Mzuzu University

Centre for Open and Distance Learning

Introduction to Literature in
Malawian Languages
 Mzuzu University
Centre for Open and Distance Learning

Introduction to Literature in
Malawian Languages
Published by Mzuzu University
Centre for Open and Distance Learning
P/Bag 201
Luwinga

Editors:

Typesetters: Centre for Open and Distance Learning

Designers: Centre for Open and Distance Learning
Proofreaders:
Writer:

© Mzuni 2020

No part of this publication maybe reproduced in any form by any means without written
permission from the publishers.

ISBN:

Printed by Centre for Open and Distance Learning.

ii
Acknowledgements

I am deeply indebted to a number of people for their contribution to the development of

this module. First and foremost, my thanks go to Mzuzu University students who have
taken the Introduction to Literature in Malawian Languages course over the past few years.

Secondly, I acknowledge the invaluable contributions different colleagues in the

Department of Language, Cultural and Creative Studies offered in the course of the
development of this module, especially colleagues Mr Wellman Kondowe and Mrs Lydia
Kishindo Mafuta who took part in OTAMA/UNESCO project of collecting folktales from
villagers in Karonga, Rumphi and Lilongwe. The information collected from this research
has been incorporated in this module. I am also indebted to Mr Wellman Kondowe and Mr
Emmanuel Lawyer for giving me some pieces of information I used in writing the module.
I also thank the headteachers of Luwinga and Lupaso Secondary Schools for lending me the
Chichewa literature books that have been used to develop some of the notes in the module.

Furthermore, let me express my gratitude to my wife, Mrs Steria Magawa Harawa and my
daughter, Faith M. Harawa, for their moral support and also their assistance in typing the
module. I would also like to acknowledge the Centre for Open and Distance Learning at
Mzuzu University for the financial support and editorial work on this module.

Lastly, though certainly not least, I must express my grateful thanks to all those who,
however informally, may have volunteered to answer some questions or indeed make some
suggestions pertaining to the development of this module.

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................................... iii
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... vi
Aims of the module ................................................................................................................................... vi
Objectives of the module .......................................................................................................................... vi
How to use this module............................................................................................................................. vi
Visual icons ............................................................................................................................................... vii
Unit 1 The history of written literature in Malawi ....................................................................................... 9
1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 9
1.2 The birth of reading and writing ...................................................................................................... 10
1.3 Christianity and the development of writing since 1870. ............................................................... 12
1.4 Early Christian missionaries & Literacy ............................................................................................ 13
1.4.1 Attitude of Malawian students on literatures in local languages ........................................... 14
1.4.2 Revitalization of literature in vernacular languages ................................................................ 14
Unit 2 Use of indigenous languages in Malawian literature ...................................................................... 17
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 17
2.2 Oral literature written in English ..................................................................................................... 18
2.3 Split identity in Malawian literature ................................................................................................ 18
2.4 Objectives of oral literature ............................................................................................................ 19
Unit 3 Politics and writing in Malawi.......................................................................................................... 21
3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 21
3.2 The effects of politics on the development of literature in vernacular languages ......................... 22
3.3 The effects of Banda’s dictatorship on literary production............................................................. 23
Unit 4 Development stages of Malawian literature in Chichewa .............................................................. 28
4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 28
4.2 Development stages of Chichewa literature ................................................................................... 29
4.2.1 Colonial literature .................................................................................................................... 29
4.2.2 Post-colonial writing ................................................................................................................ 30
4.2.3 Literature in the multiparty era ............................................................................................... 31
Unit 5 Factors that shaped Malawian writers in Chichewa ....................................................................... 34
5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 34
5.2 Religion ............................................................................................................................................ 35
5.3 Politics.............................................................................................................................................. 36
5.4 Socio-economic issues ..................................................................................................................... 37
5.5 Culture ............................................................................................................................................. 37
Unit 6 Malawian writers in Chichewa ........................................................................................................ 41
6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 41
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 6.2 Chichewa Authors............................................................................................................................ 42
6.3 Why do Chichewa writers write? .................................................................................................... 42
Unit 7 Chichewa prose and narratives ....................................................................................................... 45
7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 45
7.2 Prose and narratives ........................................................................................................................ 46
7.3 Folktales ........................................................................................................................................... 46
Unit 8 Plot Synopsis in A. E. Dziko’s Bwampini .......................................................................................... 50
8.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 50
8.2 The story in brief.............................................................................................................................. 50
Suggested Answers .......................................................................................................................................... 57
Unit 1 The history of written literature in Malawi ...................................................................................... 57
Unit 2 Use of Indigenous languages in Malawian Literature....................................................................... 57
Unit 3 Politics and writing in Malawi ........................................................................................................... 58
Sample Question paper ................................................................................................................................... 59
Bibliography ..................................................................................................................................................... 60

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Introduction

Introduction to Literature in Malawian Languages is the first module in the ALLE

programme. This module provides a general introduction to Malawian literature in
vernacular languages. The module exposes you to the history of written literature in
Malawi. You shall also be exposed to debates on the following topics: use of indigenous
languages in Malawian Literature, Politics and Writing in Malawi, Development stages of
Malawian Literature in Chichewa, Factors that shaped Malawian writers in Chichewa,
Malawian writers in vernacular, and Chichewa prose and narratives. The last unit shall
provide a synopsis of the plot summary for one of the Chichewa novellas, A.E. Dziko’s
Bwampini.

Aims of the module

The aim of this module is to expose students to the history of written literature in Malawi.
Through this module, students shall also learn the use of indigenous languages in Malawian
Literature, politics and writing in Malawi, development stages of Malawian Literature in
Chichewa, factors that shaped Malawian writers in Chichewa, Malawian writers in
vernacular, and Chichewa prose and narratives. The Module also provides a plot summary
for one of the Chichewa novellas, A.E. Dziko’s Bwampini.

Objectives of the module

By the end of this module, students should be able to:

• Trace the history of written literature in Malawi.

• Discuss the use of indigenous languages in Malawian Literature.
• Examine the theme of politics and writing in Malawi.
• Explain the development stages of Malawian Literature in Chichewa.
• Describe factors that shaped Malawian writers in Chichewa.
• Discuss Malawian writers in vernacular.
• Describe trends in Chichewa poetry and prose narratives.
• Summarise a Chichewa novella, A.E. Dziko’s Bwampini, in their own words.

How to use this module

In order to derive maximum benefit from this module, you are strongly urged to make use
of the following suggestions:

i) Study each unit very carefully.

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 ii) Write all the activities/exercises that are found within and at the end of each unit.
Where the answers are provided, please do not look at the answers before you
write the exercise.
iii) All the answers to activities and exercises should be systematically filed in a folder.
You will need them for future reference, e.g. when the time comes to review for your
written examinations.
iv) Always make an effort to find the materials we recommend in the “Resources
needed” and “Further Reading” sections of the units. In your research for such
reading materials do not hesitate to visit any library within reach – including
secondary school libraries.

Visual icons
The following is a list of icons you may find in this module and an explanation of the kind
of information they represent.

Key Words

This is a list of important new terms and phrases used in the unit. Ensure that
you understand their meaning in the context that they are used.

Learning outcomes
These are unit objectives. They identify what you are expected to know and
understand by the end of the unit. Use them to test your understanding at the
end of each unit.

Activity
This is a practice activity at the end of each reading text. You have to work out
this activity either on the space(s) provided or in a separate notebook. After
that, check your response(s) with the answers suggested at the end of each
unit.

Self-assessment test
This is a test at the end of each unit. Work out the answers and compare them
with the suggested answers at the end of each unit. Do not turn it in for
marking.

vii
Unit summary
This is a brief account of the main ideas you have read and learnt in the unit.
Make sure you understand the unit very well before you move to the next.

References
This is a list of books pertaining to information in the unit. This is a useful
guide on choosing appropriate reading materials. Make all possible efforts to
supplement information in the unit by additional reading from this list. This
will enrich your content of the course.

Module test
This is a sample of the end of module examination. Make sure you are familiar
with the format of the examination.

viii
Unit 1 The history of written literature in Malawi

1.1 Introduction

This unit provides the background to the rise of Malawian literature in vernacular
languages. This background covers trends, themes, theories and approaches different
authors and critics have adopted in defining Malawian Literature in vernacular
languages. In more specific terms, first, the Unit explores the impact of early Christian
missionaries on literacy and vernacular literature. Second, the Unit will discuss attitudes
of Malawian students on vernacular literature. Third, the Unit will outline measures
taken to revitalise literature in vernacular languages.

Key words: evangelization, 3Rs, national language, vernacular literature,

Christian propaganda

Areas of emphasis

• The history of written literature,

• Influence of Christian missionaries on literacy development,
• Christianity and the development of writing since 1870,
• Early Christian missionaries & literacy,
• Attitude of Malawian students on literatures in local languages,
• Revitalization of literature in vernacular languages.

Prerequisite Knowledge

You should be aware that Malawi (the Nyasaland) was colonized by United Kingdom
(Great Britain). England was one of the islands that constitute the United Kingdom. The
British colonized Nyasaland because her Christian missionaries and explorers were the
first to land on the soils of Nyasaland (Malawi) so they declared Nyasaland a British
Protectorate. Make sure that you use such information in the study of this unit.

9
Time required for the unit
You will need at least two hours to study this unit.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Trace how Nyasaland people started writing.

