Journal of Bio- and Tribo-Corrosion (2020) 6:45

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40735-020-00341-2

Experimental Investigations on Mechanical and Wear Behaviour

of 2014Al–Al2O3 Composites
V. Bharath1   · V. Auradi1 · Madeva Nagaral2 · Satish Babu Boppana3

Received: 2 January 2020 / Revised: 10 February 2020 / Accepted: 18 February 2020

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

Abstract
In the existing exploration, an effort is being made to synthesize A ­ l2O3p ceramic-reinforced 2014Al matrix composites by
liquid stirring (Stir Casting) in order to contemplate the effect of A
­ l2O3p on mechanical and wear properties of the prepared
composites. The ­Al2O3p ceramic additional level is maintained at 9, 12 and 15 wt%. An innovative method of adding 2-stage
reinforcements during liquid stirring is used throughout the course of preparation of each composite. An average particle
size of 53 μm A­ l2O3p is used. By using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), microstructural characterization is performed
for the above synthesized composites, which showed moderately uniform A ­ l2O3p distribution with matrix grain refinement
accompanied by X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis. The hardness of the resultant composites is examined using Zwick
micro hardness tester and the above synthesized composites are examined mechanically as per ASTM standards by means
of computerized universal testing machine. With increment in wt% of A ­ l2O3p, improvements in the value of hardness and
tensile strength of the synthesized composites were seen. Percentage improvements of 28.88% (9 wt%), 43.36% (12 wt%)
and 68.54% (15 wt%) in terms of hardness and 5.09% (9 wt%), 17.62% (12 wt%) and 29.03% (15 wt%) in terms of tensile
strength were obtained ,respectively. The sliding wear test is carried out by using a computerized pin on a disc wear tester
with counter surface as an EN31 steel disc (HRC60) and composite pin as specimens. The synthesized composites revealed
the superior wear resistance property. Worn surfaces were studied with the help of SEM in order to know the wear mecha-
nism. Overall investigation outcomes are very interesting and motivate to carry out further research work.

Keywords  2014Al alloy · Al2O3p · Ceramics · Liquid stirring · Hardness · Wear

1 Introduction been discovered in the present years and the types of uses
in vehicles reminiscent of the ultimate goal of improving
Aluminium matrix composites (AMC’s) are becoming to the fuel capacity have been analysed in depth . AMC’s are
be a plainly potential engineering material that offers a certain to be paired with a number of supporting items in the
good combination of properties, parenthetically: high spe- various product categories, particularly in cylindrical blocks
cific strength and stiffness, good thermal conduction and and liners, driver shaft etc. In aviation sectors, aluminium
good electrical conduction. Due to good combinations of composites are utilised primarily in structural applications,
properties along with light weight, AMC’s are growing as for example, aero vehicle body components, drive shafts,
advanced materials for a couple of applications in aviation, engine and rotor vanes in compressors [1–4]. Such sector
defence and automotive; these promising new materials have implementation is based entirely on the importance of their
wear characteristics.
* V. Bharath As of now, thought is being paid to the usage of good
bharathv88@gmail.com quality Al–Al2O3p composites for elementary applications
in aviation and general outlining regions so far [5]. Hassan
1
Siddaganga Institute of Technology, Visvesvaraya et al. [6] discovered that the wear and tear loss of the copper-
Technological University, Tumakuru, Karnataka, India
containing composites is smaller compared to copper-free
2
Aircraft Research & Design Centre, HAL, Bangalore, composites. Kok and Ozdin [7] in their examinations on
Karnataka, India
2024Al–Al2O3p composites surveyed the impact of the addi-
3
School of Engineering, Presidency University, Bengaluru, tion of ­Al2O3p and its size on the wear and tear conduct
Karnataka, India

