Science, Skepticism, and Applied Behavior Analysis

Matthew P. Normand, Ph.D., BCBA, University of the Pacific

ABSTRACT
Pseudoscientific claims concerning medical and psychological treatments of all varieties
are commonplace. As behavior analysts, a sound skeptical approach to our science and
practice is essential. The present paper offers an overview of science and skepticism and
discusses the relationship of skepticism to behavior analysis, with an emphasis on the types
of issues concerning behavior analysts in practice.
Descriptors: Behavior analysis, pseudoscience, science, skepticism

“In science, keeping an open mind have been some of the world’s most scientists, although it will be argued,
is a virtue—just not so open prominent scientists, including Richard they should. Pseudosciences know no
that your brains fall out.” Dawkins, Stephen Jay Gould, and Carl professional boundaries and thrive in
– James Oberg1 Sagan. Even B. F. Skinner was among many areas of research and practice.
the signers of the 1976 letter announcing Claims regarding the effectiveness of

I
1
n science, being skeptical does the formation of the Committee for sensory integration therapy, facilitated
not mean doubting the validity of the Scientific Investigation of the communication, and inclusion qualify
everything, nor does it mean being Paranormal, an organization dedicated as pseudoscience. All are offered as
cynical. Rather, to be skeptical is to to the promotion of scientific skepticism legitimate therapies or useful practices
judge the validity of a claim based on and publication of the Skeptical Inquirer when, in fact, the evidence available
objective empirical evidence. David (Kurtz, 1996).2 The relationship of fails to support them (Jacobson, Foxx,
Hume, the 18th century philosopher, skepticism to behavior analysis is the & Mulick, 2005). Today, one would be
asserted that we should accept no things relationship between skepticism and hard pressed to find an area more widely
as true unless the evidence available science in general. The experimental affected by rampant pseudoscience than
makes the non-existence of the thing analysis of behavior is a natural that of autism treatment, which also
more miraculous than its existence. Even science, and this natural science is the happens to be one of the largest single
extraordinary claims can be true, but the foundation of all behavior analytic areas of application for behavior analysts
more extraordinary the claim, the more research and practice. Moreover, the (Shook, Johnston, & Mellichamp,
extraordinary the evidence required. practical importance of a skeptical 2004). In the sections that follow, I
Not too long ago, the notion of human repertoire for those engaged in behavior discuss scientific standards of evidence
flight seemed like pure fancy. Today, analytic practice cannot be overstated. as they relate to the practice of behavior
scores of people take to the sky almost as Pseudoscience abounds in so many of the analysis, describe some of the common
routinely as they take to the highway. To areas behavior analysts tread, including characteristics of pseudoscientific
be skeptical does not mean dismissing developmental disabilities, education, claims, and offer suggestions to promote
claims—even extraordinary claims—out and psychotherapy. According to skepticism in applied behavior analysis.
of hand. It means examining the available physicist Robert Park, pseudoscience
evidence before reaching a decision or is characterized by claims purportedly Standards of Evidence
withholding judgment until sufficient supported by well-established scientific
Interobserver Agreement
evidence is had. One should not start evidence when, in truth, such evidence
with the assumption that a claim cannot is misinterpreted, misunderstood, or When gathering and evaluating
be true any more than one should start wholly lacking (Park, 2000). relevant evidence, scientists take careful
with the assumption that a claim must This paper is aimed primarily steps to minimize bias in observation.
be true. All reasonable evidence on both at behavior analysts in practice What scientists say should be controlled
sides should be considered. who are likely to encounter various primarily by what is seen, rather than
Skepticism is a critical feature of a pseudoscientific claims in the course what one hopes to see. Bias in observation
scientific repertoire. Indeed, many of of their work and who might not cannot be entirely eliminated, but it can
the most prominent skeptics are and immediately identify themselves as be controlled. The ideal case might be
1
Quote attributed to James Oberg by 2
Now known as the Committee for Scientific one in which some automated recording
(Sagan, 1996). Investigation (CSI). system can be utilized, as often is the