• Discuss main themes covered by African authors.
• Illustrate the relationship between Christian missionaries and literacy
development in Nyasaland.

1.2 The birth of reading and writing

The art of reading and writing in Malawi was an offshoot of Christian missionaries. The
history of written literature in Malawi is embroidered in activities of Christian
missionaries who set up schools, hospitals and churches throughout the country. There
was a neat relationship between mission schools and the church. These missionaries
wanted Africans to know reading, writing and arithmetic (3Rs) so that they help in
spreading Christian messages. The education offered to the Africans was therefore aimed
at evangelization of the so-called heathens (Africans).

Even in the l970’s and 1980’s the trend was the same although there was more
governmental institutions and party participation. Malawi, just like most African
countries, owes its early literature writers to the efforts of the missionaries (Kishindo,
2001). Missionaries came to Malawi with their religion (Christianity) which they believed
was proper to ‘impart’ on the locals. However, there was language barrier between the
missionaries and Malawians. Therefore, missionaries needed bilingual Africans who
could understand English and local languages.

Soon after Africans had been enrolled in the mission schools, some of the earliest Africans
who had mastered the art of writing started writing in vernacular languages such as
Chitumbuka, Chinyanja, Chitonga, Chiyao (see Chimombo, 1988). The missionaries
eventually started learning indigenous languages so as to succeed in their evangelization
programme. After learning the language, the missionaries ventured into the production

10
of grammars, dictionaries and ancillary (supplementary) literature that was used by
missionaries and traders that came after them.

One of the languages that the missionaries learnt was Chinyanja which later became the
lingua franca and then the officially recognised national language. Following the
declaration of Chinyanja as the country’s national language at the 1968 Malawi Congress
Party Annual Convention (Moto, 1999), all other languages slowly disappeared from the
public domain. The justification for this move was based on the observation that "in
Nyasaland...the [Chi]Nyanja speakers not only outnumber those of other areas, but [also]
their dialects have a much longer history of literary use" (Price, 1940: 129).

Immediately, the name Chinyanja was changed to Chichewa. Consequently, literature in

Malawi is broadly divided into English and Chichewa, depending on the two major
languages used, that is, English as an official language and Chichewa as a national
language. However, other literary forms in different local languages have been kept in
oral form from time immemorial. Such oral pieces have been submerged but not
completely annihilated.

Some earliest converts to Christianity were freed slaves who, consequently, fell under the
patronage of the missionaries. The Anyanja people were among the first converts to
receive formal education. They became instrumental in the supplementation of the
descriptions of Chinyanja and the development of a literary tradition by contributing
translations of parts of the Bible, hymns and other religious literature into Chinyanja.

Activity 1

What is the connection between writing in vernacular languages and the Christian
missionaries?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

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1.3 Christianity and the development of writing since 1870.

The work of systematically translating and reducing the Malawian languages to a written
form did not start with European explorers of the mid nineteenth century. Rather, it was
initiated by the first group of Christian missionaries. The missionaries’ first task was to
learn the language and the habits of the people among whom they settled. The best way
of mastering an unwritten tongue was first to note down native tales through dictation
and occasionally in shorthand. Then came the production of grammar books, dictionaries
and analyses of languages for use by other missionaries, administrators and traders who
came after them. The same period, then, saw the publication of dictionaries, grammar
books and other linguistic studies in the major languages: Yao, Tumbuka, Ngoni and
Nyanja. The extension of schoolwork and preparation of schoolbooks in the vernacular
languages prepared the way for the spread of the Scriptures. By 1900, some books from
the New Testament had been translated into some local languages: Yao, Tonga, Nyanja.
Work on the whole Bible was completed in 1922 (Chimombo 1988).

The preparation of schoolbooks meant that other non-religious printed materials had also
to be made available for reading. Translation of English literary works was undertaken
to fill the gap left by what was felt to be an absence of vernacular literature. Literature
was likely an important means of elevating and purifying the natives. Missionary
educated Africans also started contributing to the spread of the written word in
newspapers and journals. Some of the early contributions were also on religious matters
(Chimombo 1988, 1994/5).

The first mission to produce literate Malawians who could read and write was
Livingstonia. In 1906, a newspaper in English was replaced by Makani which lasted for
only two years. By the end of the First World War, some books written by Malawians we
published.

The earliest works by Malawians were as follows (see Chimombo 1988, 1994/5):

a) The first to appear was on Yao history and customs followed by an autobiography
which was published on a translated version and changed to biographical form.
b) Around the same period, a Chitumbuka language publication titled Vyaro na Vyaro
came in late 1920s. A biography of John Chilembwe written between 1930 and 1931
was not published until thirty years later. Malawian readers were not only
exposed to local publications but also to newspapers and periodicals from outside

12
 the country as early as 1882. As a result, a great demand for reading had been
created and Malawian vernacular writers stepped into this world as they
responded to this demand by sitting down to write. The writers had other
incentives. From 1929, the International Institute for African Languages and
Cultures offered annual cash prizes to local writers in selected languages: Nyanja
was selected in 1931 and 1933.

1.4 Early Christian missionaries & Literacy

No sooner had Robert Moffat and David Livingstone arrived in Central Africa to preach
the word of the “European” God than scores of missionaries opened up schools, hospitals
and churches in different parts of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. David Livingstone’s tour of
Central Africa opened up to many missionaries in Malawi (then called Nyasaland). Some
of the notable missions that came to Nyasaland include Universities Missions to Central
Africa (UMCA), Blantrye Synod, and Livingstonia Synod. The works of missionaries had
a lot of influence on the development of African literature. The influences of Christian
missionaries affected the quality and quantity of the work produced. This aspect will be
considered later in the subsequent units of the module. Though it might now be
considered unfortunate that Africans were introduced to literature through Christian
propaganda, it is a historical fact that if this had not taken place, vernacular literature
would have taken longer to emerge.

Through missionaries’ religious leaflets, ethnological accounts, historical and

geographical books, written translations of oral literature intended for schools (and in
some cases, for the general public) were published. During this time, Africans had no role
models to emulate, so most of them copied and/or mimicked their European counterparts
of Shakespeare, Auden, Ezra Pound and T.S. Elliot. Most of their themes concentrated on
evangelization so their plot structures demonstrated and relied on the triumph of virtues
over vices. Very few literary works were produced during this period as the earliest
mission presses on the continent were established only in South Africa in the second half
of 19th century, the very same period mission activities intensified in Central Africa.

Like their counterparts in West and East African regions, Central African writers also
adopted metropolitan language (English) for some of their writing, basically due to the
ethnic selfishness of the colonial masters. These colonialists distorted and undermined

13
the development of an authentic African literature in many ways. For instance, these
colonialists denied use of African language in poetry. They equated civilization with
acquisition of a European language and culture. They encouraged use of poor versions
of the English languages that were called metropolitan versions. Consequently, the
identity of an African was under siege. An African could see himself only through the
lens of a European.

An African had not yet mastered the foreign language, but s/he was forced to use it
anyway. This resulted in poor versions of the English language. Consequently, early
writers from Central Africa wrote in simple straightforward English. Right away from
inception, English language and culture have been inseparable.

Activity 2

Why do many people look down upon literature in Malawian languages?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

1.4.1 Attitude of Malawian students on literatures in local languages

Students taking literatures in local languages are labelled as weak students - who cannot
withstand the pressure of learning in foreign languages. Learning foreign languages is
now being associated with intelligence. This is how far European languages and culture
have corrupted the minds of Africans.

1.4.2 Revitalization of literature in vernacular languages

Different stakeholders would like to revitalize literature in vernacular languages. So far,
some books have been published in Chichewa including Chichewa-English translations
and orthography rules. A good number of books produced are textbooks used in schools
in Malawi. Apart from that, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) in conjunction with Malawian institutions have made
collaborations to revive endangered oral literatures. For example, Mzuzu University

14
through Languages and Literature Department has produced books depicting oral
literature in Kyangode, Chitumbuka and Chichewa languages. Kondowe and Harawa
(2017) published a collection of folktales and proverbs in Kyanngode language entitled
Isya Mbupingamu na Ifilafi fya Kyangonde. Harawa and Soko (2017) produced a collection
of proverbs and folktales in Chitumbuka entitled Vinthanguni na Vidokoni vya
Muchitumbuka. Kishindo-Mafuta and Kondowe (2017) produced a collection of proverbs
and folktales in Chichewa entitled Miyambi ndi Nthano. Likewise, Centre for Language
Studies of the University of Malawi has produced Kyangode and Chitumbuka
dictionaries. It is envisaged that the experts will continue producing books even in other
local languages.

Unit assessment exercise

1. In which two local languages was the earliest literature in vernacular languages
written?
2. Mention two Christian missionaries that were the first to open schools in Malawi.
3. What does 3Rs mean?

Unit summary

In this first unit of the module, we have discussed the beginning of written literature in
vernacular languages and the influence of Christian missionaries on literacy
development. We have also examined Christianity and the development of writing since
1870. We have assessed the relationship between early Christian missionaries and
literacy. We have also explained the attitude of Malawian students on literatures in local
languages as well as efforts being made to revitalize literature in vernacular languages.

Other resources needed

As you study this unit, you may need to refer to the books below. They will help you
clarify some of the contents of this unit.

15
Chimombo, S. (1988). “Evangelization and literacy in Malawi,” Religion in Malawi, November 1988,
pp21-27.

Chimombo, S. (1995). “The Heathens for Thine Inheritance: The Early Missionary Poetry
in Malawi 1893-1901.” Journal of Humanities 8/9:13-41.