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and attributed that wear resistance increased because of the mechanical and wear result of the as-cast 2014Al alloy and
increase in ceramic particles. Surappa et al. [8] have reported composites with varying wt% of ­Al2O3p.
that the addition of five vol% A­ l2O3p increased the wear and
tear characteristics of Al–Si mixtures. Bharath et al. [9, 10]
have reported that at a constant speed and load, the wear 2 Experimental Procedure
rate of 6061Al–Al2O3p decreased because of the increase
in the sliding distance of 1500 m up to 12 wt% of ceramic 2.1 Materials
particles. In particulate reinforced composites, usually vor-
tex is created to bring the particles inside the alloy matrix In the present survey, 2014Al alloy/Al–Cu alloy is employed
during the stir technique. Most of the fabrication ways have due to its high hardness and higher machinability, the chemi-
utilised stir casting to make a vortex. The surviving negative cal composition of 2014Al alloy is analysed with the assis-
pressure differential in the vortex sucks particles remotely tance of Atomic Absorption spectroscopic analysis (Model
in the liquid metal; the vortex additionally sucks in air bub- AA-670, Varian, the Netherlands) and is shown in Table 1.
bles which bring about extensive porosities in cast compos- The strength of the 2014Al alloy is due to coherency strains
ites. Extensively, compo casting and liquid soften stirring connected with ultimately fine copper-rich zones [13]. ­Al2O3
are two types of manufacturing ways for creating compos- of an average particle size of 53 µm is used as strengthen-
ites with outwardly introducing particles; it depends on the ing material due to its superior strength and wear resist-
temperature at which the particles are introduced into the ance properties. Composites were processed with 9, 12 and
melt. In both methods, due to the way vortex is employed, 15 wt% of ­Al2O3 particulates. The physical and mechani-
the porosities measure high [11], the above casting meth- cal properties of 2014Al alloy and A ­ l2O3P are presented in
ods are most economical when used along with different Table 2 [14].
techniques particularly powder metallurgy. Regardless of the
approach that powder metallurgy delivers higher mechani- 2.2 Composite Preparation and Characterization
cal properties in MMCs, liquid state processing has some
significant advantages, including improved matrix–particle In the present examination, 2014Al–Al2O3p composites were
interaction, low processing cost, simpler matrix structure prepared by liquid stirring method. ­Al2O3p particles with
regulation, flexibility, nearer to net-shaped form and size of an average particle size of 53 µm were used as reinforce-
the part and wide selection of materials [10]. On the other ment. 2014Al (charge) is superheated to a temperature of
hand, the melting process has two major problems: first, the 750 °C in a resistance furnace. Once the desired tempera-
ceramic particles are usually not wetted by the liquid metal ture is achieved, solid hexachloroethane ­(C2Cl6) is employed
matrix, and second, the particles appear to float or sink in as degasser to get rid of the absorbed gases. At this stage,
proportion to their liquid metal content. In order to enhance ­Al2O3p preheated at 250 °C were added to the melt. Accu-
the properties, wettability is an important aspect. Wettabil- rately measured amounts of A ­ l2O3p were added to melt. A
ity is overcome by pre-heating the reinforcement to expel unique two-stage combination is opted; reinforcement was
absorbed gases, effective stirring and surface coating on the divided into two halves rather than adding it once. During
reinforcement [12]. The wear properties of the composites the introduction of ceramic A ­ l2O3 particles, mechanical
rely on the measurement, quantity, scattering and a sort of stirring is performed at a speed of 200 rpm for a period
hard ceramic particles. Modification in mechanical and
wear properties of the composites are due to the addition Table 2  Physical and mechanical properties of 2014Al alloy and
of ceramic particles nonetheless, diminish ductility. There- ­Al2O3p [14]
fore, looking at the wear and tear attributes of reinforced
Mechanical/ Density Hardness UTS (MPa) Elastic
Al with ceramic particles is a remarkable space of analysis properties (g/cm3) (HB500) modulus
work. With this discourse, in the present work, endeavour (GPa)
is made to prepare 2014Al–Al2O3p composites made by liq-
2014Al 2.8 135 483 70–80
uid stirring method and to find out the impact of ­Al2O3p on
Al2O3p 3.8 1175 665 300

Table 1  Showing the chemical composition of 2014Al alloy (by atomic absorption spectroscopic analysis—model AA-670, Varian, the Nether-
lands)
Elements (wt%) Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti Others Al