42 SKEPTICISM AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS Behavior Analysis in Practice, 1(2), 42-49.
case in basic research. Though not on assigned tasks during the class time from the information obtained.
without precedent, such automated allotted. The behavior analyst sets about Experimental evaluation is critical
recording is fairly uncommon in applied taking careful records of the time the for all sciences and is the mechanism
research and practice. Where human child is engaged in assigned class work for that ultimately provides us the ability to
observers collect behavioral data, steps a period of one week, with observations predict and control our subject matter.
must be taken to ensure that changes in distributed across times of day and In most behavior analytic experimental
behavior over time are actually changes academic domains. Once these data are designs, prediction is made possible
in the behavior of interest, and not the analyzed, and it is determined that the through repeated measures of behavior
behavior of the observer (Baer, Wolf, & child is engaged in assigned academic during a baseline condition before any
Risley, 1968). That is, the veracity of work about 30% of the time he should be experimental or clinical manipulation
the data are assessed through some form so engaged, a token reinforcement system is made. Such measures then provide
of interobserver agreement measures or is implemented with points awarded a basis against which to compare
through the use of double-blind control each time he is engaged continuously behavioral observations made under the
procedures. In this way, the primary with his work for 60 s. The points are, changed conditions. We use the baseline
source of control over the verbal behavior of course, later exchanged for back-up measures to predict what we would
of the observer is more likely to be the reinforcers such as preferred activities see if our manipulation did not affect
actually transpired events. or items. The behavioral observation the behavior. If the observed behavior
system is continued and, after a few under our changed conditions (e.g.,
Experimental Design
weeks of intervention, the child is now during intervention) deviates from our
Even the most careful observations observed to be on-task approximately prediction, an experimental or clinical
are not sufficient to inform about, say, the 80% of the time and the teacher reports effect is suggested. The extent to which
effects of a given cold remedy. Many of us that his assignment completion is greatly we are able to replicate this effect through
do not visit the doctor when experiencing improved, even better than some of his experimental manipulations such as
mild symptoms characteristic of the peers. reversals to baseline or multiple-baseline
common cold. Instead, we visit the The wonders of modern behavioral arrangements determines the strength
doctor only when we’ve been struggling science? Not necessarily. The of the conclusions that can be drawn.
with the symptoms for some prolonged intervention could have produced the When we can predict the likelihood
period of time or when the symptoms changes observed, but so could have any of behavior occurring or not occurring
become so severe that we have a difficult number of other uncontrolled variables. under certain conditions, and when we
time coping. Typically, we receive a brief Perhaps the type of work assignments can alter such likelihoods through our
exam, are prescribed some medication, changed during the same period of time, manipulations, we have demonstrated a
and go on our way. Within a few days resulting in easier or more interesting cause-effect relationship.
we are feeling better and able to resume assignments. Or the referral might have Of course, a well-developed science
our normal activities. The wonders of increased the overall amount of attention of behavior should presumably offer
modern medicine? Not necessarily. We provided to the student by the teacher well-established technologies for the
might well have gotten better in about and other school personnel, thereby practitioner, technologies that do
the same amount of time had we never improving performance due to changed not require continued experimental
visited the doctor. We visited the doctor motivating conditions or more effective evaluation. In medicine, for example,
only after some extended period of time academic instruction or behavior the diagnosis of a bacterial infection
suffering with symptoms or after we management. It is impossible to know can readily lead to a prescription of
noticed the symptoms become severe. why the student’s performance improved antibiotics. The effectiveness of the
Either circumstance might suggest that based on the types of observations made. antibiotic prescription is, however,
we were nearing the end of our illness. But, you say, we can be more certain of heavily predicated on an accurate
The medication might have dampened our success because what we did was diagnosis. In behavior analytic practice,
our symptoms, but our recovery might based on solid behavioral principles and, the prescription of intervention
not have been hastened. No matter how moreover, we are successful again and strategies also is heavily predicated on
carefully we observed what happened, again with different children. Perhaps, accurate diagnosis or, in behavioral
we would be unable to drawn any firm but it could very well be that our token terms, a functional behavior assessment.
conclusions about cause and effect. economy intervention regularly recruits At present, the varying rigor with which
Now consider an analogous one or more of the extraneous variables functional assessments are conducted
case concerning a behavior analytic mentioned (e.g., increased attention by across practitioners and settings suggests
intervention. A young child is referred school personnel), which is the actual that the easy prescription of well-
by his classroom teacher for behavior agent of change. Then again, maybe established behavioral technologies is not
analytic services because he rarely works not. The point is that we cannot know practically at hand, with some exceptions.