Harawa, A.M. & Soko, B. (2017). Chitumbuka Proverbs and Folktales. Blantyre: Dzuka
Publishing Company Limited.

Kishindo, P. (1981). The influence of Christianity on selected Chcihewa authors: A thumbnail study.
Kalulu Bulletin of Oral Literature, 3, 2-7.

Kishindo-Mafuta, L. & Kondowe, W. (2017). Chichewa Proverbs and Folktales. Blantyre:

Dzuka Publishing Company Limited.

Kondowe, W. & Harawa, A. M. (2017). Kyangonde Proverbs and Folktales. Blantyre: Dzuka
Publishing Company Limited.

McCracken, J. (2012). A History of Malawi. Bockester: Boydell & Brewer Ltd.

Moto, F. (2001). Trends in Malawian Literature. Zomba: Chancellor College Publications.

16
Unit 2 Use of indigenous languages in Malawian literature

2.1 Introduction

This unit provides the background to the rise of Malawian literature in vernacular
languages. This traces the journey taken by Chichewa authors in vernacular languages.
The unit considers the influence of oral literature in the development of Chichewa
literature. The unit also discusses the view that Malawian literature belongs to the
in-between cultures for it is influenced by local and foreign traditions.

Key words: indigenous language, oral narratives, foreign languages.

Areas of emphasis

• Oral narratives from the remote past

• Translations of folk tales and traditions
• Malawian literature in foreign languages

Prerequisite Knowledge
You should be aware that English is the common language for people of Great Britain.
Since Malawi (then Nyasaland) was colonized by Great Britain, English, the language
spoken by the colonizers became the official language in Nyasaland. People of Nyasaland
were forced to learn the colonizers’ language in order to survive in different ways. Make
sure that you use such information in the study of this unit.

Time required for the unit

You will need at least one hour to study this unit.

Learning objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Identify earliest authors in vernacular languages and the books they published.
• Discuss main themes covered in these books by African authors.
• Examine the relationship between literary texts written in English and those
written in vernacular language.

17
2.2 Oral literature written in English

Most of the literary works produced in foreign languages rely on oral narratives that are
preserved through indigenous languages. For example, Tito Banda’s Old Nyaviyuyi in
Performance, Brian Shawa and Boston Soko’s Tumbuka Folktales: Moral and Didactic Lessons
from Malawi, and Chris Kamlongera and Wales Mwanza’s An Anthology of Malawian
Literature for Junior Secondary schools are mostly translations of folk tales and traditions
that have previously been performed using indigenous languages.

Different novels, short stories, poems and plays that are written in foreign languages are
sewn together using different oral narratives from the remote past. Some of the works
that demonstrate the writers’ ability to weave indigenous stories using the foreign
language are Mapanje’s Of Chameleons and Gods (1981), Chimombo’s Napolo Poems (1987),
Banda’s Sekani’s Solution (1979), Lipenga’s Waiting for a Turn (1981), Banda’s A Bitter
Disapproval (1987), Chimombo’s The Basket Girl (1990), Jack Mapanje’s The Chattering
Wagtails of Mikuyu Prison (1993) and Gibbs’s 9 Malawian Plays (1976).

Activity 1

What is the relationship between oral literature and literature written in English?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2.3 Split identity in Malawian literature

Malawian literature in foreign languages display split identity because it is largely

written in English language, but it is largely inspired by indigenous knowledge. The
literature produced in Malawi belongs to the in-between cultures as advocated by Young
(2005) and Bhabha (1994). Malawian writers have written on various subjects from the
colonial period through one party era to the present multiparty era.

18
 Activity 2

Account for the split identity in Malawian literature.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2.4 Objectives of oral literature

There is little difference in the moral aspects of the stories in Malawian literature because
authors create stories with a moral ending which is in line with the objectives of most
folktales. The main objectives of oral literature include social control and transmission of
values to the next generation. In this case, oral literature serves as a platform for cultural
continuity. Many writers do not write in Chichewa or any other indigenous languages
because of economic reasons. Publishing industry thrives on the number of readers in
that particular language. Unfortunately, there are very few people who can read
Chichewa texts, let alone texts in other indigenous languages. Therefore, publishers do
not readily allow writers to produce manuscripts in such languages because they do not
want to make losses.

Unit assessment test

1. Defend the assertion that most of the literary works produced in foreign languages
rely on oral narratives that are preserved through indigenous languages.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

19
 2. Account for split identity in Malawian literature.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. Why do we have low production of literature in Chichewa language?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Unit summary

In this second unit of the module, we have discussed that literature in English are mere
translations of folk tales and traditions. We have discussed that authors create literary
works by transforming oral narratives from the remote past into books. Oral narratives
are recorded, transcribed, and translated into English. Malawian literature is largely in
foreign languages.

Other resources needed

As you study this unit, you may need to refer to the books below. They will help you
clarify some of the contents of this unit.

Chimombo, S. (1995). “The Heathens for Thine Inheritance: The Early Missionary Poetry
in Malawi 1893-1901.” Journal of Humanities 8/9:13-41.

McCracken, J. (2012). A History of Malawi. Bockester: Boydell & Brewer Ltd.

Moto, F. (2001). Trends in Malawian Literature. Zomba: Chancellor College Publications.

20
Unit 3 Politics and writing in Malawi

3.1 Introduction

This unit provides the background to the factors that positively and negatively affected
the development of Malawian literature in vernacular languages. Specifically, the unit
traces the political developments that shaped literary works in vernacular languages. In
this case, some of the major texts that convey some political undertones in Malawian local
languages shall also be explored.

Key words: cabinet crisis, Malawianization/Africanization, cryptic writing,

lingua franca.

Areas of emphasis
• Cabinet crisis and Malawi’s Dr Banda
• Language policy and Chichewa Board
• The effects of censorship board on literary production

Prerequisite Knowledge
You should be aware that writing in Malawi started with Missionaries and later more
Malawians (Nyasas then) became knowledgeable and began writing in different
indigenous languages. Dr Banda was the first black leader of Nyasaland (Malawi). As
soon as Malawi became independent, Dr Banda used language to consolidate his power.
Make sure that you use such information in the study of this unit.

Time required for the unit

You will need at least one hour to study this unit.

21
 Learning objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Explain the effects of politics on the development of literature in vernacular
languages.
• Discuss the effects of Malawi’s tensed political atmosphere on literary
production.
• Illustrate the effects of censorship on Chichewa literary texts.

3.2 The effects of politics on the development of literature in vernacular

languages

A few months after independence, Malawi was plunged into a political crisis. Six cabinet
ministers were expelled from government following the revelations that Banda’s method
of ruling was dictatorial and undemocratic. Consequently, some ministers fled the
country. This situation is popularly known as Malawi’s ‘Cabinet Crisis’.

The cabinet crisis had far reaching social-political, economic, ethnic and educational
repercussions. The Cabinet Crisis had much deeper roots than had been usually
recognized in literature and reflects deeper divisions in Malawi’s society than the name
Cabinet Crisis implies (Ross, 1977). The crisis was caused by Dr Banda’s contempt for the
young politicians, who initially invited him. Dr Banda used to call them his “boys” or
“young men.” Dr Banda started implementing some political activities without seeking
the consent of his cabinet that was mainly composed of young men. For example, Dr
Banda singlehandedly opened negotiations for diplomatic relations with Mozambique
and apartheid-practicing Republic of South Africa. Some cabinet ministers were against
Dr Banda’s continued inclusion of whites or foreigners in government offices. The young
cabinet members were for the immediate Africanization or Malawianization of the civil
service while Dr Banda was for the gradual phasing out of foreign workers. The young
men were also against the introduction of “tick-payment” for hospital services. Dunduzu
Kaluli Chisiza and Henry Masauko Chipembere were strongly opposed to Dr Banda’s
rule. The relationship between the young men and Dr Banda deteriorated when
Dunduzu Chisiza mysteriously died in a car accident soon after delivering a stunning
keynote speech at an International Economic Symposium.

22
As Dr Banda realized that he was surrounded by young men who were opposed to some
of his ideas, he urged MCP supporters to be vigilant against traitors. He asked supporters
to denounce such traitors and deal with them decisively. Consequently, Dr Banda created
Malawi Young Pioneer to spearhead such drastic actions. A reign of terror was created
throughout the country in which many critics lost their lives; others were beaten up while
some fled into exile.

3.3 The effects of Banda’s dictatorship on literary production

During the 1968 Malawi Congress Party Annual Convention, Chinyanja was declared the
country’s national language and the delegates proceeded to change the name from
Chinyanja to Chichewa. This abrupt change brought animosity from some quarters as the
speakers of the other indigenous languages protested silently. Many saw this
development as a political ploy by Banda to impose a Chewa identity on all Malawians
who are both ethnically diverse and multi-lingual. Therefore, in the course of the
development and production of Chichewa literature, content and medium or language
of presenting the stories were being silently protested against.

Activity 1
Why did people protest against the imposition of Chichewa as a national language of
Malawi?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Dr Banda’s reign of terror affected writing and literature in Malawi for nearly thirty years.
Through Malawi Young Pioneer, Chichewa Board and Censorship Board, Dr Banda
regulated literary productions. Dr Banda’s government amended the Penal Code and
changed the definition of the offense of sedition to include not only incitement to violence
but also the expression of dissenting views including literary ones. The introduction of
Censorship and Control of Entertainments Act in 1968 led to the birth of the Censorship
Board whose mandate was to regulate literary production. The board was mandated to
declare publications as undesirable. With such legislation, the press was muzzled and

23
writers risked imprisonment if known or suspected that their literary output was critical
of the government.