Al–Cu alloy 0.7 0.2 4.5 0.83 0.63 0.01 0.19 0.06 0.05 Rest

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Journal of Bio- and Tribo-Corrosion (2020) 6:45 Page 3 of 10  45

of 10 min utilizing zirconia-covered steel vane. Within the and at a constant load of 29.43 N. Additionally, to work out
wake of guaranteeing higher dispersion of ceramic particles, the wear mechanism, worn surfaces were examined by SEM.
a gushing temperature of 750 °C is opted and also the lique-
fied melt is introduced into the forged iron mould.
Central parts of the casted specimen were cut and pol- 3 Results and Discussions
ished by using grit papers and diamond paste; SEM images
were taken by using scanning electron microscope (SEM). 3.1 Characterization of the Prepared Composites
Micro hardness and tensile test results were measured by
using Zwick indenter digital microhardness tester and UTM Microstructural investigations were done on the synthesized
as per ASTM E92-17 and ASTM E-8 standards. The wear composites with the assistance of SEM to see the uniform
tests were conducted as per ASTM-G99 standards on clean distribution of hard ceramic A
­ l2O3p in 2014Al alloy matrix.
pin made from composites having a dimension of 8 mm Figure 1a–d demonstrate the SEM images of as-cast 2014Al
diameter and 30 mm length against a rotating disc made alloy and 2014Al alloy combination with 9, 12 and 15 wt%
from steel with a track diameter of 80 mm. The initial weight ­Al2O3p. The microstructure comprises of essential α-Al
of the specimens was weighed using an electronic weighing dendrites and eutectic copper as shown in Fig. 1a, whereas
machine with a precision of 0.0001 g. The counter facial ­Al2O3 particles are found in between dendritic regions also
disc was cleaned with acetone after each test. Before and in the mixture of copper. Figure  1b–d exhibit the SEM
after testing, the pin was weighed to determine the amount images of the composite with different weight percentage
of wear loss. At room temperature, wear rate is calculated as of ­Al2O3p from 9 to 15 wt%.
a part of sliding distance and load. Tests were conducted for For above synthesized composites, Fig. 1b–d indicate
each synthesized composite at a constant speed of 300 rpm uniform dispersion of A ­ l2O3p. The uniform distribution of

Fig. 1  a–d SEM images of a 2014Al alloy, b 2014Al–9 wt% A

­ l2O3p, c 2014Al–12 wt% ­Al2O3p and d 2014Al—15 wt% A
­ l2O3p

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strengthening particles obtained in the synthesized compos- 3.3 Microhardness

ite is the end result of 2-stage stirring. In view of the fact
that the whole weight of the reinforcing particles is added Figure  4 is the evidence for the consequences of micro
in 2-steps which ensure uniform dispersion overcome the Vickers hardness tests performed on 2014Al alloy and fur-
viscosity divergence. As revealed in Fig. 1b–d, homogene- thermore on the 2014Al composite containing different
ous dispersion of the ­Al2O3p was accomplished in the com- weight proportions (9, 12 and 15 wt%) of A ­ l2O3 particles.
posites reinforced with 53 µm A ­ l2O3p. Figure 1a shows the The Micro Vickers hardness was estimated on the prepared
SEM images of cast matrix of 2014Al and Fig. 1c and d samples by the use of precious stone cone indenter with a
reveal the SEM images of the clustering and agglomeration load of 20 N and the value is noted down with an average
of 12 and 15 wt% of ­Al2O3p, probably owing to the fact that of hundred readings taken at different spots. Figure 4 pre-
with increase in wt% of reinforcement, there is a possibility sents micro hardness estimates for various weight propor-
of forming destabilized bond between matrix and reinforce- tions of reinforcement. It indicates that the hardness values
ment which result in increase of surface energy and thereby of composite reinforced with different weight proportions
decreasing the wettability [15, 16]. of ­Al2O3p is higher than the cast matrix 2014Al alloy. In
case of cast matrix 2014Al alloy, the hardness value was
99.23 VHN. Composites reinforced with A ­ l2O3p at 9, 12
3.2 Energy‑Dispersive X‑Ray Spectroscopy (EDS) and 15 wt% reveal hardness values to be 127.89, 142.26
and XRD and 167.25 VHN, respectively, whereas composites con-
taining a maximum weight percentage (15 wt%) of ­Al2O3p
Figure 2 demonstrates EDS of surface of the 2014Al–12 wt% show the most elevated hardness (167.25 VHN). The most
­Al2O3p composite specimen which signifies the existence of extreme observed increment in hardness of composites when
Oxide (O) in the 2014Al alloy matrix thereby confirming the contrasted with unreinforced 2014Al alloy was found to be
presence of ­Al2O3 ­particles. 68.54%. The essential growth for increment in hardness of
For the 2014Al–12 wt% A ­ l2O3p composite, XRD analy- the matrix is because of the nearness of A ­ l2O3p [17]. Rein-
sis was performed to confirm the presence of A ­ l2O3p and forcing particles are harder and stiffer than matrix, which
the outcomes are shown in Fig. 3. The peaks obtained from builds limitation to plastic distortion of matrix throughout
the X-Ray diffraction of the above synthesized composite the experiment [10]. Increase in weight proportion of rein-
sample are contrasted with data from JCPDS (Joint Com- forcement results in increase in hardness because of valid
mission for Powder Diffraction Standards). From the Fig. 3, appropriation of A
­ l2O3 particles. It might likewise be noticed
the peaks of A
­ l2O3 at 43.732°, 53.026°, 58.049° and 77.715° that hardness pattern acquired in the present investigation is
(JCPDS File No. 75-0787) and peaks of pure Al at 38.44°, like the discoveries detailed for ceramic-reinforced 6061Al
44.7°, 65.32° and 77.2° are identified in the prepared com- matrices in the micrometre length scale of the reinforce-
posites with other minor impurity peaks. ment [10].