SKEPTICISM AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 43

 A powerful reinforcement-based The scientific community arranges not succeed as reliably as another is
intervention such as a token economy, explicit and powerful contingencies not necessarily a fatal blow for the less
superimposed on existing but unknown of reinforcement for such behavior, successful therapy. This is an unfortunate
contingencies, is likely to be beneficial and the scientist who treads lightly as state of affairs.
even without a rigorous functional preliminary data are gathered is in a So what is to be made of the
assessment. Ideally, as behavioral science much better position to alter his or her proposition that some things cannot be
matures, we will have evidence-based stance as emerging evidence dictates. A known with certainty, human behavior
procedures of a fairly standardized sort hallmark of the pseudoscientist is the or otherwise? Nothing is known for
that have been demonstrated to work for propensity to make bold statements and certain, but much is known for which the
a large majority of people with whom draw firm conclusions in the absence of likelihood of alternative explanations is so
they are used. When non-responders sufficient evidence. Once so committed, small as to be unworthy of consideration.
are identified, more careful functional the aversive consequences for changing When discussing what we know, we
assessments can be conducted on an course can trump those arranged by the are really describing the strength of a
individual basis and individualized scientific community. prediction we can make. If we state that
interventions prescribed as necessary, Perhaps it is not so difficult to see how the sun will rise in the east tomorrow,
much the way a physician might alter one can succeed in making claims absent we state this because it has never been
the prescription of antibiotics if your any supporting evidence, but how does observed to do otherwise.3 Based on
health is not improved in the expected someone succeed in promoting a claim historical observations of both the daily
period of time. in the face of existing evidence to the rising of the sun and, more importantly,
contrary? In psychology and the related scores of physical regularities observed
Replication and Self-Correction
social sciences, part of the answer is that by scientists at multiple levels of analysis,
Methods applied in any specific markedly lesser standards of evidence we can state the probability of the sun
case are not failsafe. Fortunately, the are accepted than in the so-called hard rising in the east as being so high as to be
majesty of science is that although it is sciences (e.g., physics, chemistry, and practically certain. Is it possible that the
fallible, it also is self-correcting. Careful biology), and society seems to follow sun will rise in the west? Yes, but to say
technological description of procedures suit. It is not entirely clear why this is so. something is possible is not to say much
allows others to replicate the same To be sure, a physicist need not labor to at all. Science deals with probability, not
procedures at different times, in different convince an engineer of the importance possibility.
places, and with different participants of basic physical laws. If the engineer But perhaps the foregoing description
(Baer et al., 1968). In the best cases, does not abide by the laws of physics, of the general philosophy of science is just
the peer-review process of publication the building falls down. This outcome one of many equally valid philosophies
in scientific journals identifies flawed is obvious and the cause is not attributed about the world and our knowledge of
studies or erroneous conclusions drawn to some unknowable random process it. Rubbish. The superiority of science
from otherwise solid studies before they beyond the control of the engineer. It is quite well-established, as science is the
are widely disseminated. Once findings is attributed to some flaw in design only “philosophy” that regularly provides
are disseminated, failures to replicate or construction. Even the layperson the ability to predict and control that
the reported findings or the discovery doesn’t assume that buildings sometimes which it purports to explain. One might
of new findings that refute or attenuate fall down spontaneously because we argue that prediction and control are not
some earlier findings lead to revisions of can’t hope to control nature well enough the ultimate demonstrations of truth,
scientific language and, ultimately, to a to ensure otherwise. As a result, the but such arguments seem to hold better
greater ability to describe, predict, and engineer or builder is blamed and the in conversation than in practice. As the
control our world. Sadly, many non- failed methods revised or discarded. biologist Richard Dawkins eloquently
scientists view this as insufferable flip- However, when a psychological therapy put it, “Show me a cultural relativist at
flopping. The politician who alters an fails to demonstrably change behavior, 30,000 feet and I’ll show you a hypocrite”
opinion or policy is thereafter chastised the blame is not necessarily laid upon (Dawkins, 1995, p. 31). When it really
for being indecisive or insincere. The the therapist or the therapy, though matters, we rely on science; we fly in the
government agency that revises the the consequences of the failure can be plane designed in accordance with the
guidelines for a healthy diet is mistrusted. as great or greater than the collapsed laws of physics.
In the public arena, it often is better to building. Instead, many laypeople and
be true to some core conviction than scientists alike assume it impossible 3
This is, of course, a geocentric description
responsive to a changing world. Science to reliably influence human behavior, of the behavior of the earth and sun. Although
wanting in scientific precision, it should serve
embraces “flip-flopping” so long as because human behavior is complex
the present purpose better than appeals to the
it is due to changes in evidence rather and not entirely lawful. Therefore, regularity of the earth’s rotation as it revolves
than extraneous sources of control. to demonstrate that one therapy does around the sun.

