History Paper 1:

Move to Global War in the Pacific

The Move to Global War Second Edition by Allan

Todd

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Background Terminology
Kwantung Army = most important group within imperial japanese army
● After russo-jap war 1904/05 → army established a Kwantung Garrison in Manchuria 1906
● In 1919 - this was reorganized into the Kwantung army
● Kwantung = very nationalistic
● Many officers members of ‘imperial way faction’ → advocated for expansionism
● During 1920s/30s → officers ignored instruction from Jap. gov + army general staff
● Officers were increasingly

Meiji Restoration = return of emperor’s political rule

● Took place in 1868 - after end of shogunate period (when power was w/ military leader)
○ Over centuries- shogun had been various leaders of military feudal clans
○ In 13th century - shoguns had taken most of power from the emperor

Taisho Democracy = Period between 1912 - 26 → many attempts at creating more democratic/liberal
political framework
● Meiji Constitution drawn up in 1889, enforced 1890 - gave lots of power to emp.
○ (supreme command of military)
● New Taisho period - emperor was ill → power shifted from statesmen (genro) to the
parliament (diet) + Japan’s 2 main democratic parties
● Main achievement of Taisho democracy: universal democracy 1925
● Jap. gov tried to control military during this period … (limited success)
● When Taisho emperor died, succeeded by Hirohito
○ Jap. saw shift from democracy → ultra-nationalism/militarism
● Hirohito years 1926-1989 = Showa era ‘period of japanese glory’

Zaibatsu = large industrial companies very powerful in interwar period

● Close family ties w/ military officers

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Ch 2: Causes of Japanese Expansion

Timeline
1853 - July: US commodore Perry arrives in Japan
1854 - March: Treaty of Kanagawa w/ US
1868 - Jan: Meiji Restoration, April: Five Articles
1894 - August: First Sino-Japanese War begins
1895 - April: Treaty of Shimonoseki w/ China; Triple intervention
1902 - January: Anglo-Japanese alliance
1904 - February: Start of Russo-Japanese war
1905 - August: Treaty of Portsmouth (USA)
1911 - October: ‘Double Tenth’ revolution in China
1915 - January: ‘Twenty one Demands’ presented to China
1916 - June: death of Yuan Shikai in China
1919 - May: May Fourth Movement protests in China
1921 - November: Start of the Washington Conference
1926 - July: Start of the northern campaign in China
1927 - April: Shanghai Massacre ends first United front in China
1929 - October: Wall Street Crash in the US begins Great Depression
1930 - November: assassination attempt on prime minister Hamaguchi
1931 - September: Japan starts invasion of Manchuria
1932 - May: Assassination of prime minister Inukai
1933 - February: Japan leaves the League of Nations
1936 - December: Second United Front in China
1937 - July: Japan invades China

Overview
● In 1854/58 → USA had forced Japanese rulers to sign treaties which ended Japan’s policy of
seclusion (had lasted for 200 yrs)
○ Treaties were designed to open Japan to US trade
● Mid 19th century - nationalism became increasingly important in Japanese politics
○ directed against Western powers (Br, Fr, Ned, who already had colonies in Asia)
● In 19th century, tensions w/ Tsarist Russia + US developed as a result
○ (since both states also wished to expand their influence in Asia)
● 1876 - Jap forced korea to sign Japan-Korea treaty, forcing Korea to open up to Jap. products
○ This was Japan’s first attempt to counter Russian aims in Korea
● 1905 → Japan declared Korea to be a Jap. ‘protectorate’
● 1910 → Japan formally annexed Korea
○ By occupying Korea, Japan was in a better position to expand into China
● Late 19th century, many nationalist groups formed in Japan → they all pushed for expansion
into mainland Asia
○ As samurai tradition stressed, militarism grew
● Military leaders pressed gov. to pursue aggressive foreign policy
○ Great depression increased these pressures, as it limited Japan’s long-term problems
of limited raw materials + rising population
● Jap. expansionists tried to exploit Chinese political instability of 1920s/30s
● 1931 onwards, Japan launched series of mil. Campaigns → initially highly successful
● Referred to as ‘Fifteen-Year War’ or ‘The Greater Asia War’
○ Seen as a part of the second World War (some argue war in pacific started in 1931)

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2.1 How Significant was the Impact of Nationalism
and Militarism on Japan’s Foreign Policy?

Japanese Nationalism before 1900

Seclusion and Early Nationalism

● Before 1867, Jap = strictly-segregated feudal society (like european middle-ages)
○ This feudal structure lasted very long - due to seclusion
● Power rested w/ landowning clans
● 1600 - 1867 → Jap. ruled by Tokugawa clan (largest samurai clan)
○ Head of dominant samurai clan = ‘shogun’ + commanding general of army
○ Tokugawa established national unity + followed policy of seclusion
■ (based on underlying belief of superiority of Japanese culture + concern of
the growing influence of Western powers in Asia in the 19th century)
● Last Shogun = Tokugawa Yoshinobu
○ Attempted to modernize/strengthen Japan’s gov
○ Failed to keep foreign states from increasing contact w/ Japan
○ ^ both led to rise of opposition from other clans
■ They feared that reforms would transfer emperor’s powers to the shogun
○ ‘Sunno joi’ force = opposition force formed
● Tokugawa Yoshinobu resigned → power returned to emperor
● Internal power struggle broke out (Boshin War) 1867

Japan and the US

● Br. had sent a mission to Jap in 1818
● USA also interested in extending interests in Japan + securing trade relations
● 1837/1846 → USA attempted to send ships in form of gunboat diplomacy
○ but beaten off by Japanese ships
● 8 July 1853 - Commodore Perry arrived w/ 4 warships
○ He wanted to re-request commercial agreements between US/Jap
○ ‘Promised’ to return w/ more warships the following year to receive Japan’s response
● Despite some jap. leaders in favor of national resistance … Tokugawa shogunate agreed to
Treaty of Kanagawa in March 1854
○ This opened two of Japan’s ports to US trade + granted US position as ‘most favored
nation’
● Japan’s 200 yr old policy of seclusion was ended
○ Led to Japan’s rapid emergence as important regional/intl. power
● US followed 1854 treaty w. Other treaties
○ 1858 → Japan signed Treaty of Amity and Commerce w/ USA (opposed by imperial
court who were dominated by nationalists + wanted to continue seclusion)

Meiji Restoration 1868

● All treaties signed w/ West were done w/out emperor’s consent
● Pro-imperial and anti-Western factions formed + caused havoc
● Shishi = advocates for resistance, prepared to die/kill for their cause
● Yoshida Shoin → important Shishi leader
○ Member of feudal clan Choshu
○ Wanted feudal system to transform to establish greater national unity so that Jap.
could resist growing power of the West
○ Argued that existing gov. = ‘incapable’ of expelling Western ‘barbarians’

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 ○ His anti-gov activities led to his execution in 1859
● Feelings of resentment at Western interference continued to grow
● Choshu clan leaders able to persuade emp. to adopt an anti-Western policy + gov agreed to
new seclusion policy
● Western vessels were attacked… but they retaliated
○ This persuaded Choshu that they needed to modernise their armies
○ Also caused gov. to reconsider allegiance to anti-western groups such as Choshu
● Fighting commenced in 1860s
○ Satsuma clan switched support from the gov to the Choshu
● 1866 emperor died + replaced by emperor Meiji (15 yrs old)
○ Meiji came under influence of those who opposed the gov.
● Threat of civil war persuaded shogun in 1867 to restore political authority to emperor
○ Tokugawa Shogunate had been overthrown (he had failed to keep westerners out,
therefore Satsuma and Choshu clans were victorious when the Meiji emperor came
to power - as the old societal ways were restored)
● 1868 - Emperor established imperial court in Edo (renamed Tokyo)
● After 1868, imperial system continued → main goal = keep West out (unlike other nations who
had come under control of them)
○ Policy = ‘fukoku kyohei’ (enrich the country, strengthen the military)
○ KEY idea → if japan wanted to prosper, strong military needed