Fig. 2  EDS outcomes of 2014Al–12 wt% ­Al2O3p composite

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Journal of Bio- and Tribo-Corrosion (2020) 6:45 Page 5 of 10  45

Fig. 3  XRD pattern of
2014Al + 12 wt% ­Al2O3p
composite

alloy and the composite. The value of tensile strength

of cast matrix 2014Al was found to be 175.73 MPa. The
increase in A ­ l 2O 3 reinforcement content by 9, 12 and
15  wt% of the composite revealed tensile strengths of
175.73, 184.69 and 226.75 MPa. Unmistakable rigidity
of composites is more prominent when contrasted with
as-cast 2014Al.
It may very well be seen that the weight percentage of
the ­Al2O3p expands the distribution of stress to hard phase,
which thusly builds the elasticity. The clarifications behind
improvements gained with Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
are (i) extreme hardness at the interface between the ceramic
particle and base metal bond dependent on load movement
[19]; (ii) changes in the microstructure throughout the treat-
ment of composites, in light of the exchange of the load
between the hard ceramic A ­ l2O3pand ductile matrix 2014Al
alloy bringing about fortifying and overhauling rigidity [19,
Fig. 4  Micro Vickers Hardness of 2014Al alloy prior and after adding 20]. The Yield strength of the synthesized composites is
up of different wt% (9, 12, and 15 wt%) of A
­ l2O3 particulates
observed to increase with the increase in weight proportion
of hard ceramic ­Al2O3p in 2014Al composites. The strength
3.4 Tensile Test of the synthesized composites consistently depends on the
size of the particles between the matrix and the reinforce-
The objective of tensile testing is to characterize the ment and interfacial bond [21].
mechanical behaviour of the prepared composites under On the off chance that the matrix-reinforcement bond
tensile loading. A strong internal stress is created utilizing is adequate, the stress applied can be moved from the soft
malleable loads which can result in confined breakdown matrix to the hard ­Al2O3p at that point. The higher strength
when the nearby stress surpassed the material strength. due to the presence of A ­ l2O3 particles secures the matrix
The uniform dispersion of reinforcement particles facili- of the moderately soft alloy. The yield strength of the base
tates the spread of stress and prevents the development of material (0.2% offset) is 169.76 MPa, whereas the highest
localized damage [18]. Figure 5 demonstrates the distinc- yield strength measured is 194.93 MPa for a 15% weight
tion of tensile and yield strength of cast matrix 2014Al fraction (Fig. 5).