44 SKEPTICISM AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

 .
disciplines. However, as discussed in on parent reports of changes in child
The Practical Limits the next section, one or more red flags behavior. Rather than being presented
of Scientific Rationalism typically accompany pseudoscientific as anecdotes, the reports are dressed up
Ideally, we would behave as claims. as scientific data (usually quantified in
scientific rationalists in matters as some way and analyzed statistically),
diverse as nutrition, economics, and Characteristics of Pseudoscience giving the impression of something
global warming. That is, we would more substantial (e.g., Barthelemy et al.,
He Said, She Said
be able to respond to direct empirical 1978). Additionally, steps must be taken
evidence as we confront important Pseudoscientific claims often eschew to isolate the effects of the vitamins from
matters affecting our lives. But what objective experimental evidence in any other intervention. If the vitamins
if experimentation or the analysis of favor of anecdotes or testimonials. The are only one part of a larger collection
existing experimental data is beyond current autism-vaccine controversy is a of intervention strategies, including
reach? Most of us are extremely limited case in point. A large vocal contingent intensive behavior analytic intervention,
in our ability to distinguish between fact of parents and professionals contend that it would be inappropriate to attribute
and fiction in unfamiliar areas such as the Measles-Mumps-Rubella (MMR) the observed improvement in the child’s
quantum mechanics or even automobile vaccine or other vaccines that contained behavior to vitamins rather than to any
repair. What we “know” comes from a mercury-based preservative called of the other strategies or combinations
our contact with others who describe thimerosal are the cause behind the thereof.
the evidence for us rather than from recent autism “explosion.” A commonly
The Unfalsifiable Claim
our evaluation of the relevant research. cited piece of evidence for the alleged
As a result, we are almost unavoidably link between certain vaccines and autism Scientific studies refuting pseudo-
dogmatic in practice, insofar as a great is that parents of children with autism scientific claims often are criticized
deal of what we do is influenced by report that their child only began to and dismissed on grounds of poor
statements of truth professed by people of show signs of autism after receiving a methodological rigor or problematic
authority (or notoriety) rather than our vaccination. These parent reports have design. Such is the case with facilitated
own examination of the evidence. That become even more important in the face communication (FC) with persons
this is so should be no great surprise. We of mounting empirical evidence failing to diagnosed with autism. FC proponents
haven’t the skills necessary to personally show even a correlation between vaccine claim that it enables these individuals
investigate all the phenomena that administration and autism diagnosis to communicate through the aid of a
impact us in our day-to-day affairs. (Normand & Dallery, 2007). When the “facilitator” who physically guides their
So what is to be made of those areas available scientific evidence is examined, hand over a keyboard so that they can type
that are beyond the scope of our direct parent testimonies are essentially the messages. A number of well-controlled
study but do have an impact on our lives, only “evidence” that supports a link at experiments have demonstrated that it is
both personal and professional? For all. Despite their best intentions, parent the facilitators doing the communicating
example, how is a behavior analyst to deal reports are poor sources of evidence, as (Jacobson, Mulick, & Schwartz, 1995).
effectively with the many claims made parents rarely have extensive training in Simply put, if the facilitator does not
about the genetic underpinnings of a behavioral observation, their observations have access to the question posed, a
variety of conditions, including obesity, a are not independently corroborated to correct answer is not given. Douglas
learning disability, or autism?Ultimately, ensure accuracy, and, being the parents Biklen, one of the main proponents of
many of us will have to be dogmatic in of the children observed, they are far FC, frequently dismisses this sizeable
approach, but we should be carefully from objective. body of experimental research on the
dogmatic. At best, we are likely to Other times, the anecdotal nature of grounds that the studies are poorly
consult reviews of the research literature the evidence for a claim is dressed up in designed and conducted, though no
in lieu of the literature itself. But in scientific garb, as is the case with claims acceptable scientific rationale for this
so doing, we are subject to the biases that mega-vitamin regimens produce claim is offered (Biklen, 1993). These
of interpretation in the writing of the marked improvements in young children studies all meet the well-established
reviewer. At worst, we learn of some with autism (e.g., Barthelemy et al., 1981; standards of experimental design and
new fad diet or therapy from someone Rimland, Callaway, & Dreyfus, 1978). appear in reputable peer-reviewed
already convinced of its effectiveness and The arguments for such treatments are scientific journals. As a defense,
thereby vested in convincing us of its replete with examples of children who Biklen has suggested that the methods
effectiveness by providing only evidence reportedly improved after they began employed in the contradictory studies
seeming to support the claim. There a mega-vitamin regimen. A critical are predicated on the assumption that
is no easy way for the non-specialist to problem with such evidence is that the human behavior can be understood
identify pseudoscience in unfamiliar published studies rely almost exclusively from a natural science perspective, and

