Lectins

What Are Lectins?

Lectins are proteins that bind to specific carbohydrates. They are found in most plants, as
well as in humans, microorganisms, animals, and fish. Therefore, they are found in many of
the foods we eat. The most concentrated forms appear to be in edible seeds such as those
found in cereal grains and legumes. The edible seeds of the legume plant (Leguminosae) may
be referred to as pulses, legumes, dried beans, or beans.1 The term "bean" is used most often
by consumers and will be used in this review. Peanuts and soybeans are in the Leguminosae
family as well but will be referred to separately.
Lectin levels in plants and food crops can vary significantly depending on environmental
conditions such as drought and salinity. Lectin compounds may have evolved in plants as a
survival mechanism, reducing the chance the they will be consumed in large amounts.2

Lectins are considered the most widely studied

molecules in glycobiology. They are capable Glycobiology
of reversibly binding monosaccharides, Glycobiology is the comprehensive study
oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides (glycans), of carbohydrates/saccharides and the
including glycans found on cell walls or membranes. specific proteins such as lectins that
These interactions can be as specific as the binding recognize/bind them.3
of antibodies to antigens, or enzymes to target
substrates. They are capable of binding multiple For example,4
molecules/cells, creating a clump or mass. Due • Wheat germ agglutinin (WGA)
to their biological activity, some lectins may be binds to N-acetylglucosamine and
detrimental (occurring as toxins in raw foods while its glycosides
others may have anti-cancer effects or act as
mediators for targeted drug delivery.8 9 10 11 12 13 • Concanavalin A from jack beans
binds to mannose, glucose,
Potential functions of lectins:14 glycosides of mannose & glucose
• Carbohydrate transport • Peanut agglutinin binds to
• Specific cellular recognition galactose and galactosides
• Embryonic development
• Red kidney bean lectin binds to
• Cohesion N-acetylglucosamine
• Binding of carbohydrates
The Latin word legere, meaning to
Lectins initially drew the attention of researchers choose or select, is the basis for the word
because of their ability to bind or “agglutinate” red lectin.5
blood cells and were defined as “hemagglutinins”
though they are capable of binding a variety of cells. The term lectin in general refers to “all
Researchers noted that certain lectins would bind sugar-specific agglutinins of nonimmune
to one type of red blood cell (e.g. type A, B, AB, or origin, irrespective of source and blood
O) but not another depending on the saccharide type specificity.” 6
associated with the specific blood type.17 Lectins may bind several cells and create
In one study of 88 different foods, 29 foods were “clumps” or masses of cells that become
found to agglutinate either human erythrocytes or stuck together.7
bacteria commonly found on or in humans (e.g. S. mutans, S. Biological processes mediated
sanguis, S. aureus). The clinical significance of these activities by endogenous mammalian
has yet been well defined.18 Another study points out that lectins15
greater than one-third of beans tested was found to display
hemagglutinating activity. Of those displaying activity, ten • Cell-cell self recognition
percent exhibited blood type specificity.19 • Cell-extracellular matrix
(ECM) interactions
• Gamete fertilization
Lectins in the News
• Embryonic development
Dr. Peter D’Adamo’s Eat Right 4 Your Type ®, also known as • Cell growth, differentiation,
the “blood type diet” is based on the principle that certain signaling, adhesion, and
lectins bind to certain types of red blood cells.20 The premise migration
of this eating plan is still considered controversial due to lack
• Apoptosis
of clinical research (as of April 2018) though some individuals
may benefit from following such a plan.21 22 • Immunomodulation and
inflammation
Cardiologist Steven Gundry, MD, FACS, FACC addresses
• Host-pathogen interactions
dietary lectins in his 2017 book The Plant Paradox: The
Hidden Dangers in “Healthy” Foods That Cause Disease • Glycoprotein folding and
and Weight Gain23, linking them to a number of disorders routing
including obesity, cardiovascular disease, allergies, • Mitogenic induction
autoimmune disease, and cancer. The book provides specific • Homeostasis
lists of foods to include or avoid along with recipes, meal
plans, and modifications for ketogenic, vegetarian, and Immune-related functions of
vegan plans.24 Dr. Gundry has been conducting research lectins
into the effects of a low-lectin diet (combined with other
• Defense against invading
nutrition interventions) on risk of cardiometabolic disease,
pathogens
autoimmunity, and other disorders. 25 26 27 28 29 Practitioners
should watch closely for confirmation and conclusions that • Directly kill microorganisms
may come from that research. as part of innate immunity
• Aid dendritic cell and
A paleolithic or “paleo” eating plan also advocates eliminating
macrophage phagocytosis
lectin-containing foods.30
of invading pathogens
At this time, some nutrition experts suggest that the benefits • Direct and Indirect
of eating healthy foods that contain lectins outweigh involvement in adaptive
potential negative effects as long as adequate soaking, immunity
cooking, or processing is utilized to deactivate lectins.31 32
Anti-cancer properties of
Bean concentrates such as Phaseolus vulgaris from white lectins (under investigation)16
kidney bean have been commercially marketed as “starch-
blockers” and weight loss aides as they essentially induce In vitro, in vivo, and human case
“starch malabsorption.” 33 34 While some research suggests studies demonstrate that certain
they may have a role in weight management, a 2011 meta- lectins can
analysis finds the research available on “starch blockers” to • Bind to cancer cells
be inconclusive.35
• Agglutinate cancer cells
Ricin has been in the news when used in its purified form • Have cytotoxic effects in
to poison people. Ricin is a toxic lectin derived from castor cancer cells
seeds but is not considered a dietary source of lectins.36
The CDC emphasizes that “castor beans are processed • Inhibit tumor growth
throughout the world to make castor oil…it would take a • Trigger cell death
deliberate act to make ricin and use it to poison people.37 • Inhibit angiogenesis
Sources of Plant Lectins
Lectins are found in most plants including wheat, corn, tomato, peanut, kidney bean, banana,
pea, lentil, soybean, mushroom, rice, and potato.38 39 However, lectins are found in the greatest
concentration in raw beans and grains (especially wheat), followed by dairy, seafood, and plants in
the nightshade family (e.g. tomato, potato, eggplant, bell pepper).40 Wheat germ agglutinin (WGA) is
considered the most common food lectin consumed. 41
Lectins exist primarily in the raw forms of foods. Heating and cooking appears to degrade most
lectins, although pre-soaking beans is most effective at eliminating lectin activity. Dry heat or roasting
may not be as effective at deactivating lectins. 42 43 44 45 46