Cultural Nationalism
● End of 17th century onwards → education based on nationalistic + pro-imperial principles
● Education rejected Chinese confucianism → turned to Shintoism
○ Japan created by Sun Goddess
○ Emperor = living god ← official state belief after Meiji Restoration
● Pro-emperor nationalism taught to all students until WWII
● Early years of Meiji Restoration - modernization took place so that Japan could resist the
West + to make japan more powerful
● 1880s saw resurgence of ‘cultural nationalism’ against Westernization
○ Directed against liberal principles eg: democracy + parliamentary gov. Which had
dominated Japanese education since the 1870s
● Gov. took control of printing school textbooks
○ Stress on patriotism/loyalty etc.
● One key traditionalist = Motoda Eifu (1818-91), emperor’s tutors
○ Helped in drafting the imperial rescript on education in 1890
■ Attempted to foster state nationalism
■ Stressed incompatibility between E + W values
● Individuals also attempted to create nationalism
○ People revived aspects of japanese culture (eg: Shintoism + emperor worship +
samurai tradition)
● Some didn’t reject all aspects of Westernization … they liked Western tech/culture
● Cultural nationalist Tokutomi Soho → opposed political nationalism, but wanted Jap. to follow
peaceful foreign policies
● Many became strong nationalists after Triple Intervention April 1895 (including Soho)
○ Intervention saw Western forces forcing Jap. to give up concessions gained in Sino-
Jap war of 1894/95
■ Soho became strong supporter of militarism/imperial conquest
● Under Emperor Taisho (1912 - 26) Jap. was briefly more liberal / accepting of Western values
○ Came to an end in 30s, when Japan became ultra-nationalistic

Nationalism and Modernisation

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 ● Arrival of Western powers ended the shogunate
● Increasing Western influence led to rise of nationalism
● After 1868 - Japan’s new rulers keen to adopt Western science + tech to make Japan
powerful
● April 1868 - Charter Oath
○ Article five: Japan would seek knowledge throughout the world
● Creation of modern army = priority
● Conscription for new army introduced 1873
○ Training based on Prussian army (who had won the prussian war 1870-71)
● Before 1868, Japan had no navy
● 1875 - warships purchased from Britain (hence Jap navy based on British navy)

Nationalism and Imperialist expansion 1894-1914

● Meiji restoration = result of increasing nationalist resentment of the West + ‘unequal treaties’
imposed on Japan
● However… Japan soon developed ‘imperialist designs’ of its own, first w/ Korea

The First Sino-Japanese War, 1894-95

● 1876 - Japan forced Korea to establish diplomatic relations + made them agree to ‘unequal
treaty’ which gave special rights to Japs. in Korea
○ Led to nationalist protests in Korea
● Japan + China exploited turmoil by sending troops
● Hostilities w/ Jap + China avoided by Li-Ito convention 1855 (agreed both could send troops)
○ Despite this… rivalry eventually led to first Sin0-Jap war
● Jap army/navy defeated China (due to modernisation)
○ China sought peace in 1895
○ Treaty of Shimonoseki April 1895, resulted in Chinese rec. Of Korean independence
+ gave Japan numerous territories (incl. Formosa/aka Taiwan)
○ China also signed commercial treaty w/ Japan
○ China granted manufacturing rights to Jap firms in China
● War ‘engendered’ (strengthened) nationalistic sentiments
○ (even previous liberals began advocated for continuation of imperialism/militarism)
● Tsarist Russia joined w/ France + Ger. to persuade Jap to give up mainland gains in China
○ Triple intervention forced Jap to give up Liaodong peninsula (in return for financial
comp.)
○ This only strengthened nationalistic feelings even more
● Jap. foreign policy became more aggressive + nationalistic
● Jap. military began preparing for military conflict w/ Russia

The Russo-Japanese War 1904-05

● Russia + Jap both wanted to increase influence in Korea
● After 1895 - Jap had increased econ. Interests in Korea (railways, dev. Timber industry in Yalu
River region)
● Russia had similar plans… convinced China in 1896 to lease Liaodong peninsula for 20 yrs
○ Japan FURIOUS (had just been forced to give this up by triple intervention)
● Russia gained right to build South Manchurian Railway (to link Chinese Eastern Railway to
Port Arthur) - wanted access through Korea to oppose Japan’s growing influence
● Boxer Rebellion in 1900 = excuse for Russia to send troops to Manchuria
○ After defeat of rebellion, russian troops remained
○ As a result… Jap signed Anglo-Jap alliance w/ Br. in Jan 1902
● Jap proposal to have Russia acknowledge Japanese interests failed
● After 1904 naval ‘skirmish’, Japan declared war on Russia
● Japan’s military + naval forces = superior
● 1905 - Russia accepted US offer to mediate a peace

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 ● 1905 - Treaty of Portsmouth
○ Russia recognized Japan’s special interests in Korea
○ Japan got Southern half of Sakhalin Island, Russian part of Liaodong Peninsula +
South Manchurian Railway
● However… gains were not as good as Japanese public had expected
○ Caused many protests by extreme nationalists
● Japan’s win made Japan a major military power in the East
○ Now had significant control over Manchuria
○ By 1905 Br. + US recognized Japan’s interests in Korea
■ In return… Japan promised not to interfere w/ US protectorate of phillippines
● 1905 - Korea declared Japanese protectorate
● 1910 - Korea formally annexed by Japan + became part of Japanese empire

WWI and Japanese Nationalism

● WWI led to increased nationalism
● Anglo-Jap alliance of 1902 renewed in 1905
● Japan entered war on the side of Triple Entente
● Main war aim of Japan = take over German concessions in China
● Japan eventually gained German holdings in Shandong peninsula + harbour of Jiazhou

The Twenty-One Demands

● Jan 1915 - Japan SECRETLY presented China w/ 21 demands (or Grievances)
● Demands:
○ Germany’s concessions be transferred to Japan
○ China should recognize Japanese interests in various areas (incl. S. manchuria)
○ Japan shd/ gain influence over aspects of Chinese political/financial/military affairs
■ China should accept Japanese ‘advisors’ in its gov.
● 21 demands opposed by US (US wanted to dev. its own interests in China)
● Japan forced to withdraw contentious terms, then China signed
● US also concerned that Japan had sent 72,000 troops to help oppose Bolsheviks in 1917
○ Troops remained until 1922
○ Japan’s slowness to withdraw showed that Japan intent on expanding even more
● Japan eventually recognized communist gov in Russia in 1925

The ‘Mutilated Victory’

● Japan was on allied side in WWI
● Disappointed w/ 1919/20 peace settlements
● Woodrow Wilson had tried to pressurize Japan at Paris to give up occupation of Jiaozhou and
Shandong peninsula
○ Eventually wilson was forced to recognize Jap. conquest of these areas
○ (criticism over this was partly why US refused to ratify Versailles)
● Japan’s control of German concessions in Shandong + Pacific islands was approved
● But… didn’t get everything it had wanted
○ Didn’t get ‘outright ownership’ of German colonies
● Japanese nationalists believed they had not been fairly treated
● (Italy also felt like it had been unfairly treated - Treaty of London never ratified)
● By 1939 - ‘disappointed losers’ - Japan + Italy - had joined w/ Ger. over treaties (axis powers)

Racism and Nationalism

● At 1919 Paris Peace Conf, Japan proposed ‘racial equality’ clause as part of covenant of the
League of Nations
○ Blocked by US + Britain

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 ● Refusal heavily reported in Japanese media → increased nationalistic feelings + made Japan
not want to coop w/ Western powers

Japanese militarism
● Many people in Japan had pride, based on ‘fact’ that ‘Sun goddess’ had selected Japan as
the ‘chosen land’
● Nationalism also associated w/ militarism

The Samurai Legacy

● Military had lots of prestige in Japanese society
● This was a result of the samurai legacy pre-1868
● The military continuously adapted/developed samurai legacy + bushido code to obtain the
general public’s support for expansionist aims

Militarism and Politics after WWI

● During 1920s - militarism increased (esp. after great depression)
● Militarism became associated w/ territorial expansionism
○ Expansion = key to solving internal problems + to making Japan a world power
● In Showa Japan ( 1926-89) - bushido used by military commanders to make soldiers believe
that death was their duty
○ These beliefs resulted in kamikaze suicide missions at the end of war
● In 1920s - a more hardline class of officers emerged
○ They influenced foreign policy - by acting w/out consent of civilian politicians
○ Many officers convinced that Japan had been unfairly treated after WWI
○ As great depression hit - these officers became convinced that to survive, Japan must
expand + gain raw materials + new markets for Japanese goods
● By 1930s - overpopulation + lack of raw materials = Japan’s main social/econ issues
● Worldwide restrictions on Japanese immigration + goods were contributing to social/econ
issues
○ Led to growth of support of expansionist policies

Developments in the 1920s and 30s

● Although Meiji restoration 1868 onwards saw the emperor regain control from the shogunate,
the emperor was strongly influenced by leaders of the Satsuma-Choshu clans
● After WWI - militarism + nationalism became connected

The Nationalist Groups after 1918

● Main leaders of new nationalist groups = Toyama Mitsuru, Inoue Nissho, and Okawa Shumei
● 1923 - large earthquake hit Japan → caused massive fire in Tokyo, where 100,000 people
died
○ False rumors spread that Koreans had started the fire
○ Led to Mob attacks in which 100+ Koreans killed
● Minister of Justice set up ‘Koku Honsha’ 1924 - to strengthen national spirit
○ In reality… an extreme nationalist movement inspired by Mussolini’s fascism
○ Aimed to destroy liberalism, individualism, and party politics
● 1927 - General Tanaka Giichi became PM
○ He was sympathetic to right-wing militant nationalists
○ Military became increasingly influential
○ Moves toward liberalism/democracy ended