Under Dr Banda’s regime, oral poetry was increasingly appropriated for purposes of
elementary propaganda. For example, oral poetry was used by agricultural extension
workers in coaxing village farmers into buying fertilizers and some by social workers
when addressing issues of rural hygiene and even the Christian churches had also stolen
many of the best tunes. Sometimes oral songs were watered down to suit propaganda
that was developed to praise the leader. For example, people changed popular traditional
songs into becoming propaganda vessels as in the lyrics below:

Original lyrics Politicized version

Ine ndikufuna Ine ndikufuna
Ine ndikufuna Ine ndikufuna
Mkazi wa Chingoni Mkazi wa ulemu

Ndikakwatira Ndikakwatira
Kumangoni kwa a Gomani Ku Malawi kwa Kamuzu
Kumangoni kwa a Gomani Ku Malawi kwa Kamuzu
Mkazi wa Chingoni Mkazi wa ulemu
Ndikaitana
Kuvomera kwake
Kuvomera kwake
Amati wee bamboo Phiri

(The woman I really want

The woman I really want
Is one from the Ngoni tribe

I will marry one

From chief Gomani’s area
From chief Gomani’s area
A woman from the Ngoni tribe.

That is so because when I call her

The way she answers
The way she answers
Is a polite reference to my clan name, Phiri).

24
Political leaders, sycophants or praise singers replaced mkazi wa Chingonni (a woman
from a Ngoni tribe) with Mkazi wa ulemu (a polite woman) for political correctness. So,
the oral piece became ‘The woman I really want is from Kamuzu’s Malawi’ instead of
‘The woman I really want is one from the Ngoni tribe.’ The appropriation of useable
indigenous songs, dances or institutions was meant to advance a personalized rule of Dr
Banda. In all these changes in the use of the oral pieces, the Censorship Board acted as an
arm of government in controlling what literate Malawians read and watched.
Consequently, literary creative talent was stifled. Some writers had to delay publication
of their literary works. For example, Zeleza’s Smouldering Charcoal was written in 1982
but its publication was delayed up to 1992 because secret security agents arrested his
younger brother after the novel’s manuscript was reviewed by a Canadian expatriate
who worked in Malawi. Some writers resorted to writing in cryptic style. For example,
on the one hand, writing within the borders of Malawi, Jack Mapanje and Steve
Chimombo buried their poetic message in animal metaphor. On the other hand, the style
of those writing from outside Malawi such as Felix Munthali and Frank Chipasula tended
to be more explicit and direct, suggesting greater freedom to write what they wanted to
communicate.

Likewise, most writers in vernacular languages employed cryptic style of presentation.

For example, Jolly Max Ntaba’s Akazi Aphetsa is ironically a political statement without
directly commenting on political situation at the time. The characters in the novel do not
utter any political statement. However, the mere fact that nobody makes a political
statement is clear manifestation of the oppressive nature of Banda’s regime. The old
adage that “silence is golden” permeated the entire land.

Similarly, Okomaatani Malunga’s Kuimba kwa Mlakatuli is a good example of the author’s
use of nature to discuss, document and comment on life’s experiences. The volume of
poetry bemoans the loss of traditional values and suggests how these can be enhanced,
upheld and preserved for posterity. Malunga uses nature to make statements about
political and sexual conflict; he uses the poems to discuss sex in the circumstances of
heavy-handed censorship. For example, in the poem titled “Nkhalamba”, Malunga
prevents the censor from detecting a biting satire which is aimed not only at the
grandchild but also at Banda’s regime.

25
 Activity 2

How did the political unrest of the 1960s affect the development of literature in
vernacular languages?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Unit assessment test

1. Define cryptic writing.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. How did Malawi’s ‘Cabinet Crisis’ affect Chichewa literature?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
____________________________
3. Explain the major function of the Malawi’s Censorship Board.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Unit summary
In this unit, we have discussed the beginning and cause of the Cabinet Crisis during
Malawi’s Dr Banda and its effect on the language policy. We have also explored the effect
of the Language policy and Chichewa Board supporting the language policy.

26
Other resources needed

As you study this unit, you may need to refer to the books below. They will help you
clarify some of the contents of this unit.

Chimombo, S. (1995). “The Heathens for Thine Inheritance: The Early Missionary Poetry
in Malawi 1893-1901.” Journal of Humanities 8/9:13-41.

McCracken, J. (2012). A History of Malawi. Bockester: Boydell & Brewer Ltd.

Moto, F. (2001). Trends in Malawian Literature. Zomba: Chancellor College Publications.

27
Unit 4 Development stages of Malawian literature in
Chichewa

4.1 Introduction

This unit provides information on the literary production during three main stages,
namely: Colonial, Post-colonial and Multiparty era. The unit shall help explain the
development of literature during colonial period when Malawi was under British
Protectorate. We shall also discuss the effects of one-party system of government and
multiparty system of government on the literary development in Malawi.

Key words: evangelization, heathenism, bilingual weeklies, Colonial literature,

Post-Colonial literature, and multiparty

Areas of emphasis

• Colonial literature,
• Post-Colonial literature and,
• Literature in multiparty era.

Prerequisite Knowledge
You should be aware that Malawi was previously called Nyasaland and was under the
colonial influence of the British Protectorate. Missionaries started schools that
encouraged production of ancillary literature. Later, Nyasaland was named Malawi and
became an independent state in 1964 with Dr Hastings Kamuzu Banda as the absolute
ruler. In 1993 Malawi accepted multiparty politics and many political parties were
formed and participated in the 1994 General Elections.

Time required for the unit

You will need at least one hour to study this unit.

28
 Learning objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Explain the development of literature during colonial period.

• Discuss the effects of one-party system of government on the literary
development in Malawi.
• Illustrate the effects of multiparty system of government on the development of
Chichewa literary texts.

4.2 Development stages of Chichewa literature

Three major development stages, namely: Colonial literature, Post-Colonial literature and
Literature in multiparty era. These developmental stages are in line with major political
stages Malawi has passed through.

4.2.1 Colonial literature

Most of the literature written during the colonial period was meant to propagate
Christian doctrines. These are ideas simply aimed at the promotion of Christianity.
Colonial literature acted as a response to the whites’ beliefs that Africa is a dead, evil,
diseased continent. Therefore, literature was used as a tool to Christianize the heathens
and in culturing the converts into the western tradition.

Colonial literature is known for the common themes of evangelization. Most of the works
published during this period carried themes to do with polarized view of the world such
Heathenism versus Christianity, Evil versus Good, Darkness versus Light. During this
period, the most popular genres included Novels and Plays. There was no significant
published short stories and poetry. Most of the published genres appeared in Chichewa
and not in other Malawian languages. There were no publishing houses in Nyasaland.
At first all books were published in the Republic of South Africa, Later, missionaries
introduced new publishing houses in Lusaka, Zambia. In Blantyre, there was a small
publishing company owned by Blantyre missionaries. Chichewa authors suffered
another setback as they had no one to copy from. The only models available to them were

29
European writers who wrote in English like Auden, Keats, and Shakespeare. Authors,
who created works in vernacular languages, including Chichewa, were not exposed to
any African-oriented school of literature where they could be taught how to write good
literary works. Lack of publishers and lack of artists’ literary capacity on the part of the
authors affected the quantity and quality of published works. Very few books were
published and most of the materials published were of low quality.

Activity 1

What were the major themes during post-colonial period?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

4.2.2 Post-colonial writing

Writers dwelt much on the social-cultural and perennial themes of love and death. Tough
censorship laws and the political climate that were established to sustain the one-party
system of government limited the authors’ creativity. The censorship laws deemed
undesirable any literary piece suspected to be criticizing the government.

This affected the quality, content and form of Chichewa works as many authors adopted
a cryptic style of presentation. Cryptic writing involves a deliberate move to conceal the
meaning of literary works which were oftentimes critical of the way the government was
operating. Most of the works had social, cultural, economical and political thematic
concerns. As already alluded to above, due to political reasons, authors avoided
commenting directly on politics. Jolly Max Ntaba, Willie Zingani and Benedicto
Okomatani Malunga are some of the authors who wrote works that depict social, cultural,
economical and political thematic concerns with some metaphoric interpretations which
would be interpreted as political in nature. If anything, most of political works produced
during this period dwelt much on praising the existing government. A substantial
number of novels, plays, poems, came out during the period. Production improved in
terms of quality and quantity because most of the Chichewa books were prescribed texts

30
in Primary, Secondary and Tertiary schools. The establishment of Dzuka Publishing
Company in Blantyre in 1975 helped many authors to access publishing services within
their reach.

Activity 2

Explain the common themes produced by Malawian authors during post-colonial period.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

4.2.3 Literature in the multiparty era

It is hard to get published works during this period apart from poems, plays and short
stories that are abundantly broadcasted on national radios. Various creative efforts have
been placed in Chichewa pages of bilingual weeklies (The Weekend Nation and Malawi
News). With specific reference to poetry in newspapers, most of the writers were
preoccupied with perennial events of the day like gender issues, human rights, politics
and perennial subjects of love and death. Kishindo (2003) observes that most of these
works lack “craftsmanship”. He further argues that poetry of this period is prose
presented in stanza form with no regard to the rhythm style or the use of language.
Authors were no longer afraid of censorship rules following the attainment of multiparty
status in 1993. A good number of authors wrote without bothering themselves with close
scrutiny of the works being written. Apart from short stories and poems that appear in
popular newspapers, some authors have continued writing Chichewa textbooks that are
used in various schools in Malawi.