Lectins found in various parts of the plant have distinct biological activities. Some lectins have
strong anti-viral, anti-fungal, and anti-bacterial properties.47

Seeds Anticoagulant and antiplatelet properties; coagulant, mitogenic,

antibacteria, antifungal, and antitumor activities
Bark Antifungal and insecticidal activities
Heartwood Termiticidal activity
Stem Antiviral and apoptosis-inducing activities
Leaves Antiviral, antibacterial and antifungal activities
Fruits Mitogenic and antiviral activities
Roots Antifungal and termicidal activities
Tubers Insecticidal and antitumor activities
Bulbs Proteolytc activities
Rhizomes Antiproliferative, immuno-stimulatory, antiviral, antifungal,
antitumor and apoptosis-inducing activities

Reducing Lectin Content

Lectins may be deactivated using different methods including dry roasting, toasting, autoclaving,
microwaving, and infrared heat. However, lectins in some foods such as beans may be heat stable
and are best deactivated via aqueous heat. This method requires initial soaking in water for at least 8
hours followed by cooking in water at high heat (212’ Fahrenheit/100’ Celsius) for at least 10 minutes
or at 203’F/95’ Celsius for 60 minutes. This method may not be effective with other lectins such
as wheat germ agglutinin, gluten-associated lectins, and taro tuber lectins and further prolonged
heating may be required. Lectins may also be resistant to breakdown by digestive enzymes though
appropriate heat treatment may denature them enough to increase their digestibility. 48
Slow cooking may not get hot enough and may not deactivate kidney bean lectins. It is best to soak
kidney beans (and other legumes) for at least 5 hours, discard soaking water, and boil the beans for
at least 30 minutes.49
Sprouting or fermenting foods that are high in lectins in their raw state may also effectively reduce
lectin activity.50 Lectin content may be reduced by 59% by sprouting (e.g. soybeans)51 and may be
reduced by up to 95% by fermenting as is the case with tempeh, a fermented soybean food.52 History
suggests that traditionally prepared grains were first fermented or sprouted, in effect reducing their
lectin content.53
Recommend aqueous heat to deactivate or destroy legume bean lectins:
• Soak in water for at least 8 hours, up to 16 hours at 68’F/20’C, discard water
• Cook in water at high heat (212’ Fahrenheit/100’ Celsius) for at least 10 minutes or at
203’F/95’ Celsius for 60 minutes.
• Discard any beans that remain hard as lectins may not be adequately destroyed
Wheat germ agglutinin, gluten-associated lectins, and taro tuber lectins require prolonged heating
beyond that used for beans. 54
Cooking and processing appears to minimize or eliminate lectin content in wheat-based products as
well. Some products such as whole wheat pasta may be exposed to adequate heat during process
which may eliminate lectins completely.55
Lectins can be blocked by certain carbohydrates such as simple sugars or oligosaccharides such as
N-acetylglucosamine (blocks wheat lectin). 56 One animal study using the endogenous lectin galectin-1
downregulated the autoimmune response to beta cells and even reverse hyperglycemia in mice with
type 1 diabetes.57