The Washington Conference

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 ● Nationalism + militarism grew as result of Westerners attempting to limit expansion of
Japanese Navy
● 1921-22 main powers agreed to naval arms limitations
● Early 1930s: powers met in London to discuss reductions in warships
● Japan’s gov agreed to 10:10:6 US: Britain: Japan ratio in heavy cruisers, and 10:10:7 ratio in
destroyers
● Japan maintained an equal amount of submarines w/ USA
● Japan’s naval leaders opposed to agreement on heavy cruisers → they wanted 10:10:7, not
10:10:6
● The gov. was attacked by Seiyukai party - they didn’t believe gov. had the right to overrule
naval general staff on matters of defense
○ Argued that supreme command was independent of the gov
● Same types of arguments used by militarists/nationalists vs. civilian govs in the 1930s
● Naval leaders who had signed London treaty → became assassination targets + so did the
PM (got wounded then died)
● All govs. Which followed were at risk of assassination from nationalist groups

Nationalism, militarism, and the Great Depression

● After depression - nationalists/militarists increasingly demanded for Jap. expansion on
Mainland Asia (similar to German nationalists after WWI)
○ They wanted Japan to end its dependence on Western powers (eg: USA)
○ Wanted Japan to be self-sufficient
● Key Civilian Nationalist who favored expansion: Ikezaki Tadataka
● However… individuals expansionist aims were not enough to bring Japan into war
● ONLY POSSIBLE because of the depression + the fact that Japan’s military leaders became
prepared to act on the expansionist views they developed
● 1920s - these expansionist views had been adopted by many army officers (incl. those in the
Kwantung army in Manchuria)
○ These officers in Manchuria believed that Jiang Jieshi + Chinese might be able to
create a strong unified gov. In China → who would then resist Japanese expansion
● Late 20s onwards → young military officers organised nationalistic political circles
○ This was largely a result of their opposition to disarmament policies of the
Washington conf.
○ Others were angered by lack of help given to poor during the depression
■ (motive for assassination of PM Inukai 1932)
● Many believed Japan had deteriorated since the death of Yamagata 1922 - as the influence of
military in politics had declined
● One group = Issekikai, formed in 1929 by middle level officers
○ (Some of them, eg: Tojo Hideki) became national leaders in 1930s
● Another group = Sakurakai, formed in 1930 to overthrow civilian gov. + establish military
dictatorship + restore traditional Japanese ‘spiritual values’
○ (they feared that since the navy had been reduced, the army would be next)
○ One spiritual value = that Japan was superior
● Civilian ultra-nationalists also wanted to expand + later supported a military gov. They
became increasingly opposed to the West, liberalism, democracy, etc.
○ All this opposed ‘Japanism’
● One academic said that Emperor was not above the state
○ He was dismissed from the University of Tokyo in 1935 + later assasinated
○ Anger at this academic idea’s led to ultra-nationalist protests
○ Gov. forced to issue ‘fundamentals of our national polity’ → this reasserted that the
emperor was a descendant of the Sun Goddess (in addition to re-stressing loyalty,

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patriotism, and martial spirit + stated that all undesirable thought/movements caused
by the West)
■ These were the same beliefs that formed Italian Fascism + German nazism

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2.2 What impact did Japan’s main domestic issues
have on foreign policy?
Japan’s economy 1868 - 1929

The Meiji Restoration

● After meiji restoration → industrialization increased (due to slogan: ‘Enrich the country,
strengthen the military’
● Japan wanted a strong economy so that they wouldn’t get ‘bullied’ by the West
● Industrialisation/Modernisation proved successful when Jap. won the Russo-Jap war 1904-05
● Despite rapid modernisation after 1968 → Japan faced domestic problems (long term)
○ Lacked sufficient raw materials to become a ‘great power’
○ Insufficient land for growing population
● Short term problems of 1920s, eg: 1927 banking crisis
○ many small/medium banks went bankrupt
■ Financial control became concentrated amongst bigger banks
○ Smaller factories suffered → larger ones prospered
● PM Tanaka responded by increasing military spending + exploiting its colonies’ economies
● Great Depression only made Japan’s economic problems worse
● Tamaka resigned 1929 → Hamaguchi became PM

Economic impact of the Great Depression

● Although since 1900 Japan was increasingly industrialising -- still not self sufficient in coal/
iron/tin/rubber
● Japan suffered greatly during great depression
● Jap. econ depended on exports
○ Main export = silk
○ Exports went down dramatically (esp. Since US was main buyer of silk)
● Cotton textile, mining, and heavy industries also badly effected
● 1929-31 Japan’s exports dropped 50%, 50% of all factories shut down
● Rice farmers also badly hit
● Unemployment rose
● Because japan lacked raw materials -- it relied on imports from Manchuria
○ Many countries imposed tariffs on foreign goods - making it harder for Japan
● Japan’s landscape = mountainous
● Fertile agricultural land = limited
● Japan pop. increasing by 1 million per year
○ Overcrowded
○ Increased poverty (esp. In rural areas)
● Racist immigration laws of USA restricted emigration of poor japanese to USA
● PM Hamaguchi tried to cut gov. Expenditure - but it wasn’t enough
● Economic issues began affecting the working class + peasants → led to increased left wing
opp.

The Depression: Militarism and Nationalism

● Right wing militarists = increasingly hostile
● Argued for expansionist foreign policy (To replace current policy of intl. cooperation)
● Main advocate = Shidehara Kijuro
○ Shidehara replaced Hamaguchi when he was shot
○ Shidehara was still seen as ‘traitor’ (for naval agreements made w/ West in 1920s)

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 ● Wakatsuki Reijiro (PM from 1926-27) re-became PM in 1931
○ Sep 1931, he failed to deal w/ Manchurian incident (staged by Jap. Kwantung
officers)
○ Forced to resign
● Inukai Tsuyoshi replaced him
○ He too (along with past 4 PMs) was threatened by right wing ultra-nationalists
● KEY issue = depression caused US + Br. to protect domestic industries by raising tariffs on
foreign goods
○ Japan denied access to markets + raw materials on equal terms
○ This led to more advocation for expansionist policy by the extreme right
● Br + Fr. acted as imperialist models for expansionists in Japan
○ Expansionists wanted a ‘crusade’ against the West + a ‘new order’ in Asia
○ North China = best target for immediate expansion
● Great depression arguably ended intl. Cooperation + brief era of peace
● Depression pushed more people towards aggressive nationalism + led to increased hostility
against liberalism + parliamentary politics
● Japan right wing’s call for a ‘New international order’ was similar to Fascist Italy
● Depression greatly changed Japan’s foreign policy
○ 1920s: Jap. statesmen wd/ cooperate with Western statesmen (as long as they were
treated equally)
○ 1930s: industrial slump + discrimination towards japan (via tariffs, etc) led to growing
influence of militarists + nationalists in the realm of foreign policy
● For the extreme right … expansion = only way to solve Japan’s problems

Political Developments in Japan after 1918

● In theory… Japan a parliamentary state
● In practice … emperor, military leaders, + biggest industries/banks held the power

Parliamentary Democracy
● After WWI, decade of civilian peace + parliamentary gov.
● Shidehara Kijuro = foreign min. 1924-27, and 1929-31
○ Supporter of intl. Diplomacy + disarmament
○ ‘Shidehara diplomacy’
○ Despite this… Japan did not give up expansionist ambitions
○ Shidehara too was an expansionist
○ 1928 speech about anti-foreign movement
○ Expansionist views truly started emerging in 1931 - Shidehara claimed that japanese
influence/control over manchuria = justified

The Influence of the Zaibatsu

● Zaibatsu = ‘wealthy clique’ (aka largest corporations, conglomerates, which dominated
Japanese econ. After WWI)
● Early 20th century… military leaders + Zaibatsu formed close ties
● Zaibatsu held dominance over politics - esp. In the 1920s + 30s
○ Eg: Mitsui corporation + mitsubishi group had ties with army and navy, hence were
able to dominate policies of the gov.
● 4 Main Zaibatsu in 1900
○ Sumitomo, Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Yasuda
○ By 1941 Controlled 30% of Japanese mining, metals, and chemical industries + 50 %
of industrial equipment business
● End of 1920s = end of attempt to build democracy