Activity 3
During the multiparty era, Malawian writers in vernacular are accused of producing
literary works that lack “craftsmanship”. Why is it so?

31
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Unit assessment test

1. Why did many authors adopt a cryptic style of writing during Malawi’s post-
colonial period?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Despite tough censorship laws, literary production in Chichewa language
improved during post-colonial period. Why was it so?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. ‘During the multiparty era, freedom of expression led to bad writing.’ How true is
this observation?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Unit summary
This unit has covered three stages of literary development in Malawi, namely: colonial,
post-colonial and multiparty era. The unit has explained the development of literature
during colonial period when Malawi was under British Protectorate. In this unit, we have

32
also discussed the effects of one-party system of government and multiparty system of
government on the literary development in Malawi.

References
As you study this unit, you may need to refer to the resources below. They will help you
clarify some of the contents of this unit.

Kishindo, P. J. (2001). Chichewa literature in the politicall context of the 1990s. In C. Bodunde, African
language literatures and the political context of the 1990s (pp. 39-61). Bayreuth: Bayreuth
University.

Kishindo, P. J. (2003). Recurrent themes in Chichewa verse in Malawian newspapers. Nordic Journal of
African Studies, 12(3), 327-353.

Kishindo, P. J. (2005). Chichewa political poetry in Malawian newspapers. Journal of Humanities, 19, 53-
74.

McCracken, J. (2012). A History of Malawi. Bockester: Boydell & Brewer Ltd.

Moto, F. (2001). Trends in Malawian Literature. Zomba: Chancellor College Publications.

33
Unit 5 Factors that shaped Malawian writers in Chichewa

5.1 Introduction

This unit covers the four major factors that shaped Malawian writers in Chichewa,
namely: religion, politics, socio-economic issues and culture. This unit discusses the effect
of religion, politics, socio-economic issues and culture on the quality and quantity of
Chichewa literary books produced in the past.

Key words: barbaric natives, socio-economic issues, multiparty democracy,

mini-capitalist

Areas of emphasis

• Christianity and publishing,

• Political influence on the literary production of Chichewa texts,
• Socio-economic issues,
• Culture and Chichewa literature.

Prerequisite Knowledge
You should be aware that Malawian authors who produced works in Chichewa faced
several challenges. Each literary stage had its own challenges. During the colonial and
post-colonial periods, missionaries and Dr Banda, respectively, controlled the types of
creative works to be produced. During multiparty era, people were free to create works
without fear of being arrested. This information shall be very important in understanding
this unit.

Time required for the unit

You will need at least one hour to study this unit.

34
 Learning objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Explain the relationship between Christianity and publishing.
• Illustrate how politics influenced the literary production of Chichewa texts.
• Discuss socio-economic issues in Chichewa texts.
• Examine the effects of culture on the production of Chichewa literature.

5.2 Religion

Religion is one of the factors that shaped Malawian writers in vernacular. This is because
during the colonial era one of the concerns of Christian missionaries was to propagate
Christianity because they believe that Africans were heathens, their traditional ways of
life were full of evil. Therefore, literature came into being to Christianize the so-called
barbaric natives and bring them closer to western ideas of God. The missionaries believed
that a Malawian was to be educated formally with an incorporation of Christian
doctrines. Samuel Nthala’s Nthondo provides a very good example. Nthondo is the main
character upon whom the whole story revolves. The interesting aspect is the development
of the protagonist Nthondo both as a person and as a symbol of triumph of Christianity
over heathenism. Nthondo’s pre-Christian days have been associated with evil deeds and
spiritual darkness since he is a person who likes fighting, stealing, and laziness. Later on,
Nthondo repents and from here we are presented with his Christian life in which we see
days of love and happiness. He is awarded precious gifts, marries a morally accepted
woman and he finally succeeds to his uncle’s chieftainship.

Activity 1
During the colonial period, what was the main pre-occupation of the Christian
missionaries?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

35
5.3 Politics

According to Kishindo (2005), poetry dealing with politics started appearing in local
newspaper in early 1990’s. This is so because this was a period of great political upheaval
in Malawi. It was a time when Dr. Banda’s single party dictatorship was challenged. The
challenge culminated into the demise of dictatorship and the triumph of multiparty
democracy at the polls in 1994. According to Kishindo (2005), Malawian political poetry
can be categorized into two: First, those dealing with the referendum and the first general
elections. Second, those publications dealing with the aftermath of the first five years of
democracy. An example of a poem that celebrates the multiparty system of government
is Joe Chinguwo’s “Nyali Yawala” (The lamp is lit), which appeared in the Monitor. The
lamp is a symbol of multiparty democracy. The poem as a whole celebrates the victory of
the lamp over the black cockerel, a symbol of the then ruling MCP. There was a boom of
Chichewa political poetry in various local papers during the first five years of democracy.
These poems can be viewed as a verdict on the United Democratic Front (UDF). One of
the poems that directly attacked Bakili Muluzi, the first democratic president of Malawi
is Frank Kalilombe’s “Chitukuko cha Muluzi”. The title of the poem is very ironic since
what follows is a litany of failures rather than development projects. Some of the lines in
the poem depict the scarcity of drugs in hospitals, delays in teachers’ salaries, dwindling
standards of education and others.

“Mwachitanji Nanga?” by Elisha Chitani is another poem that challenged the UDF
government to state what they had achieved in the first five years they had been in power.

Mwachitanji nanga?
Poti 1999 ija yakwana
Munkati tikumvetsani

As the poem develops the poet claims that Malawians have been fooled in trusting the
UDF government since there was no sign of development.

36
 Activity 2

Explain the irony behind Frank Kalilombe’s “Chitukuko cha Muluzi”.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

5.4 Socio-economic issues

According to Moto (2001), at the centre of literally development in Malawi is the depiction
of socio-economic issues. In Kalenga ndi Mnzake by Josia Phiri, Kalenga goes to a far place
to seek economic fortune. This portrays the poor socio-economic status of Malawian
citizens who engaged themselves in immigrant labour. In Steve Chimombo’s Wachiona
Ndani, the Wachiona Ndani boys are presented as characters that lack economic resources
and prerequisite technical skills to elevate their status to match that of Mataya who is
relatively well-to-do. Mataya is also presented as a mini capitalist who exploits the poor,
the underprivileged, and the powerless people. These poor people waste their efforts and
energies in paying rent which is raised inconsiderably to the advantage of the already
well-to-do Mataya.

Activity 3
According to Nthala’s Nthondo and Phiri’s Kalenga ndi Mnzake, what is the solution to the
socio-economic problems that the characters face?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

5.5 Culture

Cultural factors including ceremonies, festivals, beliefs and values have also become
sources of influence to write in Chichewa. Gule wa Mkulu, mganda, chioda, traditional

37
marriage and funeral ceremonies have been turned into themes of some literally pieces
in Chichewa. Malunga’s Kuimba kwa Mlakatuli is a good example in this regard.
According to Moto (2001), the poet’s biggest mission has been to restore elements of
indigenous culture he perceived as being under a threat of erosion. Poems like Magule a
Kwathu and Ukwati wa Kumudzi are some of the works that praise and celebrate the local
dances and local wedding ceremonies. Moto (2001) also observed that writers like
Zingani and Ntaba mainly write to impart morality to a generation that they see as
gravitating towards the loss of cultural and moral standards and expectations. This is also
evident in Litete’s Mkwatibwi Okhumudwa in which the author attempts to expose the
moral degradation of an individual. The person represents a generation that is grappling
with forces of western and debilitating forces.

Activity 4

How does publishing Chichewa literature leads to the erosion of culture?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Unit assessment test

1. Explain the relationship between Christianity and publishing.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

38
 2. Illustrate how politics influenced the production of Chichewa literature.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Discuss socio-economic issues in Chichewa literature.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Examine the effects of culture on the production of Chichewa literature.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Unit summary

This unit has covered the four major factors that shaped Malawian writers in Chichewa,
namely: religion, politics, socio-economic issues and culture. This unit has examined the
effect of religion, politics, socio-economic issues and culture on the quality and quantity
of Chichewa books produced in the past. This unit has explained the relationship
between Christianity and publishing. It has also been discussed that politics influenced
the production of Chichewa literature.

References

As you study this unit, you may need to refer to the resources below. They will help you
clarify some of the contents of this unit.

Moto, F. (1995). “Elements of Malawian Writing” Monograph. Zomba: Chancellor

College.

39
Moto, F. (2001). Trends in Malawian Literature. Zomba: Chancellor College Publications.

Nthala, S. J. (1957). Nthondo. Blantyre: CLAIM.

Phiri, K. M. (1977). Kalenga ndi Mnzake. Lusaka: ZEPH.

40
Unit 6 Malawian writers in Chichewa

6.1 Introduction

This unit outlines some of the major authors in Chichewa language from the colonial
period, through post-colonial period to the multiparty era. This unit will discuss the
motivation behind writing in Chichewa language.