Fig. 26-1.
Source: de Punder K, Pruimboom L. The dietary intake of wheat and other cereal grains and their role in inflammation.
Nutrients. 2013 Mar 12;5(3):771-87. doi:10.3390/nu5030771. Review. PubMed PMID: 23482055; PubMed Central PMCID:
PMC3705319. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3705319/ Creative Commons license https://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/3.0/
Interesting animal research demonstrated that beans although these foods weren’t found
co-administration of sucrose with raw kidney specifically to bind human erythrocytes. Lectins
bean lectin significantly reduced the lectin’s toxic in wheat germ, peanuts, and dry cereals do
effects including increased intestinal permeability appear to possess hemagglutinating activity.64
and bacterial translocation.58 Ongoing research
One study revealed that peanut lectin was
is exploring the potential benefit of administering
detected in blood samples after individuals
certain sugars and oligosaccharides concurrently
consumed either raw or roasted peanuts,
with lectin-containing foods to help deactivate
suggesting that digestive activity and heat
the lectin component.
by roasting do not always destroy lectins,
Supplementation with specific carbohydrates particularly those in peanuts.65 Cell research
may affect lectin activity as well. Commercial hypothesizes that circulating peanut agglutinin
dietary supplements have been formulated (PNA) may have the ability to mimic endogenous
with a variety of ingredients designed to either galactin-3 and promote cancer cell metastasis.
block lectin binding, enhance digestion, or help However, considering the study used high
support gastrointestinal microbiota. doses of PNA applied directly to cancer cells, the
research may not be relevant to humans, though
• N-Acetyl Glucosamine the premise does warrant further monitoring.66
• Bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus)
On the other hand, peanut agglutinin may play a
• Okra fruit role in detecting cancer cells through its binding
• D-Mannose capabilities. One study points out that PNA was
• Mucin found to bind to colon mucins (glycoprotein
constituents of mucus) in cancerous but not
• Sodium Alginate
normal cancer cells.67 It appears the tendency
• Pepsin of PNA to bind GI cancer cells is being employed
• Larch Arabinogalactans in the area of cancer diagnostics.68 Lectin
• Methylsulfonylmethane (MSM) histochemistry may also be used in a diagnostic
capacity to help reveal dysplastic changes in
• Vegetable Peptase gastric mucosa.69

Researchers focused on genetic

engineering have proposed Most research suggests that
transferring lectin genes into food lectins can be “deactivated” or
crops due to their insecticidal degraded by adequately cooking
properties. However, many and/or soaking and cooking foods
scientists warn against this high in lectins.70 Plant lectins are
practice due to potential negative found to be more resistant to
health effects on humans. 59 breakdown by heat and digestion
60 61 62
Unfortunately, scientists than animal-derived lectins.71
expressing concerns associated Concerns have been raised
with engineering lectins into foods regarding ingestion of lectins
have been professionally silenced because of their ability to bind
in the past.63 biological molecules that contain
carbohydrate moieties (e.g.
red blood cells, mucosal cells).
Lectins are not always deactivated or Because some lectins are resistant
degraded by heat or digestion. to breakdown, some researchers
recommend minimizing their
Lectins that appeared to resist proteolytic intake all together.72
digestion included those in wheat germ (wheat
germ agglutinin or WGA), tomatoes, and navy
What health benefits or concerns are associated with lectins?
Lectins in their active state have the potential to disrupt cell physiology and function and may be
referred to as “anti-nutrients.” They must be deactivated prior to consumption or degraded by
digestion to be consumed safely. Lectins may be endocytosed (engulfed) by gut epithelial cells which
may trigger detrimental effects due to their binding to the wall of the intestine.73 74
According to a toxicology review in the early 2000s, lectins in their active, binding state have the
potential to75
• Bind to membrane glycosyl groups of cells lining the digestive tract
• Affect turnover and loss of gut epithelial cells
• Damage the luminal membranes of the epithelium
• Interfere with nutrient digestion and absorption
• Stimulate shifts in GI bacterial flora
• Modulate the immune state of the digestive tract
• Systematically disrupt lipid, carbohydrate, and protein metabolism
• Promote enlargement and/or atrophy of key internal organs and tissues
• Alter hormonal and immunological status
• May threaten growth and health of animals consuming them in large amounts
• Are detrimental to numerous insect pests of crop plants
Remember these detrimental effects refer to active lectins that are not broken down or degraded.