Opposition to Liberalism and Democracy

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 ● As econ worsened… anti-democratic and pro-military patriotic groups increased
● Nov 1930 - assassination attempt on PM Hamaguchi (by a patriot)
● March 1931 - patriot group planned coup intended to put (military) General Ugaki Kazushige
in charge of gov.
○ Plan failed (Ugaki refused to cooperate)
● Oct 1931 - plot to assassinate PM, Wakatsuki → replace w/ general Akari Sadao
○ Sadao was anti-foreign + supporter of ‘Japanism’ and Imperialism
○ Plan failed (Sadao refused to cooperate)
● Japan’s econ conditions helped give rise to ‘fascistic’ elements
● Kita Ikki (like Mussolini) began to call form ‘national socialism’ w/ greater power for the
emperor
○ His ideas influenced young army officers
○ Involved in 1936 coup attempt (got executed)
● Inoue Nissho, organised extreme nationalist societies, eg: Blood Brotherhood League
○ Helped plan assassination of 13 leaders
●
● Hiranuma Kiichi organised the Kokuhonsha
○ nationalist society (incld. Several leading political, business + military leaders)
● Late 1920s/early 30s - young military officers organised political circles
○ They opposed disarmament policies of 1920s
○ In these circles … right wing civilians joined forces w/ military nationalists (both
opposed democracy)

Political Violence in the 1930s

● 1932 Blood Brotherhood League (BBL) assassinated minister of finance + director of Mitsui
zaibatsu
○ Inoue Nissho imprisoned, but BBL continued
● BBL w/ help of Right wing naval officers plotted assassinated PM Tsuyoshi
○ Tsuyoshi had tried to limit actions of Kwantung in Manchuria
○ This was against the BBL’s expansionist aims
● Pro-war sentiment grew in Japan
● Pro war sentiment clashed w/ PM Tsuyoshi’s plans to get the Kwantung army to withdraw
from the South Manchurian Railway + hold negotiations w/ Chinese gov.
○ PM wanted to cooperation internationally, because the League of Nations had called
Japan to withdraw troops from China
● May 1932 - army naval officers + BBL assassinated Inukai Tsuyoshi
○ MAJOR turning point from democracy → military extremism
○ Party gov. Ended → military now influenced domestic + foreign politics
● Inukai successor as PM = Admiral Saito Makoto (chosen by emperor’s adviser)
○ Moderate
○ Tried to form ‘united national government’
○ He was too weak… gave in to army’s insistence that Japan should withdraw from
League (after acceptance of the Lytton Report March 1933)
○ Makoto allowed Kwantung to advance into inner Mongolia + China
● War minister Araki → persuaded Kwantung to stop any further expansion
● May 1933 China + Japan - Tanggu Truce
○ Jehko province became part of Manchukuo
○ Kwantung army gained control of Shanhaiguan Pass (on China-Manchukuo border)
● Criticism ofo Saito Makoto continued (Despite his allowance of expansionism)
○ 1934 forced to resign
● New PM - Admiral Okada Keisuke (chosen by emperor’s adviser)
○ Complied w/ Right wing pressure
○ Ended Japan’s acceptance of Washington + London naval agreements 1935

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Political Influence of the Military
● Japanese army used prestige in society to follow its own policies
● They acted independently from (weak) civilian govs.
● Nationalist right-wing officers pursued policies to make Japan self-sufficient
○ Eg: moves towards autarky, guaranteeing raw materials by more aggressive foreign
policy + foreign expansion
● Due to Poverty/Depression of 1930s - it became difficult for gov’s to control aggressive pro-
expansionist military leaders
● Japan was continuously denied access to foreign goods
○ Only increased pro-nationalist sentiments
● These right wing military officers saw Manchuria as a good place to expand into
○ Manchuria had iron ore and coal (this would benefit Japan’s economy)
○ Manchuria was fertile (could feed Japan’s growing population)
○ Manchuria could provide a market for Japan’s exports

Japan and the Western States

● Expanding into mainland Asia wd/ bring Japan into conflict w/ colonial Western powers
(Britain, France, Ned)
● Also wd/ cause problems w/ USA (USA had been trying to expand influence in Asia)
○ US saw Asia / Far east as ‘crucial’ to US trade interests
○ US made efforts to limit the expansion of other nations
● For China, US adopted ‘open door policy’ after Imperialism collapsed
○ Based on embracing free trade
● Fall of imperialism in China led to instability + led to more opportunities for foreign intervention
○ US wanted to prevent China from being broken up by rival countries
● Late 1920s + after great depression, US kept trying to block Japanese expansion into China
● US threatened by growing Japanese Navy
● US organised Washington Naval conference 1921-22
○ Resulted in the Four-Power act + Five Power Naval Limitation Treaty
○ … to limit possibility of naval arms race
○ Ratio of Br:US:Jap battleships = 5:5:3
○ Agreement remained in force until 1936 when Japan withdrew its involvement
● After 1930 - drop in exports in Japan led to political crisis
○ Army dominated / ignored civilian gov.
○ Extreme nationalists resorted to assassination of liberal political leaders

14
2.3 How significant was China’s political instability?
● Political turmoil in China = major factor in Japan’s increasing aggressive foreign policy
● Japan saw China as weak + easily exploitable
○ China’s ‘ability to resist’ reduced
● When Japan took action in Manchuria in 1931 - Chinese nationalist gov. did very little
○ … due to being in the midst of Civil War

China’s Nationalist Revolution 1911

● ‘Double Tenth’ Nationalist revolution 1911
○ Toppled Manchu Qing dynasty
● Many chinese had blamed the Qing dynasty to have allowed Europe to easily control them
during 19th century
○ Forced China to sign ‘unequal treaties’
● 1839-42, Br + China ‘opium war’ forced China to buy opium drug from British traders based in
India
● 1860 Br+Fr forces fought second opium war vs. China → attacked Beijing

The Manchus & ‘Unequal Treaties’

● Unequal treaties had given European powers control of China’s seaports + special trading
privileges
● End of 19th century - 50% of China’s ports = ‘treaty ports’
○ China open for foreign trade + resistance
● European countries had ‘spheres of influence’ in China
● US also keen on gaining influence in China (didn’t want to be ‘behind’ European powers)
○ 1844 Treaty of Wangxia w/ China + US
■ US established presence at several ports
■ … then established network of ports across the pacific (Fiji, Samoa, Marshall
Islands - all throughout late 1800s … even annexed Hawaii in 1898)
● China’s weakness/exploitability led to first Sin0-Jap war 1894
○ Japan gained Korea, Taiwan (formosa) + Lushun (Port Arthur)
● US importance of trade w/ China led to US sending ships to Japan in 1853 (Commodore
Perry)
● US presence in pacific led to increased tensions w/ US + Japan in 1930s
● Numerous rebellions vs. Manchus had broken out before 1911
○ Taiping Rebellion (1850)
○ Boxer Rebellion (1900) - forces were anti-foreign - but suppressed by international
army
■ US played key role in suppression of this rebellion (already had ships, troops
in Philippines - easily mobile to China)
■ 1901 China signed ‘Boxer Protocol’ w/ US, Jap + 6 more intl. Countries
● Agreed to execution of 10 chinese officials associated w/ Rebellion
● China had to pay 333 million dollars.
● Led to ultimate decline of Manchu Qing dynasty
● Manchus failure to stand up to foreign countries in 1990 led to increased support for
nationalist/republican groups

The ‘Double Tenth’

● Tongmenghui = Movement that toppled Manchu Dynasty led by Sun Yixian (Sun Yat Sen)
● 1898 - Sun announced ‘Three principles of the People’:
○ National freedom, democratic government, and people’s livelihood
○ (Modeled after Fr: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity)
● September 1911 rebellion broke out in Sichuan province
○ Sun’s agents helped spread the revolt → became full-scale revolution

15
 ○ End of Sep. - 15/18 Chinese provinces had joined revolution
○ Rebels formed provisional gov. In Nanjing
○ Manchus called Yuan Shikai to suppress revolution
■ Yuan quickly defeated rebels

The Early Years of the Chinese Republic

● Despite Yuan’s victory - he then switched sides to the Rebels
○ If rebels elected him president, he would force Manchus to abdicate
● Rebels wanted Sun Yat Sen as president… but agreed
○ Sun resigned in 1911 to prevent possible civil war
○ Yuan elected as president 1912 feb.
■ Manchus, abdicated, China = a republic
● New 1912 gov was intended to be democratic
○ but Yuan intended to rule autocratically
● 1913 National Assembly held - most seats won by GMD (Guomindang - People’s National
Party)
○ Sun had formed GMD in 1912
○ Yuan didn’t want to share power w/ parliament dominated by Sun’s party
○ 1913 - Yuan ordered assassination of GMD leader
● Sun’s ‘Second revolution’ July 1913 - suppressed
● Yuan banned GMD
● Sun exiled in Japan -- remained until 1917
● January 1914 - Yuan made himself president for 10 years + dismissed National Assembly
● End of 1915 - Yuan controlled 12/18 provinces → decided to make himself Emperor
○ Japan, some Military leaders + GMD opposed this
■ They wanted to gain control over parts of China
■ Emergence of small ruler would prevent this
● Yuan’s acceptance of most of 21-demands + plans to make himself emperor → led to revolts
within armies
● June 1916, Yuan died