Key words: Chichewa authors, moralistic

Areas of emphasis
• Chichewa authors,
• Morals and publishing.

Prerequisite Knowledge
You should be aware that writers of Chichewa literature do not write for the sake of
writing. They serve a certain agenda. This information shall be very important in
understanding this unit.

Time required for the unit

You will need at least one hour to study this unit.

Learning objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Mention at least three popular authors in Chichewa language.
• Explain the main motivation behind writing Chichewa literary works.

41
6.2 Chichewa Authors

Most of Malawian writers in vernacular languages create their literary works in

Chichewa because of the deliberate language policy that was passed in 1968. Other
vernacular languages were systematically side-lined. Some of the notable literary works
produced in Chichewa include the following: Nthara’s Nthondo (1957), Msyamboza (1964)
and Mbiri ya Achewa (1967), Paliani’s Sewero la Mlandu wa Nkhanga (1952), 1930 Kunadza
Mchape (1963), and Zinali Zosalirika (1967); Gwengwe’s Sikusinja ndi Gwenembe (1965) and
Ndakatulo (1967), Chadza’s Ntchito ya Pakamwa (1967) and Kokha Mcheperawakalulu (1986);
Msonthi’s Kalikokha N’kanyama (1969); Chipinga’s Atambwali Sametana (1974); Phiri’s
Kalenga ndi Mnzake (1977); Mvula’s Akoma Akagonera (1981); Zingani’s Ndaziona Ine (1981),
Njala Bwana (1984), Madzi Akatayika (1984); Chimombo’s Wachiona Ndani (1983); Litete’s
Mkwatibwi Wokhumudwa (1985); Malunga’s Kuimba kwa Mlakatuli (1990) and
Ndidzakutengera ku Nyanja Ligineti ndi Ndakatulo Zina (2001), Shumba’s Lero Kubwera Fisi
(1994); Chauma, Ng’oma and Nkhoma’s Nkhani za Mchezo (2002); and Gonthi’s Kwalimba
Uta ndi Nthano Zina (2013).

Activity 1
What led to the death of Malawian literature in different local languages?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

6.3 Why do Chichewa writers write?

It is an established tradition for Chichewa writers to append to their work a short preface
or foreword setting their reasons for writing their books. The most dominant reason is to
improve the moral calibre of their societies and teach them manners. For instance, in the
preface to his Chichewa novel Mwana wa Mnzako, Jolly Max Ntaba argues: “Sinditaya
nthawi kufotokoza cholinga changa polemba bukhu lino. Poyamba idali nthano, koma lero
ndikuphunzitsa ana kukonda anzawo, kulemekeza makolo, kukonda Mulungu ndi dziko lawo…”
(“I will not waste much time explaining why I wrote this book. First, it was a folktale, but
now I am teaching children to love their neighbour, to respect their parents, to love God
and their country…”). Likewise, in the preface to Njala Bwana, Zingani narrates: “Nkhaniyi

42
ndayilemba kuti mwana wanga Chifundo akadzakhala adzadziwerengere yekha ndi kutolapo
phunziro… .” (“I have written this story so that when my child Chifundo when he grows
up, he should read it for himself and learn something…”)

Similarly, CCJ Chipinga, the author of Atambwali Sametana writes: “Mbiri imene
yalembedwayi…ikukhudza kwenikweni zambiri zomwe zimachitika pakati pathu m’dziko muno.
Anthu ambiri amafuna kupanga phindu lochuluka pakatundu wochepa, pa chifukwa ichi, nthawi
zambiri, amagwiritsa ntchito miyezo ya chinyengo. Ena pofuna kulemera mosavuta amakumana
ndi zoda mutu ndipo apezeke ali m’mavuto osaneneka”. This is translated as follows: “The
story I have written mostly addresses what happens amongst people in this country.
Many people desire to make a lot of profits on very few goods. Consequently, oftentimes,
they use uncertified scales and measuring tools. In their quest to quickly get rich, some
traders face difficult times and are exposed to untold miseries.”

The works cited above are highly moralistic. Therefore, based on the sentiments uttered
by the three authors above, it seems most Chichewa writers are social critics. They are
mostly concerned with the deteriorating moral standards and set themselves on a mission
to correct the vices.

Activity 2

Using any Chichewa novel, defend the assertion that Chichewa authors are not mere
social critics but serious moralists.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

43
 Unit assessment test

1. Mention at least three popular authors in Chichewa language.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain the main motivation behind writing Chichewa literary works.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Unit summary
This unit has introduced different authors in Chichewa language from the colonial
period, through post-colonial period to the multiparty era. This unit has also discussed
the motivation behind writing in Chichewa language. In most cases, the desire to
disseminate moral lessons seems to be common among Chichewa writers.

References

As you study this unit, you may need to refer to the books below. They will help you
clarify some of the contents of this unit.

Gwengwe, J. (1965). Sikusinja ndi Gwenembe. Limbe: Malawi Publications and Literature
Bureau.
Litete, P. P. (1982). Mkwatibwi Wokhumudwa. Blantyre: Dzuka Publishing Company.
Moto, F. (2001). Trends in Malawian Literature. Zomba: Chancellor College Publications.
Nthala, S. J. (1957). Nthondo. Blantyre: CLAIM.
Phiri, K. M. (1977). Kalenga ndi Mnzake. Lusaka: ZEPH.
Zingani, W. T. (1981). Ndaziona ine. Limbe: Popular Publication.

44
Unit 7 Chichewa prose and narratives

7.1 Introduction

This unit covers the nature of prose narratives, moral lessons in the chosen folktales and
similarities between different folktales. Taken from different ethnic backgrounds, the
folktales show great resemblance in terms of plot structure, themes and moral lessons.

Key words: folktales, etiological tales, myths, myths, proverbs

Areas of emphasis

• Prose fiction and folktales,

• Folktales and moral lessons,
• Similarities between different folktales.

Prerequisite Knowledge
You should be aware that most of the Malawian literature written in English has
borrowed a lot from oral traditions. Malawian authors who compiled folktales in English
language merely translated these folktales from Chichewa and other local languages.
This information shall be very important in understanding this unit.

Time required for the unit

You will need at least one hour to study this unit.

Learning objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Explain the nature of prose narratives.
• Examine the moral lessons in the chosen folktales.
• Illustrate similarities between different folktales.

45
7.2 Prose and narratives

Prose fiction involves continuous writing in which the author adheres to proper
punctuation marks and sentence construction. Prose is therefore characterized by proper
punctuation, syntactical arrangements of words and careful paragraphing style. A good
number of books have been written on prose fiction that includes novellas, novelette,
novels and collection of folktales and/or short stories and novels. Such prose fiction is in
all languages suggesting that folktales, myths, proverbs, songs are found in all local
languages.

Activity 1
Explain the nature of prose fiction.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

7.3 Folktales

Malawi is very rich in folktales. All the languages that are spoken in Malawi act as
reservoirs of folktales, proverbs, myths and traditional songs. One of the Chichewa books
that contain some folktales from Malawi is Dyson Gonthi’s Kwalimba Uta (2013). In this
collection, there are several folktales with animals as characters. The book’s title comes
from one of the stories entitled “Kwalimba Uta”. The folktale is about a fight between
animals and birds.
As the fight escalates, bat (mleme) chooses which side to belong to depending on how
tough the battle is. If animals seem to be winning, Mleme claims he belongs to animals.
If birds are winning, mleme also claims to belong to the birds category. When it is
discovered that Mleme had been playing double standards, both birds and animals
decide to kill Mleme. Consequently, Mleme is afraid of both birds and animals. This is
why, even today, Mleme moves at night because he is afraid of being killed by either
birds or animals.

Isya Mbupingamu na Ifilafi fya Kyangonde (Kyangonde Proverbs and Folktales) is a

collection Kyangonde proverbs and folktales by Wellman Kondowe and Albert M.

46
Harawa (2017). Most of the folktales are etiological; they explain the beginning of some
things. For example, in the folktale “Ibaka, Ingongowe na Nghunda” (Duck, Cock and
Pigeon), there are three animal characters - duck, cock and pigeon. The cock and the
pigeon escort the duck where he is to pay the bride price because he is getting married
soon. The three animals are perfectly welcomed by the host. They are given a lot food.
Unfortunately, the duck over-eats and is unable to control his bowels. Eventually, he
defecates right in the house. In the morning the cock and the pigeon try to defend
themselves from accusation of having messed up the room. The duck also does the same.
This is why up to now ducks, pigeons ad cocks make such noise early in the morning.

Miyambi ndi Nthano Mchichewa (Chichewa Proverbs and Folktales) by Lydia Kishindo-
Mafuta and Wellman Kondowe (2017) presents undocumented Chichewa folktales and
proverbs from Lilongwe district in Traditional Authority Chadza area. Although
Chichewa language has a lion’s share of documented proverbs and folktales, Kishindo-
Mafuta and Kondowe’s research has shown that there are a lot more that have not been
documented. “Chiyambi cha mawanga a fulu” (Why tortoise has patches on its back) is
one of the folktales that the research has documented. In this narrative, there is a feast for
animals in the jungle.

The feast takes place in the sky and the tortoise also goes to the party having borrowed
feathers from friends (birds). The problem is that the tortoise wants everything to himself,
so he gives himself a name “All of you”. He takes food (breakfast and lunch) and various
gifts from different people for all animals alone. Angered by his selfishness all birds that
lent him wings/feather get them from him. He is forced to jump from the sky and land
on earth. Eventually his shell breaks into several patches. The tortoise makes attempts to
have the skin sewn together at the hospital, but he is not successful. This is why the
tortoise’s shell has patches.

