’) rasa, and is
ing it has an us.n. a (‘hot’) property, but should be us. n. a (‘hot’), laghu (‘light’), and ru- ks. a (‘dry’) in
avoided in kaphaja disorders, and can promote kr. mi quality, used to control kaphaja conditions and cold-
(‘intestinal parasites’). Gud.a is said to be bhedana ness in small amounts.
(‘aperient’) and balya (‘strength promoting’), and is Neither coffee nor tea is mentioned in the ancient
-
used therapeutically in the treatment of dahi (‘burning texts of Ayurveda, despite the fact that these are
sensation’) and tr. s.n. a- (‘thirst’). Aged gud.a, however, is both exceptionally popular beverages in modern
said to have a laghu nature, and is considered to be India, often consumed with large amounts of sugar,
hr. daya (cardiotonic) and nourishing. Refined gud.a, boiled milk and aromatic spices. Taken in small
which includes both white and ‘brown’ (caramelised) amounts and infrequently, neither of these bever-
sugar, aggravates all three dos.as, promotes kr. mi (‘par- ages poses any prominent risk to health, although
asites’), and should be avoided. Molasses is guru both va-ttika and paittika conditions can be aggra-
(‘heavy’) and snigdha (‘greasy’) in nature, and is well vated by their regular usage. In kaphaja conditions
suited to va-ttika conditions. Maple syrup and other both coffee and tea may have some minimal benefit
syrups derived from tree sap are similar in many (taken without sugar), as the stimulatory effect of
respects to gud.a, and may represent a better choice for the methylxanthines counters the lethargic nature
people living in temperate climates when consumed in of kaphaja and enhances mental clarity.
small amounts, as an anupa-na. Unfortunately both coffee and tea inhibit digestive
function when taken on a chronic basis. Taken
before meals, coffee and tea effectively inhibit the
7.11 ALCOHOL, COFFEE AND TEA appetite by enhancing the breakdown of glycogen
into glucose, temporarily elevating blood sugar lev-
-
Although the ancient texts of Ayurveda speak of the els. If taken after meals, however, coffee and tea
dangers of alcohol, much of what is written seems to work to enhance stomach emptying, strongly induce
indicate that alcohol has many benefits. All of these ref- gall bladder secretion and thus mass peristalsis, such
erences to alcoholic beverages are to certain kinds of that food is moved quickly through the gut without
wine or beer that have been naturally fermented. Wine first having undergone adequate digestion. The
(madya) prepared from grapes, consumed in moderate methylxanthines in coffee and tea artificially induce
amounts and taken with meals, is considered to be a state of nervous excitation called the ‘fight or
dı-pana (‘stimulant to digestion’). Beer (sura-) prepared flight’ response, and in large doses can promote
from rice is considered to be guru (‘heavy’) in nature, nervous irritability, anxiety and tachycardia. I gen-
and balya (‘strength-promoting’), stanyajanana erally find that most patients feel healthier and have
(‘galactagogue’) and br. mhan.a (‘nourishing’) in more energy when they avoid coffee and tea,
action, useful in the treatment of oedema, haemor- although discontinuing coffee can promote a few
rhoids, abdominal bloating, malabsorption syndromes days of headaches from rebound vasodilation of the
and dysuria. Yavasura-, or beer prepared from barley cerebral arteries.
(the dominant form of beer in the West), is said to be
guru (‘heavy’) and ru - ksa (‘dry’) in nature, inhibits
.
digestion, promotes bloating, and aggravates all three 7.12 SUMMARY OF DIETARY
dos.as. GUIDELINES AND tridos. as
Alcohol is generally avoided in paittika complaints
because the nature of addiction involves a dysfunction The following tables summarise what foods will typi-
of the discriminative faculties (i.e. pitta), but also cally pacify (reduce) or aggravate (increase) the
because alcohol is us. n. a (‘hot’) in nature. Naturally affected dos. a. For specific dietary and lifestyle guide-
fermented alcohol is predominant in madhura lines for each dos. a please consult Appendix 3.
 -
90 PART 1: Theory and practice of Ayurveda

TABLE 7.1 Vāta dos.a.

Pacifies vāta Aggravates va-ta

Oils and fats: animal fats (free-range), Canola, refined oils, margarine, trans-fatty acids
olive oil, coconut oil, ghr. ta, butter and hydrogenated fats
Cane sugar juice (in small amounts)
Cooked fruits such as apple sauce, baked Unripe fruit, raw fruit, dried fruit, cranberries,
pears, stewed prunes, with spicy herbs sour citrus
(ginger, cinnamon, cardamom, clove)
Steamed vegetables, baked vegetables, Raw vegetables, field mushrooms
especially squash and root vegetables
(except potatoes)
Oats, basmati rice, quinoa, amaranth Granola, corn, millet, rice cakes, manna bread,
flour, pastries
Legumes (with spicy herbs and fat): natto, Most legumes: soy, lentils, split peas, kidneys,
miso, tofu, adzuki, mung beans garbanzo, pinto
Seeds and nuts (in small amounts): Seeds or nuts in excess
sesame, pumpkin, almond, brazil,
pecan, coconut
Eggs, poultry, shellfish, beef, pork, No meat contraindicated
goat, lamb, goat’s cheese, whole dairy
(in moderation, always warm, with spices)

TABLE 7.2 Pitta dos.a.