The Warlord Period 1916-1928

● After Yuan’s death → China entered ‘Warlord period’
● Rival military leaders fought for power
● 1916-1927 - central gov. In Beijing only controlled small area around capital
● Sun’s GMD gov. Set up rival gov. In south, in Guangzhou
● Chaotic/violent period → meant there was no centralised gov.
○ Made it easy for foreigners to extend/establish interests in China

WWI and Political Turmoil

● China sent 1 mil labourers (Labor battalions) to help allies in France, Turkey, Africa
● Although China didn’t fight - Chinese forces seized German ships in Chinese ports +
confiscated German businesses in China
● Although China fought on the side of the allies - after WWI, China realized that nationalistic
desires (ending ‘unequal treaties’, regaining German concessions, and withdrawal of Japan’s
‘twenty one demands’) wd/ be ignored at Versailles
○ China did not sign treaty of Versailles
● Problematic term of Versailles = Japan wd/ gain former German concessions in China
○ Led to nationalistic protests in China
○ May 4th 1919 Mass student demonstration in Beijing
○ Protests spread, known as ‘May Fourth Movement’
○ Early june - workers, businessmen went on strike

16
 ○ Massive boycotts of Japanese goods
● May fourth movement bolstered ‘New Tide’ political movement, founded in 1916
○ New Tide → wanted to modernize China + free China from foreign control

The First United Front

● Meanwhile… Sun had been reorganizing the GMD
● Since 1917, GMD had control over southern province of Guangdong
● 1922 - Soviet Russian diplomats sent to help sun modernise GMD
● GMD grew + communists joined (CCP)
○ Despite dif. Aims… both wanted to be freed from foreign control
○ 1923 CCP + GMD = First United Front
● Russians sent more advisers to help sun modernise/strengthen armed forces to defeat
warlords
● 1924 - GMD conference, sun re-announced his 3 principles
○ Newest aim = create united China w/out foreign interference
● But… to defeat warlords, Sun needed outside help
○ Br + Fr refused
○ Sun turned to Soviet Russia (communist gov. had come to power in 1917)

The Northern Campaign

● 1925 - Sun died
● Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai Shek), Sun’s son in law - rose up the ranks of the GMD
● Jiang had been commander in chief of GMD army
● July 1926 - after GMD had control over Guangdong and Guangxi, Jiang marched North
○ Known as ‘northern campaign’
○ Aim: fight warlords
● Beijing was now GMD’s ‘center’
● Northern Campaign was successful, because many warlords were easy to defeat
○ Many chinese fed up w/ turmoil + violence of warlord rule
○ Lots of warlord armies mutinied + joined GMD nationalists
● GMD army established gov. In Hankow Sep 1926
● Another GMD army captured Nanjing 1927
● End of 1926 - GMD/CCP forces had control over 170 million people

The End of the first United Front

● Just when GMD established control in Southern China - Jiang broke alliance w/ CCP
● During north campaign - United Front had become divided
○ Left vs. right wing
○ Jiang resented success of CCP military units
● April 1927, before Jiang’s forces reached Shanghai - communist-led rebellion broke out +
CCP had taken over control over the city
○ Jiang rounded up + massacred 5,000 communists
○ ‘Shanghai Massacre’
○ Similar events occurred throughout China in CCP/GMD clashing areas
● Jiang’s actions in Shanghai started a civil war… (1929-1949)
● April 1928 - GMD made Jiang head of Second Northern Campaign
○ Aim: capture Beijing + Establish GMD control over North
○ Campaign successful - Jiang defeated warlords + took over Beijing
● GMD gov moved capital from Beijing to Nanjing
● GMD established nationalist government, Jiang = Chairman + Ruler of China

Civil War in China

● 1929, 2 northern warlords (who had prev. Surrendered to Jiang) rebelled

17
 ○ For two years - Northern china torn up in violence/political instability
○ Made it easy for Japan to exert influence
● Communists who survived Shanghai massacre 1927 had fled to Jiangxi province
○ Established ‘Chinese Soviet Republic’
○ Led by Mao Zedong
○ Leader of Red Army = Zhu De
● Communists gained widespread support
○ Especially from peasants via land reform programmes + building of schools
● Jiang saw CCP as biggest threat (even after Japan had occupied Manchuria)

Jiang’s ‘Extermination Campaigns’

● 1930-34 Jiang conducted multiple ‘extermination campaigns’ to rid communist
○ 1 million + Chinese killed/starved to death
● Jiang prioritised campaigns against communists over threat of Japan
○ ‘Golden opportunity’ for Japan to expand into China
○ Little chance of serious opposition … due to Chinese civil war
● 5th (and largest) extermination camp - 1933 autumn
○ Based on Nazi military advisers
● CCP eventually forced to retreat to remote north province of Shaanxi
● Political instability did not end…
○ Continued political instability allowed Japan to cross into Manchuria
● 1933 Japan occupied Rhee province
● End of 1936 - Jap. forces occupied Chahaer and Suiyuan provinces + 2 key ports

The Second United Front

● Despite Japanese occupations… Jiang continued w/ extermination camps
○ 1936 extermination campaign vs. communists in the North
● Ordinary Chinese wanted to stop internal fighting + form a united front vs. Japan
○ Jiang ignored - saw communists as bigger threat
■ Believed that war vs. japan couldn’t happen until China united under GMD
○ CCP slogan was ‘Chinese do not fight Chinese’
● Even Zhang Xueliang - commander of Jiang’s main forces, asked Jiang to turn forces to
Japan
○ Jiang flew to Zhang’s base to convince him to fight communists
● 12 Dec 1936 - Jiang taken prisoner
○ After 2 weeks: agreed to second united front → CCP + GMD joint forces vs. Japan
○ In return … Jiang recognized as commander in Chief of all Chinese forces
● Stalin provided Jiang’s forces w/ Soviet Weapons
● Japan launched a full-scale invasion in July 1937
○ They feared that political instability was coming to an end
● ‘Formation of the second united front ironically acted as a spur to further Japanese attacks on
China’

Ch 3: Japan’s Actions
Timeline
1928 - June: Assassination of Zhang Zuolin in China
1931 - September: Japanese invasion of Manchuria
1932 - January: First ‘Shanghai Incident’, March: Manchuria becomes Manchukuo
1933 - February: Eastern Monroe Doctrine announced; Japan leaves the League of Nations
1936 - February: Attempted military coup in Japan
1937 - July: Start of Second Sino-Japanese War Dec: ‘Rape of Nanjing’
1938 - July: Start of ‘Border War’ with the Soviet Union

18
1939 - August: Japan defeated at battle of Khalkhin-Gol, ceasefire in ‘Border War’
1940 - July: ‘Main principles of Fundamental National Policy’ announced, August: ‘Greater East Asia
Co-prosperity Sphere’ announced, September: Tripartite Pact signed, Japanese forces enter north
Indo-China; US announces economic sanctions against Japan
1941 - April: Japanese-Soviet Neutrality Pact, June: Nazi invasion of Soviet Union begins, July:
Imperial Conference; Japan invades south Indo-China; US trade bans on Japan, Japanese assets in
US frozen, December: Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour

Overview
● Economic/Diplomatic/Political/Cultural factors contributed to development of strong Japanese
nationalistic/militaristic attitudes
● Impact of Depression caused econ/political problems → army became very political
● Many military leaders believed expansion = key to solving Japan’s problems. Military leaders
exerted more and more control over civilian governments, attempting to establish
independence from civilian political control
● First aggressive action took place in 1931 - Japanese army (already in Manchuria guarding
the Japanese owned South-Manchuria Railway) staged an ‘incident’ at Mukden, to justify
occupying the rest of Manchuria
● Japan’s civilian government attempted to get Japan to withdraw + said it was willing to
cooperate w/ the League of Nations
● Army officers in Manchuria ignored Tokyo government → went on to occupy the rest of
Manchuria
● February 1932 - Manchuria renamed Manchukuo + became part of the Japanese empire.
Japanese officers then began to make incursions into North China itself.
● Between 1932-36, multiple ‘incidents’, but all-out war was avoided, since China (caught up in
civil war) made concessions rather than risk war w/ Japan
● July 1937 - Japan launched full scale invasion on china, soon occupying large areas of
Northern China. As war went on - this occupation began to strain Japan’s resources.
● For much of 1930s - Japan’s foreign policy was undecided (eg: should they expand North into
Siberia/Soviet areas, or south into Asia and Pacific regions?)
● When Japan faced defeats vs. Soviets in 1938/39 border clashes, they decided to go south.
● During 1940 Japan created a clearer policy for expansion in Asia + Pacific. This included the
announcement of its ‘Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere’ and the ‘Tripartite Pact’ w/ Nazi
Germany and Fascist Italy
● 1941 - Having signed the Neutrality pact w/ USSR, Japan moved troops to north Indo-China
→ this caused USA to impose economic sanctions on Japan
● In July 1941 - Imperial conference took place in Japan, decided on expansion into the South,
even if it led to war w/ Britain + US
● Japan’s army immediately invaded south Indo-China → US quickly imposed total ban on all
vital supplies (including oil) to Japan & froze all Japanese assets in the US
● Japan’s gov. + military concluded that they needed to invade the Dutch East Indies to secure
oil supplies. To do so without serious US opposition, they decided to destroy the USA’s pacific
fleet in Pearl Harbour.