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Fig. 5  Variation of a yield and tensile strength with different wt% of ­Al2O3p, b percentage of elongation with different wt% of ­Al2O3p

With a rise in weight fraction level, it is possible to move is due to delamination in the alloy where fragments are
more loads to the reinforcement, which also contributes to moved from the pin to the disc and larger fragments are
better yield strength [18]. The pliability of the 2014Al alloy thrown out. The implementation of the 2014Al–Al2O 3p
composite is affected by the strengthening. As shown in step eliminates the loss of wear. ­Al2O3p provides enhanced
Fig. 5b, the percentage of elongation varies from 4.11% for wear resistance to the Al composites as compared to cast
2014Al alloy to 1.56% for 2014Al alloy with 15% weight matrix 2014Al alloy by forming mechanically mixed layers
fraction of A­ l2O3p. Due to void nucleation, the decrease at the composite specimen and steel disc interface.
in ductility can be credited with increasing reinforcement Figure 6b demonstrates the wear rate of 2014Al and
measure. The high stress concentration at the tip of the bro- ­Al2O 3p-reinforced composites. Generally, the wear loss
ken particles can also help to reduce the composite ductil- in terms of weight loss or height loss is more as sliding
ity. The precise cause for this dissimilarity may be the way distance increases from 600 to 3600  m. In the present
alumina particles behave as stress concentration agents. This investigations, wear rate is calculated by load and sliding
job is made easier by the agglomeration of particles. Thus, distance dividing the volumetric wear loss; as denominator
the extent of stress increases during tensile loading signifi- component sliding distance increases from 600 to 3600 m,
cantly, closes to the agglomerated micro particles and makes the wear rate is decreased. As discussed earlier, here also,
the matrix and reinforcement de-bonding between the rein- wear rate is more in unreinforced alloy 2014Al. As per-
forcement and matrix [22]. centage of ­Al2O3p increases from 9 to 15 wt% in steps of
3 wt%, the wear rate decreases. The decrease in wear rate
3.5 Wear Study and increase in wear resistance in composites is due to
the presence of ­Al2O3p phase that acts as load-supporting
For the wear study, a wear track of diameter 80 mm and element. Also, the presence of reinforcement phase on the
a load of 29.43 N was set for all the measurements, with sliding surface effectively covers the 2014Al matrix alloy
the sliding speed of 300 rpm. Figure 6a and b demon- and is attributed to the high hardness of ­Al2O3p-reinforced
strate the effects of weight loss and wear rate as a slid- composites which also helps to improve the wear resist-
ing distance feature performed on 2014Al–9, 12 and ance [24]. The ­Al2O3p reinforcement process within the
15 wt% ­Al2O3p. Figure 6a demonstrates the utmost weight 2014Al matrix avoids the steel counterpart ploughing
loss in 2014Al compound and minimum weight loss in operation and improves the wear resistance [9]. The wear
2014Al–15 wt%Al2O3p. The wear loss of the cast matrix protection of the composites considerably increased as a
2014Al alloy is higher than those of composites reinforced result of introduction of the ­A l 2O 3p and increases with
by ­Al2O3p [23]. The increased wear loss in 2014Al alloy increasing ­Al2O3p wt%.

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Journal of Bio- and Tribo-Corrosion (2020) 6:45 Page 7 of 10  45

­ l2O3p wt% and b wear rate of alloy and composites as a function of sliding distance
Fig. 6  a Weight loss as a function of A