Adverse Reactions to Lectins

It is still not clear exactly what the health risks of lectins in the food supply are or what their exact
effects on human cells may be.
Acute reactions to lectin consumption (e.g. undercooked kidney beans) include nausea, vomiting,
diarrhea, and general gastroenteritis. 76 77 78
Researchers propose that lectins interfere with repair mechanisms at the level of the gut epithelial
cells, leading to observed gastrointestinal symptoms.79
Potential gut-specific adverse effects of lectins if eaten in large quantities80 81 82 83
• Affect turnover and loss of epithelial cells
• Damage luminal membranes of the epithelium
• Interfere with digestive/absorptive activities
• Acute nausea, vomiting, diarrhea
• Stimulate shifts in bacterial flora
• Modulate the immune state of the digestive tract
• Interfere with gut hormone secretion
• Serve as potent growth factors for the small intestine (e.g. hyperplasia, hypertrophy)
• Some effects may be beneficial though human research is scarce
Some suspect that reported adverse reactions to foods in the nightshade family (e.g. tomatoes,
potatoes, eggplant, bell pepper) may be due to the presence of lectins. 84 85
Some research has extrapolated lectins’ affinity for specific carbohydrates to corresponding tissue,
suggesting the potential for related adverse reactions. 86
Lectins/Agglutinins with affinity to specific tissues.

Tissue Wheat Soybean Peanut Lentil Pea Lectin Bean

Germ Agglutinin Agglutinin Lectin Agglutinins
Agglutinin

Skin * * * * *

Buccal
* * * *
mucosa

Stomach *

Parietal cells * *

Intestinal
* * *
brush border
Colonic
* *
mucosa
Connective
* * * *
tissue

Thyroid * * * *

Cartilage * * *

Liver * * * *

Pancreas * *

Kidney * * *

Prostate * * *

Skeletal
* * * *
muscle
Cardiac
* *
muscle

Breast * * *

Pituitary *

Eye * * * * *

Brain (myelin) * * *

Fig. 26-2.
WGA, wheat germ agglutinin; SBA, soybean agglutinin; PNA, peanut agglutinin; LA, lentil agglutinin; MA, mushroom agglutinin;
TA, tomato agglutinin; PA, pea agglutinin; POT.A, potato agglutinin; KBA, kidney bean agglutinin; JBA, jack bean agglutinin.
Adapted from: Lambert J, Vojdani A (2017) Correlation of Tissue Antibodies and Food Immune Reactivity in Randomly Selected
Patient Specimens. J Clin Cell Immunol 8: 521. doi: 10.4172/2155-9899.1000521.
Lectins and Disease What does the science say? 
A causative link between dietary lectin Extensive, conclusive research is not yet
consumption and specific diseases has not available to determine the exact effects of
been established except for the known dietary lectins within the body and whether
toxicity caused by consuming uncooked or they cause chronic inflammation, autoimmune
undercooked kidney beans and possibly other disorders, gastrointestinal damage,
dried beans. cardiometabolic disease, or other chronic
diseases. Early research suggests that lectins
Potential concerns include87
may indeed influence these conditions if not
• Anemia completely deactivated or destroyed prior to
consumption.
• Autoimmune reactions
Research and observation in the 1990s notes
• Binding of erythrocytes and lymphocytes that wheat gliadin is a “lectin-like” substance
• Disruption of GI microbiota and its binding to GI mucosa may contribute to
celiac pathophysiology. Research also revealed
• Immune reactivity that wheat lectin binds to tissues in the human
• Individual susceptibility due to enzyme kidney (glomerular capillary walls, mesangial
deficiency (e.g. G6PD deficiency) cells, and tubules), and binds IgA antibodies
in rodents. Researchers surmise that human
• Inflammatory response IgA nephropathy may be linked to wheat lectin
and noted that elimination of wheat gluten in
• Intestinal damage with resulting nutrient
children with this disease resulted in a decrease
deficiencies
in proteinuria and immune complex levels.89
• Tissue binding and disruption
Current research published in 2017 suggests
Animal research has demonstrated that effects that plant lectins represent “danger molecules”
of lectin consumption on the small intestine and are capable of activating the NLRP3
and stomach included88 inflammasome, promoting inflammation and
mitochondrial damage. This evolving research
• Stripping of mucous coat
should help define any potential role that
• Overgrowth of abnormal bacteria and dietary lectins may play in disorders such as
protozoa inflammatory bowel disease, insulin-dependent
diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and food allergy,
• Increased release of gastric histamine intolerance, and sensitivity. 90
• Theoretical increased risk of H. pylori
infection