19
3.1 What happened in Manchuria and Northern
China, 1931-36
● Japan’s nationalists for a long time wanted to expand into Manchuria
○ Many companies had made large investments in Manchuria
● During two wars, Japan had secured an important position in Manchuria - they wanted to
maintain this
● From 1931 - Japan adopted an increasingly expansionist policy → aimed at securing control
of Manchuria
● By 1936 this policy was turned into expanding into mainland China

Manchuria, 1931
● Japanese nationalists - argued that Japan needed empire to become self-sufficient
● They looked first to Manchuria
○ Close to Japan + rich in raw materials (coal/iron ore/bauxite)
○ Manchuria possessed a cheap labour force
■ (Use of Manchurians as cheap labour already in practice pre-1931, eg: large
wage gap between Japanese and Manchurians working on the South
Manchurian Railway. In 1926 - Japanese salaries were 7.6 and 4.2 x higher
than Chinese regular/temporary workers)
● Given China’s relative weakness - Japan thought it would be easy to take over
● 1927 - After 6 years of turmoil, China achieved a unified national government under Jiang
Jieshi
● Jiang wanted to extend gov. control throughout China, incld. Manchuria
○ Manchuria had been under warlord control of Zhang Zuolin since 1916
● Officers in Japan’s Kwantung army in Manchuria were determined to prevent China’s new
Nationalist gov under Jiang from re-gaining control over Manchuria
● Japan worked w/ Zhang Zuolin until 1928 when he retreated instead of fighting Jiang’s
nationalist forces
● Kwantung officers decided to kill him + seize control over the whole province
● Successful assassination of Zhang Zuolin in June 1928
● Zhang’s son, Zhang Xueliang - decided to cooperate w/ Jiang
● Kwantung officers + military leaders in Japan decided to overthrow Zhang + bring Manchuria
under Japanese control
● Leaders of Kwantung = Ishiwara Kanji & Itagaki Seishiro
○ Drew up plan to take over Manchuria + parts of Mongolia

The Mukden Incident

● First step in taking over Manchuria = ‘manufacturing’ an attack on the South Manchurian
Railway + blaming it on Chinese troops
● Jap PM Wakatsuki Reijiro - ordered Kwantung army not to go past South Manchurian Railway
○ PM informed by Army General Staff that civilian gov ‘had no right to intervene’
○ 1931 Dec - Wakatsuki resigned over failure to control military

The Formation of Manchukuo/The First Shanghai Incident

● New PM: Inukai Tsuyoshi tried to get Kwantung army to comply w/ League’s ruling to
withdraw troops back to South Manchurian Railway
○ Kwantung ignored
● Kwantung captured key cities: Jinzhou and Harbin + moved North into Arthur Province
● Jan 1932 - Chinese anger at Japan’s actions in Manchuria led to clash between Chinese/Jap
troops at Shanghai
○ Japan’s response = bombing civilian area of Shanghai
○ World opinion turned against Japan

20
 ○ PM Inukai forced to follow advice of war minister Sadao Araki → sent 2 army divisions
to Shanghai to drive away Chinese forces from Shanghai
● Fighting continued Feb 1932 - Chinese launched unsuccessful counter-attack
● March 4th 1932 - League condemned actions + demanded ceasefire
○ China accepted
○ Japan didn’t → continued fighting
● May 5th 1932 - China + Japan signed Shanghai ceasefire agreement
○ Japan forced China to accept that Shanghai = demilitarized zone (except for
Japanese military units). China also forced to withdraw from areas surrounding
Shanghai.
● ^ First ‘Shanghai incident’ increased Nationalistic feelings in Japan
● By March 1932 - Japan turned Manchuria into a puppet state: ‘Manchukuo’
○ Former Manchu (Qing) emperor Puyi on throne

Japanese Incursions in Northern China after 1932

● Conquest of Manchuria did not satisfy aims of Jap. Nationalists
● After 1931 - series of ‘incidents’ took place between Chinese/Jap troops in Northern China/
along Manchurian border
● In China… political disorder ensued: Jiang commenced ‘extermination campaigns’ vs.
Communists
○ This chaos allowed Japan to cross from Manchuria into Northern China
● In 1933 - Japan occupied Rehe (Jehol)
● In 1934 - Japan advanced Southward … by 1936 had provinces Chahaer + Suiyuan + parts
of Hebei + Shanxi
● Jiang more concerned w/ crushing communists that he did not resist ‘increasing Japanese
encroachments on Chinese territory’

21
3.2 What were the main aspects of the Second Sino-
Japanese War, 1937-41?
● Japan’s incursions into Manchuria = prelude to Sino-Jap war
● Sino-Japanese war began in July 1937 → it was ‘the culmination of decades of Japanese
imperialist policy which had as its aim the domination of China and access to its food supplies
and raw materials - including potential labourers’

The Road to War

● In June 1937 - Konoe Fumimaro (prince/part of influential japanese family) was persuaded to
become Japan’s new PM
○ Seen as ‘moderate’
○ Wd/ be able to achieve political consensus/stability in Japan
● Konoe’s foreign policy ideas were very expansionist + he was prepared to abandon intl.
Cooperation
● Konoe wanted Jap. to adopt policy for its own ‘autonomous bloc’ (aka its own empire)
● Konoe supported the ‘Asia Monroe Doctrine’ idea (basically, Asia for the Asiatics… eg: no
further Western colonization into Asia)
○ This idea formally announced in Feb 1933 at League of Nations meeting
○ This idea had in theory already been accepted by US via Lansing-Ishii agreement
1917 - when US recognized that Japan had ‘special interests’ in China (US saw
these interests as economic… not political)
● Jap’s saw no dif between their actions in Korea/Manchuria w/ US actions in Latin/Central
America
○ Us intervened in Mexico/Nicaragua/Haiti etc. to ensure ‘peace and stability’
● China not willing to accept ‘independence’ of Manchukuo (1932)
● In early 1930s - Japanese gov in Manchukuo area called for friendly relations in the area
under ‘Japanese leadership’
● 1935 - Nationalist China established diplomatic relations w/ Japan
● Kwantung still determined to establish Jap. control over northern China
● Mid 1935 - Kwantung used anti-Japanese Protests as excuse to tell Chinese Nationalists to
withdraw troops from Hebei + Chahar provinces
○ Tried to force nationalists into making this an autonomous zone… independent of
China
● Koki Hirota became PM 1936 → he wanted to focus on USSR
● Sep. 1936 Koki signed anti-comintern pact w/ Nazi Germany (anti-communist alliance)
○ Although not a military pact… brought Japan + Germany closer
○ 1937 Italy joined
○ Japan aligning itself w/ Fascist powers in Europe

The Second Sino-Japanese War begins

● July 7th 1937 - one month after became Konoe PM - Jap troops provoked clash w/ Chinese
at Marco Polo Bridge (Railway junction outside Beijing)

The Marco Polo Bridge Incident

● Bridge Incident = Trigger for Second Sino-Jap war
● Japan claimed that Chinese had fired at Jap. troops outside Wanping + close to Marco Polo
Bridge
● Japan launched an attack on small Chinese force defending Marco Polo Bridge
○ Chinese resisted
● Japan’s gov began negotiations w/ Chinese
○ However… hardliners in Japanese Army didn’t want ‘just a settlement’