Pacifies pitta Aggravates pitta

Coconut oil, ghr. ta, cold-pressed vegetable Mustard, canola, refined oils, margarine,
oils, fish fats (in moderation) trans-fatty acids and hydrogenated fats
Cane sugar juice, jaggery, maple syrup Honey, white sugar (to excess)
(in moderation)
Raw fruits, especially in hot weather; Sour and acidic fruits, including sour oranges,
raspberry, plum, pear, blueberry, grape, lemon, lime; papaya or strawberries to excess
apple, melon
Raw and steamed vegetables, broccoli, Raw onion, chilies, tomatoes, eggplant
chard, celery, salad greens, cucumber, (aubergine), peppers, daikon radish
green beans, peas, cauliflower, cilantro,
sprouted beans and seeds
Oats, basmati rice, quinoa, amaranth, Refined flour products
khuskhus, whole wheat pasta, whole wheat
chapatti, pumpernickel, manna bread
Most legumes in moderation Legumes to excess
Seeds and nuts: pumpkin, coconut, Seeds or nuts to excess
almond, melon, brazil, cashew, filbert
Eggs, poultry, cold-water fish, rabbit, Pork, beef, tropical fish, shellfish, yogurt
game, goat, mutton
 Food and drink 91

TABLE 7.3 Kapha dos.a.

Pacifies kapha Aggravates kapha

Mustard oil Most fats and oils; canola, refined oils, mar-
garine, trans-fatty acids and hydrogenated fats
Honey Sweet or sweetened foods
Dried fruit, apple, cranberry, Raw vegetables in excess, field mushrooms
grapefruit, lemon, lime, papaya
Raw vegetables (in moderation): sprouted Flour products, white rice, yeasted flour
beans and seeds, spicy salad greens; products, pasta, wheat, rye, spelt
steamed vegetables
Brown rice, quinoa, amaranth, millet, kasha, Peanuts, black gram
barley, popped grains, granola, rice cakes
Most legumes, with spicy herbs Most seeds and nuts
A few seeds: pumpkin, melon Most animal products, fatty meats, especially
to excess
Poultry, wild game, goat, fish, mutton Dairy products

and the rest of the world, is a pale comparison of the health-

-
ENDNOTES giving food mentioned in Ayurveda.
17 Even now, vegetarianism in India is not a strict veganism: fresh
- and fermented unpasteurised dairy products are a major compo-
15 Ayurveda generally abhors the ingestion of fungi, which is typi-
cal of other fungiphobic cultures such as many of the First nent of the vegetarian diet.
Nations of North America. In contrast, the experiences of 18 Honey manufactured from the nectar of several species of
fungiphilic cultures found in Europe and China have shown that Rhodendron and other members of the Ericaceae contains
fungi have many beneficial and medicinal effects. Most fungi are grayanotoxins that can cause dose dependent symptoms of toxi-
avoided in kaphaja or a-ma conditions, but some, such as Reishi, city such as acute salivation, vomiting, paralysis, and hyperten-
Maitake and Shitake, may be helpful in such states. sion (Lampe 1988 JAMA 259(13): 2009).
- 19 It is interesting to note that heated honey is used in traditional
16 In regard to rice, the ancient Ayurvedic commentators preferred
certain varieties over others, such as raktasa-li (red rice) and Chinese medicine, such as stir-frying it with Gan cao (Glycyrrhiza
s. as. tika (60 day rice). Further, these traditional rices did not uralensis) to modify the activity of Licorice, to ‘strengthen the
undergo extensive milling and retained all or a portion of their middle’, and enhance digestion. Despite the idea that heated
inner husk, which is rich in bran and anti-oxidant compounds. honey is never taken internally, the Madanapala nighan.t.u
Completely milled rice, and certainly parboiled rice, which unfor- indicates that heated honey can be taken with water in diseases
tunately makes up a large part of the rice now consumed in India caused by a- ma, presumably to enhance agni.
 PART 1

Chapter 8
PATHOLOGY AND DISEASE

OBJECTIVES 8.1 Vikara: DISEASE IN ĀYURVEDA

● To understand the concept of disease. -
From an Ayurvedic perspective health is defined as the
● To understand the causes of disease.
equilibrium between the dos.as, dhātus and malas.
● To understand the manifestation of disease. When there is a disruption to this equilibrium the result
is vikara or ‘disease’. Vikara can be seen to have sev-
eral different synonyms, each of which details an
aspect of disease, including:
1. Vyādhi: ‘pain’, literally referring to the sensation
of a pricking pain, but can be thought of as the
experience of pain.
2. Pāpa: ‘evil’ or ‘sin’, referring to the desires and
ignorance of the aham.kāra (‘ego’) that
perpetuates the illusion of individuality, of being
separate from the Whole. Such an orientation
creates a downward spiral into dissolution and
promotes disease.
-
3. Ama: ‘undigested food’, referring to toxins and
waste products that impair metabolic activities.
4. Bādha: ‘trouble’, referring to the hindrance and
obstacles that disease brings to spiritual progress.
5. Dukha: ‘sorrow’ or ‘work’, referring to the
sadness and extra effort that disease brings.
The etymology of the modern English word ‘disease’
suggests that the ‘ease’ by which life is lived becomes
hindered or blocked in some way. While disease can be
at the least an inconvenience, it often strikes at the core
of our being, challenging basic assumptions, attitudes
and behaviours, and as such has profound lessons to
teach, providing opportunities for an expanded aware-
ness of life and death. Disease and dying are powerful
teachers, and in this respect should be honoured,
embraced and understood, and given our complete
attention and concern.

NOT FOR PUBLIC RELEASE 93