The innate immune system recognizes “danger molecules” and mounts an

inflammatory immune response to them via protein complexes known as
inflammasomes. The inflammasome is then responsible for the release of
proinflammatory cytokines which in turn may underlie common inflammatory
disorders including Alzheimer’s, arthritis, atherosclerosis, gout, and diabetes.
Developing research suggests ingestion of plant lectins may be a trigger for such
inflammatory diseases. 91
Increased Intestinal
Permeability
Research demonstrates
that WGA can increase
intestinal permeability.92 Fig. 9-5. Intestinal
Researchers theorize that Permeability
an increase in intestinal artist’s rendition
artist: Thomas
permeability will increase
Sexton
passage of potentially Thomas.d.sexton@
harmful compounds such gmail.com
as bacterial toxins or lectins Note increased
themselves may trigger passage of
elements when
systemic inflammation and
tight junctions are
other adverse effects. compromised

Autoimmunity
Some researchers suggest that the cascade of events following increased intestinal permeability may
be directly related to autoimmune disorders if harmful antibodies are formed and react or cross
react with tissues in the body.93 Increased intestinal permeability caused by WGA may contribute to
the pathophysiology of celiac disease. It was observed that celiac patients had higher antibodies to
WGA than healthy individuals did. 94
The proposed link between lectins
and autoimmune reactions may lie in
stimulation of class II HLA antigens in
tissues such as thyroid and pancreatic
islet cells. Research suggests that
cytotoxic antibodies associated with
insulin-dependent diabetes bind a
disaccharide (N-acetyl lactosamine) that
also binds tomato, potato, wheat, and
peanut lectins, possibly contributing to
autoimmune attack of the islet cells.95
A link to rheumatoid arthritis may be
related to an abnormal IgG molecule
that exposes N-acetylglucosamine to
which certain lectins can bind (e.g.
wheat lectin). Indeed, wheat ingestion
appears to be a trigger for some with
rheumatoid arthritis. Provision of
exogenous N-acetylglucosamine may
help to block lectin interaction and
reduce symptoms. 96
Individual differences may determine
Fig. 26-3. Source: Lambert, J, & Vojdani, A. (2017). Correlation of whether exposure to lectins leads to
tissue Antibodies and Food Immune Reactivity in Random Selected adverse effects. 97 For example, lectins
Patient Specimens. Journal of Clinical & Cellular Immunology, 8(5). may only affect and cause rheumatoid
doi:10.4172/2155-9899.1000521. http://pdfs.semanticscholar. symptoms in those with a genetic
org/49a3/897ed9b091a34156b14c8b108cd9af31a4e.pdf Creative
Commons License
propensity for rheumatoid arthritis.98
Dr. Gundry Research Abstracts99 100 101 102 new event rate per 5-year period in patients
103 following standard treatment protocols (low-
fat/cholesterol diet, exercise, lipid-lowering
Some of the most intriguing human subjects medications). Patients on the study protocol
research on lectins appears to be done by were followed for an average of 4.5 years
cardiologist Dr. Steven R. Gundry who has during which only 0.5% received a new stent;
conducted trials and published abstracts in no patients had an MI or unstable angina, and
various cardiology journals. Although the study Corus® scores decreased significantly in 92% of
protocols incorporated different variables patients. (Corus measures likelihood of having
including specific nutritional supplementation, obstructive coronary artery disease.)105
incorporation of anti-inflammatory foods, and
provision of pre- and probiotics, Dr. Gundry Frequently Asked Questions
emphasizes that restriction of lectins is a
cornerstone underlying observed benefits. Should everyone avoid lectins?