SKEPTICISM AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 45

 that traditional scientific standards of doctoring, from those recommending to know the real science. Maintaining
evidence are merely a social construction special diets for children with autism contact with the peer-reviewed scientific
(Jacobson et al., 1995). In whose plane to the aforementioned claims of a literature is the primary way of keeping
would you rather fly? vaccine-autism link. Despite the abreast of scientific developments and
It also is common for proponents absolute rejection by the medical and controversies. One also should read
of a pseudoscientific claim to criticize related scientific establishments, diet widely. That is, you should read more
individual studies or pieces of evidence and vaccine proponents claim that than just the mainstream behavior
in minute detail, while the confluence their information is at the forefront of analytic journals. It is not reasonable
of multiple sources of evidence refuting modern medicine. The establishment, to assume behavior analysts will be
the claim is ignored. In the area of they claim, simply lags behind. There intimately familiar with all the sciences
autism, many opponents of behavior is no shortage of case studies in the or even all of the behavioral sciences,
analytic interventions focus on the history of science that they can dredge but reading widely within ones’ specialty
methodological limitations of Lovaas’ up to support their position as noble (e.g., education, developmental
(1987) widely cited clinical outcomes mavericks. After all, at one point in time disabilities, health psychology) is
study. They point to the lack of random the heliocentric view of the universe was important. When you contact a new
selection and, especially, the lack of widely dismissed and Copernicus, as its claim, even one that is from the behavior
random assignment. What they ignore chief proponent, suffered great abuse. analytic community, become practiced
are the other outcome studies supporting Even the Wright brothers were initially at searching the scientific literature for
the positive results reported by Lovaas viewed as curiosities for their conviction evidence and information before rushing
(e.g., Howard, Sparkman, Cohen, Green, that human flight was within reach. to judgment. In addition, it might not
& Stanislaw, 2005; Sallows & Graupner, True, but as Michael Shermer, founder hurt to read or subscribe to a publication
2005). More importantly, they ignore and director of the Skeptics society and such as The Skeptical Inquirer or Skeptic.
the decades of sound experimental publisher of Skeptic magazine, eloquently Doing so will put you in contact with
research employing single-case research stated, “They laughed at Copernicus. critical analyses of a wide variety of
designs demonstrating the effectiveness They laughed at the Wright brothers. Yes, controversial claims, including some
of interventions based on behavior well, they laughed at the Marx brothers” directly relevant to your practice.
analytic principles, targeting a variety of (1997, p. 50). The reality is that far
Be a Scientist-Practitioner
problems across a variety of populations, more people have proved deserving of
including young children with autism. criticism for their outlandish claims than First and foremost, be a proponent
When evidence obtained by have been vindicated. Heresy alone does of evidence-based practice and good
independent investigators using a not constitute reasonable evidence. science, not just those things formally
variety of sound experimental methods identified as “behavior analysis.” Toward
points to a common conclusion, the Implications for this end, incorporate rigorous evaluative
picture is clear. Any single study will Behavior Analysts in Practice systems into your clinical practice,
have limitations. This is why replication What specific action might a including experimental manipulations
plays such an important role in science. practicing behavior analyst take in light whenever possible. For example, if
As the body of research in any given area of the preceding discussion? That is a family is considering placing their
of inquiry grows, it becomes populated difficult to say. In preparing this paper, child on a special diet as a means of
by numerous studies, all having different I found very little in the way of concrete treating “autistic symptoms,” it might
sets of strengths and limitations. As the recommendations for skeptical practice be possible to persuade them to evaluate
evidence in one study is verified by other in the literature. Most treatises on the effects of the diet in a systematic
studies, the probability of explanations skepticism emphasize “critical thinking” way. A list of clear operationally defined
other than those suggested by the data and highlight pseudoscience warning behavioral objectives could be agreed
shrinks. signs with illustrative examples, much upon in advance, an adequate baseline
like has been done in this paper. After established, and then the diet introduced
The Dull Edge of Science
some consideration, I have compiled and removed systematically over the
It is sometimes claimed that the a list, far from exhaustive, of possible period of several weeks or months. It
very fact that mainstream science actions that seem to me feasible and might even be possible to arrange for
rejects a claim offers support of its likely to be of benefit, though whether the parents to systematically provide
veracity. The mainstream scientists are they will be of benefit is most certainly and withhold the diet according to pre-
characterized as closed-minded and the an empirical question. specified guidelines but while keeping
pseudoscientists as cutting edge. Such the behavior analyst(s) blind to the
Read and Read Widely
characterizations find their way into manipulations until the evaluation is
all manner of pseudoscientific spin A sure way to spot pseudoscience is complete.