The story about “Chiyambi cha mawanga a fulu” is similar to “Nkhumba na wabwezi
wakhe” (Pig and his friends”, a Chitumbuka folktale in Vinthanguni na Vidokoni vya
Muchitumbuka (Chitumbuka Proverbs and Folktales) collected by Harawa and Soko
(2017). While in “Chiyambi cha mawanga a fulu” it is the tortoise that experience
misfortunes, in “Nkhumba na wabwezi wakhe” all animal characters have a share of
misfortunes. For example, because the pig does not heed to the pieces of advice of the

47
traditional doctor on not to fly high up in the sky, he goes closer to the sun in the sky.
Consequently, the wax melts and the feathers get detached from his body, and he falls to
the ground. Eventually, he gets a turned-up snout. Bwabwala’s mouth widens as he
laughs at the pig. As tondo sneers at bwabwalala’s behaviour, his mouth gets elongated.
Tuwe’s stomach swells up as he tries to hide his laughter.

Activity 2
What are etiological tales?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Unit assessment test

1. a) Narrate any folktale of your choice.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
b) Translate your folktale into English.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
c) What is the moral lesson in the folktale?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the moral lesson we get from the folktale titled “Nkhumba na wabwezi wake”
in Harawa and Soko’s Chitumbuka Proverbs and Folktales (2017).

48
 ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Unit summary
This unit has covered the nature of prose narratives, moral lessons in the chosen folktales
and similarities between different folktales. We have also discussed that most of the
folktales are etiological. We have also discussed that since folktales are taken from
different ethnic backgrounds, they show great resemblance in terms of plot structure,
themes and moral lessons.

Reference

As you study this unit, you may need to refer to the books below. They will help you
clarify some of the contents of this unit.

Harawa A.M. & Soko B. (2017). Chitumbuka Proverbs and Folktales. Blantyre: Dzuka
Publishing Company Limited.

Kishindo-Mafuta, L. & Kondowe, W. (2017). Chichewa Proverbs and Folktales. Blantyre:

Dzuka Publishing Company Limited.

Kondowe W. & Harawa A. M. (2017). Kyangonde Proverbs and Folktales. Blantyre: Dzuka
Publishing Company Limited.

49
Unit 8 Plot Synopsis in A. E. Dziko’s Bwampini

8.1 Introduction

This unit provides an example of prose fiction. Authors sustain the story’s plot to come
up with interrelated actions and scenes that build the story. In the following story
imaginative characters have been employed.

8.2 The story in brief

The creative story in A. E. Dziko’s Bwampini explores the composition of three kingdoms:
Heavens (Ntheradi), Earth (Sachokeka) and Midima (Underground area). Tinjiwa, the
king of Heavens and Earth calls for a meeting where he heads the dissolution and
decentralization of his powers. The King wants the kingdom’s responsibilities to be
shared amongst the Heavenly Spirits (Mizimu). In the end, it is agreed that Ndomondo
should be responsible for the day to day affairs of Earth (Sachokeka), while Chimpanza
is assigned to head the underground world (Midima). Other responsibilities are shared
as follows: Mapiko is chosen as the chief messenger, Chezichezi is assigned the role of
Director of Intelligence and wisdom, Mbamba and Ching’aning’ani are chosen as
storekeepers of all war arsenals, as Mziisi takes the role of director of Warfare (War
General).

As the story develops, some socio-economical upheavals in Sachokeka lead to war. The
Kingdom of Sachokeka is split into several factions. There is a section of Sachokeka
inhabited by Angitau tribe that is led by King Zimeze. Within Angitau faction, there is an
intelligent and well-built army general and main advisor of King Zimeze called
Bwampini. Although many councillors of King Zimeze are against decentralization
process that has been suggested by King of Kings Tinjiwa, Bwampini reasons that
Zimeze stand to benefit a lot from the arrangement and further advises that the Angitau
people of King Zimeze should organize a thanksgiving ceremony to celebrate the
leadership of Ndomondo on the Angitau people. All people agree and a wonderful
celebration takes place among the Angitau people of King Zimeze. The heavenly
kingdom of Ntheradi also rejoice upon hearing of celebrations on Earth (Sachokeka),
thanking Ndomondo for the wonderful organization of celebrations.

50
While Angitau and Ntheradi are celebrating, the other part of Sachokeka that is inhabited
by the Agangire tribe is not happy with the dissolution of Tinjiwa’s powers, as such it
does not take part in the celebrations. The Agangire people are warlike and aggressive
people. King Gangire has two male children, Litsipa and Utwa. After being visited by
three angels from Ntheradi, Litsipa chooses to marry a very beautiful lady, and
Ching’aning’ani (one of the angels) advises Litsipa to marry Namadanitsa, Ndaziona’s
wife. Ndaziona is King Zimeze’s brother. Litsipa organizes an army and abducts
Namadanitsa. War breaks out between Angitau and Agangire people.

Thousands of people are killed on both sides. As fierce fighting continues, it is observed
that the Ntheradi personalities are behind the divisions, spirited fighting and resilience
among the people of Agangire and Angitau. For example, as Pherera throws a spear at
Utwa, the whole place becomes dark as Ching’ang’ani’s powers help divert the weapon,
and Utwa is saved.

As fighting escalates, Bwampini makes a very big curving of a horse and drives it near
the gate of Gangire City called Huwa. Namadanitsa, Ndaziona’s wife, the very cause of
conflict advises the people of Gangire that the horse harbours some people but she is
being laughed at. The horse is pushed inside the castle (enclosure) of the kingdom. At
night Bwampini advises all soldier to come out and they launch a guerrilla war on the
Angangire people. All men are killed. Kazione and Utwa surrender, Chief Gangire is
captured; several young men are seized and the army takes a lot of wealth from Huwa.

After the war, Bwampini and King Zimeze take different routes home. Unfortunately, the
route that Bwampini takes is full of difficulties. The first encounter is with snakes.
Chimadyo and several other people under Bwampini are bitten by poisonous snakes as
they attempt to pluck fruits from a nearby orchard. Bwampini kills 10 snakes. All those
bitten by snakes die. The remnants continue with their journey. Later they face another
obstacle: anyani-anthu (baboons that look like people). Several people are killed and once
again Bwampini shows great prowess and expertise in the Warfare. He kills 40 baboons.
Bwampini’s soldiers also kill a good number of baboons, so the remaining beasts run
away.

As the party proceeds with the trip, they face yet another obstacle. They are confronted
by a fierce looking gigantic human-being-like beast called Chikutumbwe. Enticed by the
nice environment and sounds of domesticated animals like goats and sheep, Bwampini
and his men try find out the owner of the place. They get inside the cave-like building.

51
They do not find anyone around. But there is a lot of meat and these intruders help
themselves by cutting some pieces of meat and roasting them. After eating meat and
drinking wine, the owner of the house arrives and closes the entrance with a heavy rock.

The owner discovers that there are some intruders. Chikutumbwe asks who these
intruders are. Bwampini responds that they are the Angitaus, and he is Ndingolira. After
devouring six of the 12 men, Bwampini devises an escape strategy. He sharpens a pole
and dips it into hot burning fire until it becomes red hot. With the assistance of other
remaining soldiers, Bwampini pierces Chikutumbwe’s only eye and the eye bursts.
Chikutumbwe cries for help. His neighbours come and ask him what the problem is.
Chikutumbwe responds, “Ndingolira. Akundipha kuno Ndingolira.” Then all
Chikutumbwe’s neighbours go back to their respective homes because they think
Chikutumbwe is “just crying.”

Since Chikutumbwe has become completely blind, he cannot see Bwampini and his men
going out. Bwampini and his men tie themselves under the bellies of big goats and get
out of the castle. Bwampini and his men quickly get into their water vessels and starts
offs. When Chikutumbwe discovers that he has been cheated, he follows up the intruders
and throws a very big rock that misses the target by a whisker. If the rock had hit the
target Bwampini and all his remaining men would have perished in the waters.
Chikutumbwe warns Bwampini that they would meet his father Ndomondo in the
waters who would not spare them.

As they moved on, Bwampini’s party is confronted by Nkhanu Yolusa, a gigantic creature
that looks like a crab. This beast captures six of Bwampini’s men, all at once, and almost
capsize their boats. Although they are filled with a lot of fear, they move on.

They reach a certain place with beautiful vegetation, wild birds and animals. After
Bwampini has killed one wild game, he sees smoke, signalling human habitation.
Bwampini chooses 15 men to go and spy on the house. The 15 men are led by Muvina,
the musician. The spying party is shocked that there are several dangerous wild animals
like hyenas, leopards, and lions which are not attacking them. The spies get into the house
where beautiful music is being performed. Mvina stays outside and watches through the
window while the 14 soldiers get in. The 14 are given food on the table. Then the owner
of the house called Mabuta Namatsenga turns the 14 men into pigs by striking them on
their heads with a rod. Muvina goes back to inform Bwampini what has just happened.
Bwampini is very sad and angry. As he contemplates on how he can defeat Namatsenga,

52
a young man from the spirit world advises him to take some medicine with him, and that
if Bwampini will be given food, he should chew the roots and put some in the food.