One study looked at the premise that It is certainly important to avoid lectins in their
autoimmunity is related to dysbiosis, increased active form (mostly in the raw form of foods
intestinal permeability, and lectin exposure. that are naturally high in lectins). However, the
The study included 102 patients with markers question of whether it’s detrimental to consume
of epithelial inflammation, autoimmune disease those foods after they have been soaked,
activity, and signs/symptoms of autoimmune cooked, or processed would depend on if lectins
diseases including inflammatory bowel disease, were adequately deactivated or destroyed. It
rheumatoid arthritis, Sjogren’s, and scleroderma. is possible that some individuals may be more
Biomarkers included adiponectin, hs-CRP, TNF- sensitive to lectins or more prone to negative
alpha, IL-6, fibrinogen, and myeloperoxidase. effects from their inadvertent ingestion.

The study protocol eliminated major dietary Who would benefit from a low-lectin diet?
lectins (all grains, pseudo grains, beans/ Even though cooking and processing is found
legumes, peanuts, cashews, nightshades, to destroy/deactivate most lectins, a low-lectin
squashes, and casein A1 cow’s milk products) trial should remove those foods naturally high in
and supplemented with prebiotics, probiotics, lectins to avoid unintentional ingestion.
and polyphenols. Within 9 months, autoimmune
and inflammatory markers were completely A low-lectin approach would ideally eliminate
resolved in 95 of 102 patients and demonstrated those foods highest in lectins during the trial
improvement in biomarkers in the remaining 7 phase as it would be nearly impossible to avoid
patients.104 all lectins in all foods. Individuals suspected of
being sensitive to lectins may be able to tolerate
Another study looked at implementation of a incorporation of those foods once they have
lectin-restricted diet combined with targeted been treated adequately with soaking, boiling,
nutrition supplementation in 800 patients fermenting, or sprouting.
with known coronary artery disease. The study
protocol included restriction of high-lectin Can we remove lectins from the foods we eat?
foods (grains, legumes/beans, nightshades, Foods that contain lectins in their raw state can
seeded vegetables, casein A1 milk), fruits, and still be considered healthy foods as long as they
commercial poultry. Patients with an Apo E are heated, fermented, or processed enough
genotype were instructed to eliminate animal to remove potentially harmful lectins. Nutrition
fats and cheeses. Intake was supplemented professionals give the “go ahead” on these
with one liter/week of olive oil, large amounts of commonly consumed foods (as long as lectins
green vegetables, polyphenol-rich coffee or tea, are adequately eliminated):106
1 ounce/day dark chocolate, 4000 mg high DHA
fish oil, 200 mg grape seed extract, and 25 mg • Peanuts (difficult to eliminate lectins but
pycnogenol daily. health benefits believed to outweigh lectin
risk)
Results were compared to an average 30-40%
 • Potatoes (although up to 50% of lectins Do lectins definitively cause disease?
may remain following heating, no definitive
The question of whether lectins cause disease
research demonstrates negative effects
in humans continues to be researched and
from consuming potato lectins)
debated. Unfortunately, there are no large
• Red kidney beans and other dried beans scale clinical trials to fully answer that question.
(thoroughly soaked and cooked) Researchers are proposing a variety of
hypotheses related to the effects of lectins at the
• Soybeans (must be fermented (e.g. soy
cellular and tissue level.
sauce, miso, tempeh), sprouted, or boiled at
212’F for at least 10 minutes) The Bottom Line
• Tomatoes It can be hard to sort through what is conclusive
• Wheat/wheat germ (adequately cooked research and what is hyperbole when it comes
at 149’F or above during cooking or to what effects lectins may have on human
processing) physiology.