46 SKEPTICISM AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

 This approach would both emphasize That is, under what conditions are section to reporting on work outside of
the role of careful evaluation of treatment we likely to say someone is skeptical mainstream behavior analytic circles that
and eliminate the need for potentially or that they are behaving skeptically? nonetheless bears on behavioral research
heated discussion or argument about Conceivably, if some such conditions or practice. For example, recent articles
the merits of the dietary intervention. It are identified, then steps can be taken have appeared in Current Directions in
might even provide a nice bit of empirical to evaluate ways to teach a skeptical Psychological Science questioning the
evidence that could be shared through repertoire to students, professionals and validity of claims that there is an autism
conference presentations or scientific paraprofessionals, families, and behavior epidemic (Gernsbacher, Dawson, &
publication. But also be critical of your analysts alike. Some research does Goldsmith, 2005), and in the Proceedings
own practice and be wary of situations exist in this vein, though conducted of the National Academy of Sciences
such as that described earlier with the for different purposes. For example, a demonstrating that contingent, but
example of the on-task student and the recent article by McKenzie, Wixted, and not noncontingent, maternal attention
“wonders of modern behavioral science.” Noelle (2004) describes a method to shapes infant speech (Goldstein, King,
In short, be a model of skeptical behavior evaluate the skepticism of experimental & West, 2003). Behavior analysts
generally. Do you really know that the subjects about the possible answers might not review the contents of such
improvements you see are attributable provided in a forced-choice task. journals on a regular basis or at all and,
to your efforts? Even if they are, Though in the context of this particular consequently, are likely to overlook
which of your efforts are most critical? study skepticism was an undesirable research quite relevant to their interests.
Might any be omitted, thereby making characteristic, presumably such work also Additionally, workshops and
treatment easier or more efficient? could be used to identify conditions that symposia focusing on controversial
These are questions that can and should might be altered to enhance skepticism. therapies could be featured events for
be answered, not just by researchers, As a way to foster skeptical research continuing education at regional and
but by those engaged in the practice in and analysis by behavior analysts, national conferences. These workshops
question. Be a true scientist-practitioner. explicit solicitation of such papers for or symposia might not focus specifically
This aspect of applied behavior analysis behavior analytic journals is an obvious on behavior analytic techniques or
has long been championed as one of its move. The very journal you are reading theory, but could involve careful scientific
defining features (e.g., Baer et al., 1968); seems a particularly appropriate vehicle analysis of research and practice relevant
it is so described in virtually every for this work, but such articles would to behavior analysis. It seems only
textbook and so taught in virtually every also be at home in other outlets. One reasonable that steps be taken to ensure
training program. As a profession, are might publish a review of existing studies that professional behavior analysts keep
we living up to these ideals? I, for one, evaluating a controversial treatment abreast of developments in behavioral
am skeptical in the most literal sense. or summarizing the evidence-based science and practice, and not just
consensus for an effective intervention attend programs that rehash the same
Implications for in Behavior Analysis in Practice (BAP), old material originating from the same
Applied Behavior Analysis an experimental evaluation of a fad group of researchers and practitioners.
As a field, behavior analysis would therapy in the Journal of Applied
Organizational Position Statements
be well served to develop strategies to Behavior Analysis (JABA), or an analysis
influence the behavior of its constituents of the potential controlling variables for Many major scientific and
with respect to the issues discussed in skeptical or credulous verbal behavior professional organizations release
this paper. Any reasonable approach in The Analysis of Verbal Behavior or official position statements when some
to such influence will undoubtedly be The Behavior Analyst. Such work is not manner of ridiculousness relevant to
multi-faceted, and the actions suggested without precedent in behavior analytic their purposes comes to light. The
below constitute only some of the many journals (e.g., the excellent experimental American Academy of Pediatrics
possible strategies. evaluation of facilitated communication (AAP) issued a statement denying any
by Montee, Miltenberger, & Wittrock, demonstrated link between vaccines and
Promote Skeptical Research and
1995), but it is not common. autism, and the American Psychological
Scholarship
Association (APA) issued a resolution
Highlight Non-Behavior Analytic Work
As mentioned in the previous describing facilitated communication as
with Implications for Behavior Analysts
section, specific recommendations about unproven and unsupported by scientific
how to behave skeptically are lacking in In a manner similar to JABA’s evidence, to cite just two examples. Our
the published literature. As I assembled effort some years ago to highlight basic regional and national behavior analysis
the suggestions for this paper, I found behavioral research of potential interest organizations have been conspicuously
myself wanting a more comprehensive to applied behavior analysts, journals quiet on such matters, though they
functional analysis of skeptical behavior. such as JABA or BAP could devote a no less affect the research and practice