Bwampini goes to Mabuta and does as instructed by the spirit young man. Mabuta strikes
Bwampini on his head but he does not turn into a pig and produces his sword to kill
Mabuta. She begs for forgiveness from Bwampini. The latter demands that she should
turn his men back to human beings. Without hesitation, she complies with Bwampini’s
demands. As Bwampini bids farewell, Mabuta begs that Bwampini’s party stays on. After
some negotiations, Bwampini and his men agree to stay for some time. They take a bath,
eat, sing and enjoy themselves. Muvina is given a golden robe for his melodious golden
voice. At the end of the party, Mabuta provides food and clothing to Bwampini and his
men.

Bwampini and his men get into their boats. Their hopes are restored and they start
singing songs and dancing, praising their leaders, King Zimeze and Bwampini. Then
Ndomondo, Chikutumbwe’s father capsized the boats and all the men except Bwampini
perished. Bwampini survived by clinging to one of the boat’s plank.

The floods push Bwampini on the shores of the land occupied by Gingiswa, one of people
of Ntheradi who had been dethroned by King Tinjiwa and had been thrown on
Sachokeka (Earth). Gingiswa takes care of Bwampini for some days. Gingiswa wants
Bwampini to marry her. Bwampini refuses to get married with the spirit woman. He
wants to get back home where his wife Namasinkho is waiting for him. Because Gingiswa
continues pestering Bwampini, King Tinjiwa sends Mapiko to Gingiswa to let Bwampini
go. Although Gingiswa is not happy that King Tinjiwa has ordered the release of
Bwampini, she borrows an axe and other tools for making a boat. Gingiswa gives
Bwampini food, drinks and clothes and escorted him to the water body. King Tinjiwa
orders Mapiko to escort Bwampini to his home village.

People of Buwa had waited for a long time for the coming of their Village Chief
Bwampini. Many conclude that their Chief had died in the war. Consequently, some men
started enticing Namasinkho so that she can marry one of them. Namasinkho remained
faithful that one day her husband would come back. Despite Namasinkho’s stand,
different men keep coming. They stay in the house of Bwampini and deplete foodstuff
and livestock at Bwampini’s home. Slowly, the number of pigs, goats, sheep, cattle,
chicken and bags of rice are greatly reduced. Household utensils like chairs and pots are
destroyed. The leader of the men who want to inherit Namasinkho is Called Phakaphaka.

53
He urges his colleagues to continue pressing for an answer from Namasinkho. His
arguments are that a woman does not accept the same day.

Meanwhile, Bwampini’s son, Uziona, who was born while Bwampini was at war, joins
his mother in bemoaning loss of property in their household. He looks so sad. King
Tinjiwa has held Uziona’s concerns and sends an Angel called Ching’aning’ani to prepare
the young man for the arrival of his father Bwampini. Ching’aning’ani explains that
Uziona’s father is not dead. He is on his way to his house to take up his position as Village
Chief. Ching’aning’ani tips Uziona that if he sees an old man with a bald head and
wrinkles on the forehead, he should not chase him away, for that one is his father.

Meanwhile, Bwampini and Mapiko are nearing Buwa. Mapiko keeps Bwampini busy by
telling him different stories of Ntheradi and Sachokeka. Mapiko also revelas that Chief
Zimeze was killed at his house’s doorstep upon arrival from war. He was killed by a man
who was moving out with the King Zimeze’s wife, Nachimasomaso. Mapiko argues that
the homicide was a planned action between Nachimasomaso and the other man.

As they are nearing Buwa, Mapiko informs Bwampini that his house is under siege. He
discloses that there are a lot of men who are busy plundering Bwampini’s property and
that Bwampini and Mapiko will have to be transformed into new personalities: Bwapini
to become an old person with wrinkled face and bald head and Mapiko to become a
young person of Buwa. After hiding Bwampini’s property, the two transformed
personalities walk towards Bwampini’s home. When they arrive at Bwampini’s home,
the first person to get out of the house to see the ones knocking at the door is Uziona. The
two strange men are given food and accommodation.

The following morning, despite clear skies, Buwa experiences several thunders and
lightning. All people and the animals become afraid. The people who are destroying
Bwampini’s property are also afraid and encourage one another to continue living in
Bwampini’s house. Namasinkho had previous night dreamt about the arrival of her
husband but she keeps it to herself.

Tinjiwa sends Mziisi, Mbamba and Ching’aning’ani to destroy the usurpers. People of
Buwa see three big birds whose size could be like dogs descending on Bwampini’s house.
The three birds land on Bwampini’s house and become two females and one male. They
all carry swords. As leader of the operations, Mziisi closes all doors and windows so
tightly that no one could get out. The three angels open the eyes of Uziona and Bwampini

54
such that, although they were earthly people, they were able to see what was going on.
The rest of the people could not follow the proceedings. All the people found in
Bwampini’s house are killed and Mziisi announces that Bwampini has arrived at his
house and is right inside the house but everyone else would see him the following day.
She also announces that all people should come and correct dead bodies of their relatives
and bury them quietly.

The following day, re-installation of Bwampini as Chief of Buwa is marked by great

feasting and dancing. Chezichezi sings songs of praise for Chief Bwampini by
highlighting his exploits in the war against Agangire, then his prowess in defeating all
obstacles on his way to Buwa including immeasurable loss he suffers on the way. All
people are sorry for the problems Bwampini suffers on the way. Despite the sorrowful
part, Namasinkho and Uziona are particularly very happy to see Bwampini home.

The following morning, Lipenga makes a welcome speech for Chief Bwampini. Different
people present their gifts to the Chief. In response, Bwampini thanks the people for
welcoming him and promises to continue working hard for the betterment of his
kingdom. Lipenga announces that there shall be feasting and dancing in the afternoon to
mark the official welcoming ceremony of Chief Bwampini. Women prepare a lot of
delicious food to be taken while watching performances in the afternoon. Different
dances are performed. For example, men dance njazo in praise of their Chief and young
girls also perform praise songs in their houses way after the end of the welcoming
ceremony.

Unit assessment test

1. Examine aspects of the Christian teachings in the story.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

55
 2. Discuss the importance of the names of some characters to the plot.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. To what extent do you agree with the assertion that Dziko’s Bwampini is a story
adopted from Greek mythologies and cleverly translated by A. E. Dziko?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Unit summary
In this unit, we have examined one of the novellas in Chichewa language. We have
followed the plot structure of the novella thereby exposing major themes and moral
lesson therein.

Reference
Dziko, A. E. (2013). Bwampini. Blantyre: Dzuka Publishing Company.

56
Suggested Answers

Unit 1 The history of written literature in Malawi

Activity 1

Christian missionaries encouraged literature in vernacular languages to compliment

Bible teaching. Educated Africans were encouraged to develop stories with a moral
lesson. Therefore, literature in vernacular languages was used as a tool for the
evangelization process.

Activity 2

Writing and speaking in foreign languages is associated with intelligence and prestige.
Consequently, most educated Africans have mostly preferred writing in foreign
languages at the expense of the indigenous Malawian languages. This euphoria refuses
to die. Even the 21st century students could attest to the fact that those taking Literatures
in Malawian Languages are scolded and disproportionately humiliated.

Answers to Unit 1 assessment test

1. Chinyanja and Chitumbuka

2. Blantyre Mission and Livingstonia Mission
3. 3Rs mean reading writing and Arithmetic

Unit 2 Use of Indigenous languages in Malawian Literature

Activity 1

Oral literature is composed, performed and transmitted in local languages. However,

most of the writers of Malawian literature translate oral pieces into English. Some
folktales like Banda’s Old Nyaviyuyi in Performance are mere translations. Most of English
novels in Malawian literature contain songs, folktales, riddles and other forms of oral
literature. Therefore, reading Malawian literature implies appreciating oral literature.

Activity 2

Malawian authors have excelled in creating literary works in foreign languages. Most of
them write in English. Since the mother tongue of most authors is either Chichewa,

57
Chitumbuka, Chiyao, Chihlomwe or any other local language, these writers
psychologically create their works in vernacular languages and then later translate them
in English. For their literary works to be credible, these authors ought to know both the
source (vernacular language) and the target (foreign) language. Consequently, the
literature produced has features of both the source language and the target language.
Literature in foreign languages display split identity because it is largely written in
English language and yet it carries indigenous philosophy as well as indigenous forms
such as riddles, myths, and folktales which were originally in local languages.

Unit 3 Politics and writing in Malawi

Activity 1

Due to misunderstandings in the first cabinet of independent Malawi, the language

policy was affected. The 1968 Malawi Congress Party convention decreed that Chinyanja
should be replaced by Chichewa and declared that Chichewa was henceforth a national
language. Some Malawians were not happy that Chichewa was forced on them and
silently protested against this policy. The Chichewa Board was set up to monitor and
guide the development of Chichewa language. Consequently, literary works produced
during this period never dealt with political themes.

58
Sample Question paper

MZUZU UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE, CULTURAL & CREATIVE STUDIES

Introduction to Literature in Malawian Languages

ODeL End of Semester Examinations

Date: Time:

Instructions: Answer ALL questions

1. Examine the three main stages that Malawian literature in vernacular languages
has passed. (20 marks)
2. Discuss any four factors that have shaped Malawian writers in Chichewa.
(20 marks)
3. Using A. E. Dziko’s Bwampini, defend the assertion that Malawian writers
created literary works with moral lessons. (20 marks)

End of the question paper

59
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