Is there testing available for lectin sensitivity? In general, it is accepted that lectins in their
active form can bind carbohydrate moieties
Though there are no specific tests for lectin on human cells and cause agglutination. It is
sensitivity, eliminating and then reintroducing also accepted that if lectins are degraded or
foods highest in lectins may help determine if an deactivated (proper cooking or via digestion)
individual is sensitive. Testing immune reactions they will not be able to cause adverse reactions.
to foods that contain lectins may also help
narrow down which foods an individual may truly Until further research is done to specifically
be sensitive to. demonstrate that ingestion of dietary lectins
definitively causes inflammation, autoimmunity,
Do all healthcare practitioners agree on the or gastrointestinal damage, individual sensitivity
effects of lectins on the body? to lectins may need to be explored on a trial/
challenge basis.
Here we have more confusion as not all nutrition
professionals or healthcare practitioners agree Small amounts of lectins may be tolerated by
on the role that lectins may play in health and some individuals. However, it is prudent to soak,
disease. Some physicians such as Steven Gundry heat, or treat high-lectin foods adequately to
M.D. express concerns and feel confident that minimize lectin activity. Using a pressure cooker
lectins in foods are associated with an increased may also reduce lectin activity.
risk of disease and should be eliminated by
most. At the opposite end of the spectrum, Individuals who do suffer from chronic
Michael Greger, M.D., refutes and actually inflammation, gastrointestinal disorders,
dismisses Dr. Gundry’s premise. Dr. Greger or autoimmune disease may benefit from
emphasizes that a number of studies associate elimination of foods high in lectins. A controlled
consumption of foods such as dried beans reintroduction should help determine if lectin-
and whole grains with a lower risk of chronic containing foods trigger symptoms.
disease.107 (Note that dried beans and grains It is important to note that many individuals
are always consumed cooked so lectin levels in consume grains and legumes (high lectin foods)
these studies are likely low.) on a regular basis (e.g. the Mediterranean diet)
and don’t appear to suffer detrimental effects.
What questions remain? However, dried beans are most often soaked
Do well-cooked foods still contain lectins? and boiled and grains are usually consumed
after cooking at fairly high temperature so
There appears to be a possibility that some it’s possible that lectin levels are reduced in
lectins resist heating and digestion and may those foods. Individual sensitivity to lectins may
enter the bloodstream. It is unclear whether this depend on genetic makeup or other biochemical
level of lectin exposure poses any health risks or physiological differences.
 Takeaways
It is essential that high-lectin foods are soaked, Eliminate (in general)108
cooked, heated or processed adequately to
• Foods in the Leguminosae family (e.g.
eliminate or minimize lectin activity.
dried beans, peanuts, soybeans)
Consider trial of supplements when consuming
• Nightshade family foods (e.g. eggplant,
lectin-containing foods:
potatoes, tomatoes, bell peppers)
• N-Acetyl Glucosamine
• Grains, especially wheat and wheat germ
• Bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus)
• Okra fruit • Dairy products (A2 milk may theoretically
be tolerated)
• D-Mannose
• Mucin Ensure adequate fiber intake while following a
• Sodium Alginate low-lectin plan by incorporating an abundance
of low-lectin vegetables and fruits. A psyllium
• Pepsin supplement may be beneficial.
• Larch Arabinogalactans
The most detailed (and restrictive) guides and
• Methylsulfonylmethane (MSM)
shopping lists for a low-lectin plan appear to
• Vegetable Peptase be from Dr. Gundry and can be accessed at
Trial elimination of high-lectin foods may be GundryMD.com including
most beneficial for 3-day “Kick Start” plan https://gundrymd.com/
• Individuals reporting adverse or negative plant-paradox-cleanse/
effects when they eat foods high in lectins Shopping list https://gundrymd.com/plant-
• Food sensitivities paradox-shopping-list/
• Gastrointestinal disorders
PDF of shopping list: https://gundrymd.com/
• Increased intestinal permeability wp-content/pdf/Plant-Paradox-Shopping-LIst.
• Rheumatoid arthritis pdf
• Autoimmune disorders
• Celiac disease

Foundational Resources
de Punder K, Pruimboom L. The dietary intake of wheat and other cereal grains and their role in inflammation.
Nutrients. 2013 Mar 12;5(3):771-87. doi:10.3390/nu5030771. Review. PubMed PMID: 23482055; PubMed Central
PMCID: PMC3705319. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3705319/ Creative Commons license https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Ghazarian H, Idoni B, Oppenheimer SB. A glycobiology review: carbohydrates, lectins and implications in cancer
therapeutics. Acta Histochem. 2011 May;113(3):236-47. doi: 10.1016/j.acthis.2010.02.004. Epub 2010 Mar 2. Review.
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Nasi A, Picariello G, Ferranti P. Proteomic approaches to study structure, functions and toxicity of legume seeds lectins.
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properties_and_potential_applications/links/57993d6b08ae33e89fb0c714/Lectins-Function-structure-biological-
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