SKEPTICISM AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 47

 of their constituents than they do the diminished intensity of intervention? References
constituents of AAP or APA (indeed We cannot know for certain, but we have Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T.
there is at least some overlap among the reason to be concerned. At the very least, R. (1968). Some current dimensions
membership of all three organizations). we know that considerable benefit can of applied behavior analysis. Journal of
Clear position statements with at least result from early and intensive behavioral Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 91-97.
a summary analysis of why the position intervention and have no evidence that Barthelemy, C., Garreau, B., Leddet, I.,
is as it is could prove a useful guide to any benefit will result from the time and Ernouf, D., Muh, J. P., & LeLord,
parents and professionals alike. An money spent on the hyperbaric oxygen G. (1981). Behavioral and biological
improved interface with the media to therapy. If the use of such an unproven effects of oral magnesium, vitamin
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through the establishment of media it would be unwise to pursue them in Magnesium Bulletin, 3, 150-153.
sections on organizational websites non-research settings. Biklen, D. (1993). Notes on validation
to post current research summaries, Not only can precious time and studies of facilitated communication.
organized responses to pseudoscientific money be diverted away from useful Facilitated Communication Digest, 1, 4-6.
claims, etc., as well as the solicitation of and proven practices, but grave physical Dawkins, R. (1995). River out of Eden:
media coverage of national and regional harm also can result. Consider the A Darwinian view of life. New York:
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Progress is being made in this direction, complications from chelation therapy, a Goldsmith, H. H. 2005. Three reasons
with the Association for Behavior procedure intended to rid the blood of not to believe in an autism epidemic.
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Association for Behavior Analysis some to cause the symptoms of autism. Science,14, 55-58.
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professionals and taking these very steps. Colorado died from suffocation during M. J. (2003). Social interaction shapes
Hopefully, this is a sign of good things “rebirthing,” a form of attachment babbling: Testing parallels between
to come. therapy that involves wrapping the birdsong and speech. Proceedings of
patient in a sheet and requiring that they the National Academy of Sciences, 100,
Do No Harm
force their way free, in an attempt to 8030-8035.
Do no harm. It is the credo of the mimic childbirth so that the patient is Howard, J. S., Sparkman, C. R., Cohen,
helping professions. It is therefore a “reborn” (for a horrifying account of this H. G., Green, G., & Stanislaw, H.
credo for behavior analysts in practice. incident, see Mercer, Sarner, & Rosa, A. (2005). Comparison of intensive
Detection of and protection from 2003). behavior analytic and eclectic
pseudoscientific practices is an important Pseudoscience can and has produced treatments for young children with
service for those in need who have harm. Behavior analysts should do autism. Research in Developmental
limited abilities to detect such foolery more than avoid or ignore what they Disabilities, 26, 359-383.
themselves. Such need can arise when an consider to be non-behavior-analytic Jacobson, J. W., Foxx, R. M., & Mulick,
unproven therapy is used as an adjunct practices. They should take it upon J. A. (Eds.). (2005). Controversial
to a proven therapy and, as a result, the themselves to consider the scientific and therapies for developmental disabilities:
proven therapy is compromised in some pseudoscientific claims being made in Fad, fashion, and science in professional
way. For example, suppose that a couple their area of practice, become familiar practice. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
has been convinced that sessions in a with the evidence for and against Erlbaum Associates.
hyperbaric oxygen chamber will be of these claims, and consider carefully Jacobson, J. W., Mulick, J. A., & Schwartz,
great benefit to their young son recently any potentially harmful implications A. A. (1995). A history of facilitated
diagnosed with autism. Although of the claims should they be adopted communication. American Psychologist,
the parents have enrolled their son in as practice. When possible, they 50, 750-765.
an intensive behavioral intervention should take active roles in the careful Kurtz, P. (1996). CSICOP at twenty.
program in which he is making good experimental evaluation of their own Skeptical Inquirer, 20, 5-8.
progress, the hyperbaric oxygen therapy practices, emerging behavior analytic Lovaas, O. I. (1987). Behavioral treatment
requires them to travel out of state once a practices, as well as pseudoscientific and normal educational and intellectual
month for several days at a time. During claims. That is, they should be scientific functioning in young autistic children.
these travels, their son does not receive skeptics and informed behavior analytic Journal of Consulting and Clinical
any intensive behavioral intervention. practitioners. Psychology, 55, 3-9.
What harm might result from such a