22
 ● War minister Sugiyama Hajime proposed to send more troops to China
● Yet… Kwantung leader Ishiwara was concerned about USSR - therefore reluctant to enter
into war w/ China
● Kwantung tried to persuade Hirota to not get into full scale war… but Hirota agreed w/ military
hardliners who wanted to send more troops to China
○ (PM Hirota had in 1937 become foreign minister instead)
● New PM Konoe - supported this decision
● Konoe publically blamed Chinese for incident + announced that Jap wd/ send more troops
○ Protests broke out in China
● More military clashes ensued between Jap’s/Chinese … because officers + militarists in
Northern China wanted to provoke clash that would justify full-scale invasion
● ‘Incidents’ between 1931-37 had been sorted via compromise (most involved China making
concessions)
○ Japan’s attack on China was different (Beijing = politically/emotionally important) - it
was a turning point
● Another ‘incident’ took place in Shanghai (China’s most important port)
○ August 1937 clashes between Jap/Chinese troops in Shanghai
○ Japan had sent troops there as Shanghai was a ‘special interest’ for Japan
○ Nationalist China ordered general mobilisation
○ In response: Japan ordered all-out war + Konoe gave permission for the invasion of
Chinese
● Lots of popular support for war in Japan
○ Press supported military hardliners
● Japan had begun modernizing army in 1868
● China had only had a unified gov since 1927 (even then always torn in conflict w/ Warlords +
civil war)
○ Due to this… (+ the already-loss of Manchuria + other areas) Japan didn’t meet
heavy resistance
● By Nov 1937 - Japan occupied Shanghai (after bombing a civilian area of the city)
● By Dec 1937 - (after 3 months siege) Jap. forces captured capital of China: Nanjing

The ‘Rape of Nanjing’

● Japanese soldiers raped 20,000 civilians during the first month of occupation + killed anyone
for ‘the slightest resistance’
● Commanding Japanese General: Matsui Iwane did not try to control behavior of his troops
● Incident was the result of racial superiority
○ Important part of Japanese schooling system + important element for Japanese
nationalism
● Japanese troops many more atrocities in China … but this was the worst
● One commanding officer, General Hata Shunroku, was the only one to order his troops not to
commit atrocities

The War Continues

● After Nanjing - Jap. forces able to take effective control over Northern China by end of 1937
● Jiang forced to retreat + establish new wartime capital at Chongqing
● By Jan 1938 - 1 million + Jap. troops in China, Japan controlled all main cities + lines of
communication in provinces around Yangzi River (most fertile + densely populated land)
● Later in 1938 - Jap forces captured important cities of Wuhan + Guangzhou + island of
Hainan
● Nazi Germany wanted Japan to focus on USSR rather than China
● Germany offered to mediate between Japan + China
○ Japan insisted on very hard terms … China didn’t want to comply
○ Konoe saw this as rejection, ending all further negotiation + ordering for war to
continue

23
● Japan soon controlled entire coastal area from North to South → moved inland
● Next targets = new capital Hango + Chongqing
○ Chinese nationalist gov put up strong resistance
○ For the next 5 years, Japan was unable to make any further advances
● ‘War of Attrition’ fought from then on, in mountainous areas of China
● 1938 onwards - Japan retained control over large cities/main railways/airfields/ports/roads --
but countryside = Chinese
● In South → Japan tried to destroy Jiang’s new capital of Chongqing
○ Bombed very frequently: ‘the most bombarded city in the world’
○ 5000 separate bombing raids
● Japan tried to politically weaken China as well:
○ 1940 - Japan tried to persuade Wang Jingwei (part of GMD party) to leave
nationalists + head a new Japanese puppet state
■ This had little significance
● Situation changed after December 1941
○ Japan had 2 million+ troops in China (50% of Japanese army)
○ Japan decided to attack US base at Pearl Harbour
■ This created more problems for Japan’s army in China, easing pressure on
Jiang’s forces

24
3.3 What were the main aspects of the Second Sino-
Japanese War, 1937-41?
● Several factors originate in 19th century
● Short-term factors equally important, eg: increased influence of Japan’s military leaders +
signing of Tripartite pact in 1940

Military factions and Foreign Policy 1937-40

● Nov 1937 - hardline Japanese army officers tried to start war w/ Britain + US by attacking
gunboats off Chinese coast
○ Japanese gov. Quickly apologised + paid compensation
● 1935 - several rival factions existed in Jap. army
○ Imperial faction (Kodo-Ha) → ultra-nationalists, led by generals Araki Sadao +
Mazaki Jinzaburo, believers in ‘spiritual power’. Advocated for the ‘imperial way’ +
tended to be more violent
■ This faction included members of ‘Strike-North’ faction, who wanted to
expand into Siberia + USSR
○ ‘Control’ faction (Tosei-ha) → wanted to modernize Japanese army, esp: tanks/
plans. Believed modern war required total mobilisation of resources. Leaders
included Nagata Tetsuzan + future PM Tojo Hideki.
■ This faction included members of the ‘Strike-South’ faction, who though
expanding South would solve its lack of resources
● Conflict between two factions broke out mid-1935:
○ General Hayashi, war minister, removed general Mazaki from post of Inspector
General of Military Education (one of top army positions)
○ Kodo-Ha saw this as attempt by Tosei-ha to weaken their faction
○ Kodo-Ha officers blamed chief of military affairs, Nagata, and one officer, Aizawa,
even assassinated him
■ During trial, the assassin was portrayed as ‘patriot’
■ Trial = vehicle for Kodo-ha to denounce Tosei-Ha faction
○ Gov. tried to reduce tension by ordering the first infantry division from Tokyo →
Manchuria
■ This only caused situation to worsen … as Kodo-Ha decided this would be a
good time to attempt a coup d’etat (Feb 26th 1936)
■ Emperor said that he wouldn’t support this coup
○ Failed coup = end of Kodo-ha … members purged/killed themselves/resigned
○ Army Power went to Tosei-ha
■ They believed in ‘disciplined centralised order’
■ They were in favour of army intervention in politics
■ Against individual acts of violence
○ Effect of Feb 26th Failed coup d’etat = army influence in government had greatly
increased
■ Army chose war minister (gave them kind of veto power)
■ If they didn’t like a PM - they could remove him (eg: when emperor chose
Hirota Koki to form next gov, army chose Terauchi Hisaichi as war minister →
made sure Hirota did not appoint any liberal cabinet members)

The Fundamental Principles of National Policy

● New PM in 1936 = Hirota

25
 ● He proclaimed ‘The Fundamental Principles of National Policy’ → ‘affirmed the need to
consolidate Japan’s position in East Asia + to advance into the South Sea region’
○ Suggested a more moderate policy towards China
○ Advocated for a stronger stand against USSR
● Hirota later forced to resign
● June 1937 - Prince Konoe Fumimaro became PM
○ Konoe took hardline position in regards to foreign affairs + opposed to idea of intl.
Cooperation
○ Wanted japan to follow its own objectives, forming ‘an autonomous bloc’ to push its
interests forward
○ Konoe saw Japan as a Have-Not nation - wanted to become a ‘Have’ nation just like
Britain, France, US
● By 1937 - industrial-financial zaibatsu prepared to coop w/ militarists + support expansionism
○ Mitsui & Mitsubishi cooperated w/ military to build heavy industries linked to helping in
war
○ Mitsubishi produced 30% of ships in Japan + produced the Zero fighter plane
○ Smaller companies w/ out links to military didn’t have access to vital raw materials to
industrialize
● Since Manchuria 1931 - pressure for greater concentration on war production increased
○ Up till then… Japan had been concerned w/ gaining vital raw materials for its growing
pop + as a way to overcome the depression
○ Zaibatsu had been investing in Japanese capital in Manchuria in order to dev.
Manchurian economy -- they also exploited the cheap labour there

The Growing Regional influence of the US

● Japan resented US growing influence in Asia + Pacific
● US had adopted increasingly expansionist foreign policy in Asia/Central America/Latin
America
● 1899 - Theodore Roosevelt made a speech calling for US to adopt more aggressive
expansionist policy
○ This view based on the view:
■ ‘stronger’ more advanced peoples should take charge of ‘less
developed’ non-whites peoples and nations in order to ‘civilise’ them
● 1901 - Roosevelt became president → his ideas had a large influence on US foreign policy
● Spanish-American War 1898 saw US establish control over Philippines in the Pacific +
dominating Cuba
○ US expansion in the Pacific based on rapid growth of its navy
● In 1898 US also took over Hawaii & Guam
● After 1898 → US military + business influence in the Pacific increased, coming into conflict w/
Japan’s interests in the region

Japan and the Soviet Union

● Japan eventually realized that expansion into the USSR wd/ be more difficult than thought
● July 1938 - while Sino-Japanese war going on - Japanese army officers clashed w/ USSR at
Changkufeng (Siberia/Manchuria/Korea border)
○ Japan expected easy victory… but were defeated
● May 1939 - Kwantung provoked clash in Nomonhan - border between Manchuria + Outer
Mongolia
○ Developed into major conflict w/ USSR
● August 1939 - Battle of Khalkhin-Gol, USSR defeated Japanese forces
● By 1939 - Japanese struggling w/ invasion of China - it was becoming very costly + they
needed more troops

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 ● ^ all these factors strengthened the cause of those in the army who argued for expansion
southward rather than into the USSR