3.6 Worn Surface Studies of the Prepared locations often leads to a substantial wear rate. Adding
Composites ­Al2O3p to the 2014Al matrix resulted in lower wear rates
compared to the 2014Al wear rates alone as evident from the
Study of worn surfaces of 2014Al alloy and 2014Al–Al2O3p worn surface images, Fig. 7c–h. It is observed from Fig. 7f
composites were examined through a scanning electron and h that some cracks are formed at the aluminium grain
microscope. Figure 7a–h demonstrate the SEM images of boundaries. This could be attributed to the pressure harden-
worn surfaces of 2014Al alloy and 2014Al–Al2O3p compos- ing [5] of aluminium during sliding with an applied load
ites of various wt% (9, 12 and 15 wt%) at a load of 29.43 N, and the pulling up of hard phase particles and these cracks
sliding speed of 300 rpm and sliding distance of 3600 m. formed parallel to the sliding path as shown in Fig. 7d and
In the current research, optimum values have been used to h. The wear and tear track was secured with a defensive
conduct wear studies. If the applied normal load and sliding chemical compound layer confirming the reduction of wear
speed is too low, it is difficult to analyse the wear behaviour and tear rate at the sliding distance of 3600 m as shown in
of alloy and composites. Further, if the applied load and Fig. 7h. Development of those tribolayers can be the first
speed are high, the material loss is more and sometimes rationalization behind the decreasing wear rate of compos-
causes the seizure of pin material along with disc. Hence, ites [25]. The ­Al2O3p discharged on the wear and tear surface
in the present research, moderate load and speeds have been throughout the wear and tear method avoids direct metal-to-
used to evaluate the wear behaviour. Usually, the loss of metal contact and acted as a lubricator, thus, reducing the
the material is more during initial sliding distance, and as friction constant between the composite pin and the steel
the sliding distance further increases beyond a certain value disc [24].
the material loss will be less; hence a numerical distance of Examination of worn surfaces showed that the worn
3600 m is used in the present research. The base alloy SEM surface of the composite alloy is generally much rougher
photos show that a higher amount of material throughout the than that of the alloy as shown in Fig. 7a and b. In addi-
study has been excluded from the surface of the pin. tion, the abrasive wear process (Fig. 7g–h) is found in the
From Fig.  7a and b, shallow wear tracks and surface 2014 Alloy-reinforced A ­ l2O3p composites, which is primar-
delaminations are very evident. In sliding wear test, in light ily the result of rough A­ l2O3p applied to worn surfaces and
of the fact that the unreinforced composite was extensively loose fragments between two materials. Considering that
softer than the slider, the slider may enter and cut consid- the ­Al2O3p avoids the cycle of the delamination, the wear
erably into the surface, inflicting plastic surface deforma- resistance of the 2014Al alloy-reinforced A ­ l2O3p composites
tion and thus showing excessive material loss [7]. Figure 7a is more in case. Within the wear testing conditions, the prin-
and b of as-cast shows that shallow wear tracks and surface cipal mechanism is small, cutting and ploughing is for the
delamination are obvious. Wear path shows the mechanism composites containing tiny particles, whereas it is crushing
of abrasive wear; surface delamination found at scattered for the composites containing massive particles [7]. During

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Fig. 7  Scanning electron micrographs of a, b 2014Al alloy, c, d 2014Al + 9 wt% ­Al2O3p, e, f 2014Al + 12 wt% ­Al2O3p and g, h 2014Al + 15 wt%
of ­Al2O3p composite

the wear, the oxidized surface acts as barrier for the mate- place on the pin surface. Thus, at longer sliding distances, it
rial loss and reduces the wear (Fig. 7c–h). Moreover, the is typical that the formation and removal of MML occurs at
compaction and fragmentation of this wear scrap counter an equivalent time and also the rate of removal and develop-
surface material and thin chemical compound layers incite ment of MML can be similar, and thus, the wear rate stay
the arrangement of an automatically mixed layer that shields unchanged with sliding distance [5, 26].
the specimen surface from wear. Further, increasing slid- EDS examination of the worn surface is shown in Fig. 8;
ing distance prompts to increase the temperature that makes the first perception is the measure of iron present within the
the subsurface to soften because of plastic deformation and surface (Fig. 8). Iron is transferred from the worn counter
formation of MML (mechanically mixed layer) that takes face through a mechanical alloy process that results in the

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Journal of Bio- and Tribo-Corrosion (2020) 6:45 Page 9 of 10  45

Fig. 8  EDS analysis of worn surface of 2014Al–15wt% A

­ l2O3p

wearing surface becoming an MML. This shows that the 5. Formation of protecting compound layer at an intermedi-
transition layer of iron prevents interaction between surfaces ate slippery distance of 3600 m was ascertained and that
and thus increases wear resistance [27]. This conduct is in confirms the minimum wear rate of the composite and
strong consonance with Rosenberger et al.’ s results [28]. are discernible from the worn surface microphotographs.

4 Conclusions Compliance with Ethical Standards 

The current study on 2014Al alloy reinforced with different Conflict of interest  On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author
states that there is no conflict of interest.
weight proportions (9, 12 and 15 wt%) of ­Al2O3p has led to
the subsequent conclusions.

1. 2014Al–Al2O3p metal matrix composites are effectively References

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