48 SKEPTICISM AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

McKenzie, C. R. M., Wixted, J. T., & Park, R. (2000). Voodoo science: The road Author Note
Noelle, D. C. (2004). Explaining from foolishness to fraud. Oxford:
I would like to acknowledge the
purportedly irrational behavior University Press.
writings of Richard Dawkins, Carl
by modeling skepticism in task Rimland, B., Callaway, E., & Dreyfus,
Sagan, and Michael Shermer as primary
parameters: An example examining P. (1978). The effects of high doses
influences on the present paper.
confidence in forced-choice tasks. of vitamin B6 on autistic children: A
Wherever possible, I cite directly the
Journal of Experimental Psychology: double-blind crossover study. American
sources from which specific material is
Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30, Journal of Psychiatry, 135, 472-475.
drawn. However, the overall content
947-959. Sagan, C. (1996). The demon-haunted
of the paper cannot be meaningfully
Mercer, J., Sarner, L., & Rosa, L. (2003). world: Science as a candle in the dark.
disentangled from my extensive history
Attachment therapy on trial: The torture New York: Random House.
of reading the work of these three
and death of Candace Newmaker. Sallows, G. O., & Graupner, T. D.
authors. I also would like to acknowledge
Westport, CT: Praeger. (2005). Intensive behavioral treatment
the insightful comments of the reviewers
Montee, B. B., Miltenberger, R. G., & for children with autism: Four year
of this manuscript. Their comments
Wittrock, D. (1995). An experimental outcome predictors. American Journal
were especially useful and contributed to
analysis of facilitated communication. on Mental Retardation, 110, 417-438.
a greatly improved paper.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Shermer, M. (1997). Why people believe
Address correspondence to Matthew
28, 189-200. weird things. New York: MJF Books.
Normand, University of the Pacific,
Normand, M., & Dallery, J. (2007). Shook, G. L., Johnston, J. M., &
Department of Psychology, 3601 Pacific
Mercury rising: Exposing the vaccine- Mellichamp, F. H. (2004). Determining
Ave., Stockton, CA 95211. (E-mail:
autism myth. Skeptic, 13, 32-36. essential content for applied behavior
mnormand@pacific.edu.)
analyst practitioners. The Behavior
Analyst, 27, 67-94.

5th International Conference

August 7 – 10sOslo, Norway

ABA International’s international conferences promote behavior analysis outside the U.S.
and reach a broad population interested in behavior analysis. International delegations
help develop basic and applied behavior analysis in regions of the world where they are not
established and may require support.

We welcome you and all those interested in the philosophy, science, education, and teaching
of behavior analysis to join us in Oslo for an outstanding and educational conference!

Information pertaining to the 2009 international conference, taking place in Oslo, Norway,
is available on the ABA International Web site, at:

www.abainternational.org/oslo/index.asp

SKEPTICISM AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 49