The Significance of the Tripartite Pact, September 1940

● After 1937 - Hardline nationalists began to pressure for closer relation w/ Germany + Italy
(since they saw how quickly Hitler had made conquests in Europe)
● Early 1930s… fascist Italy did not trust Nazi Germany
● For some time, Nazi Germany even supported China over Japan
● First step towards 3 way alliance was in May 1939 → Ger. + It. Pact of Steel
● July 1940, Konoe formed a gov that had militarist + ultra-nationalist support
○ Konoe formed ‘the Main principles of Fundamental National Policy’ + endorsed
principles of Hakko Ichiu (based on Japan’s first emperor’s words that they were
destined to expand until they had conquered the whole world)

The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

● The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere was an imperialist propaganda concept created
and promulgated for occupied Asian populations during the first third of the Shōwa era by the
government and military of the Empire of Japan.
○ It represented the desire to create a self-sufficient ‘block of Asian nations led by the
Japanese and free of Western powers’
● Fundamental National Policy document called for establishment of a ‘New Order’ in East Asia
(which would be based on the ‘Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere’)
● 1940 late July - Fundamental National Policy document approved by supreme command …
even if it meant getting into military conflicts w/ Britain or US
● Emphasis now placed on building armed forces, trying to conclude war w/ China, + more
economic planning
● August 1st 1940 - Japan’s plan for ‘Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere’ were publicly
announced
● Japan’s gov angered at announcement of Nazi-Soviet Pact in August 1939 -- so they
withdrew from the anti-comintern pact
● But soon, Japan/Nazi relations improved … Konoe consequently signed Tripartite pact w/
Italy + Germany (2 months after co-prosperity sphere announcement)
● Tripartite pact signed in Berlin on 27th of September 1940
○ Confirmed Japan/Italy/Germany’s intentions to establish ‘new orders’ in their regions
○ ‘Essentially a defensive military alliance’
○ Acted as a warning to the US
■ If US attacked one member… the others would assist that member
■ Japan hoped this wd/ persuade US to stay out of military conflicts in Asia
○ The pact DID NOT include provision that its members wd/ actually declare war on the
attacking country/countries … they wd/ only assist
● Japan and Germany did not actually work well together
○ Japan thought that Britain’s problems in Europe wd/ lessen Japan’s struggle in Asia
○ Germany thought that Japan’s expansion in Asia as a way to weaken Britain + US
● For Japan… the signing of the Tripartite pact sparked the sending of troops into Northern
Indo-China
● After Japan attacked the US in December 1941 - ITaly + Germany also declared war on US
(despite this not being in the agreement)

Invasion of Indo-China, September 1940

● Another Key reason for Pearl Harbour = US response to Japan’s advances in Indo-China

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 ● Late September 1940 - small Japanese force entered/occupied Northern part of French Indo-
China (right after France’s defeat by Nazi Germany in June 1940)
● This occupation linked to Sino-Japanese war → Japan wanted to stop China from importing
arms/fuel from French Indo-China along the Sino-Indo-China railway
○ When Japan had previously asked France to close this railway, they refused
● Some Jap. politicians thought this move (into Indo-China) could be done w/out provoking war
● In Sep. 1940 - disagreements between Strike-North/Strike-South faction still taking place
○ Japan paused sending more troops to Indo-China until it was clear if attacking the
USSR/heading North would be a good option
● US Responded to Japan’s move into Indo-China by imposing economic sanctions against
Japan, reducing US exports of oil/iron/machinery to Japan
● US made it clear that any further action by Japan in that area wd/ lead to tougher sanctions
● Japanese military pressurized the gov to take action to obtain necessary materials (which had
been depleted by sanctions) to continue fighting war w/ China

Ruling out the ‘Strike North’ Option

● 13th April 1941 - Japanese gov + military concluded a Japanese-Soviet Neutrality Pact w/
USSR, ending the Soviet border war (which started 1938/39)
● Japan’s decided it wouldn’t be smart to take on USSR
● Japan thus decided to implement decisions from 1941 Conference -- moving South
○ (In July 1941 - Imperial conference took place in Japan, decided on expansion into
the South, even if it led to war w/ Britain + US)
● ^ this was a step towards Pearl Harbour
● After Hitler launched invasion of USSR in June 1941 → Japan didn’t see USSR as a threat to
Manchuria
○ Japan could use troops/concentrate effort on going Southward into Indo-China
● July 28th 1941 Japan’s army advanced into Southern Indo-China

The Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbour, December 7th 1941

● When Japan continued to expand into Indo-China in 1941 → US responded by imposing a
total ban on vital supplies, eg: oil, iron, and aircraft to Japan + froze all Japanese
assets in the US
○ These actions much harsher than 1940 embargo
● Sanctions caused Japan to extend its ‘Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity sphere’ to have
access to oil/rubber in Dutch East indies, US-controlled Philippines, + British Malaya
○ In order to achieve this expansion… Japanese military decided that it would
need to knock out USA’s Pacific fleet
○ This led to the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor
● Attack on Pearl Harbour + Japanese attacks on Br/Dutch colonies in the pacific, intensified
the ‘Greater East Asian War’
○ (this was the name given by the Japanese gov. Starting Dec 1941, & included the war
w/ China, + the conflict w/ Britain & USA)
● Japanese gov argued that this war would help liberate Asian nations from Western powers
● Japan thought after Pearl Harbour → US would have to accept Japan’s advances in SE Asia
● But… since US had superior raw material supply/industrial capacity → US turned ‘Greater
East Asian War’ into war of attrition
○ This prolonged warfare
○ Japan’s economy - which was already under strain - could not handle this

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Ch 4: Japan’s Actions
Timeline
1931 - September: Japan Invades Manchuria, December: Lytton Commission appointed
1932 - March: Japan transforms Manchuria to ‘Manchukuo’, October: Lytton Commission to League
of Nations
1933 - February: League votes to accept the Lytton Report, March: Japan leaves League of Nations
1936 - November: Anti-Comintern Pact (Germany + Japan), December: Second United Front formed
in China
1937 - July: Japan invades China, September: China appeals to League; Sino-Soviet Non-
Aggression Pact, October: League gives China ‘spiritual support’; Nine-Power Treaty Conference;
Roosevelt’s ‘Quarantine Speech’; Italy signs Anti-Comintern Pact (Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis),
December: Britain, France, and US grant loans to China
1939 - August: Japan defeated by Soviet forces at Khalkhin-Gol
1940 - September: Tripartite Pact, October: US restricts trade with Japan
1941 - April: Japanese-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, July: US imposes total ban on trade with Japan,
and freezes Japanese assets

Overview
● In 1931, Japan’s invasion of Manchuria challenged the league and its goal of maintaining
collective security
● Br + Fr struggling w/ economic effects of Great depression + both had colonies in Asia →
hence reluctant to provoke clash w/ Japan
● Although the League set up the Lytton Enquiry at the end of 1931, it did not accept the report
until Feb. 1933, by which time Japan had conquered all of Manchuria
● In March 1934, Japan left the League
● During early 1930s, Japan made multiple incursions into China, and during July 1937, began
its invasion of China
○ The League did nothing
● Although USSR signed non-aggression pact w/ China and began to provide China with
military supplies, other major states did nothing besides holding a conference of the Nine-
Power Treaty signatories
● Although US President Roosevelt made his ‘Quarantine Speech’ in October 1937 (on the
issue of mounting aggression) the US took no action - apart for joining Britain and France in
making loans to China
● From 1940, when Japan began to occupy parts of French Indo-China, the US began to
impose economic sanctions on trade w/ Japan. In October 1940, these restrictions were
partial. By July 1941, the US imposed a total ban on all vital materials to Japan, as well as
freezing all Japanese assets in the US.
● Just five months after these US actions, Japan launched its attack on the US Pacific fleet
stationed in Pearl Harbor
● Historiography:
○ While most history books attribute blame to the limited and ineffective response of the
League of Nations, responses of individual nations were not much better.
○ Nations in Europe struggling w/ depression + more concerned w/ challenges of peace
settlements mitigating the threat of Nazi Germany & Fascist Italy.
○ US was more concerned with protecting its own interests in Asia/Pacific region until
1941 when it began to finally take meaningful action to limit Japanese aggression.

4.1 How did the League of Nations respond to

Japan’s expansionism?

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 ● Before Great Depression in 1929, second half of 1920s had witnessed an improvement in
international relations
● Yet by early 30s - effects of depression on domestic conditions led to some countries
adopting a more aggressive & expansionist foreign policy - causing serious problems for the
League
● Before 1936 - the League faced two key issues: Japan’s invasion of Manchuria 1931 & Italy’s
invasion of Abyssinia 1935

Crisis over Manchuria

● Difficult for league to handle situation in Manchuria because both China & Japan were in
League
● Britain + France -- most important members of League in 1931 -- had colonies in Asia
○ Because of economic depression, Br. + Fr. wanted to safeguard its interests
● League’s response to Manchuria was a FAILURE
● Mussolini + Hitler saw League’s lenient response to Japan’s invasion as an indication that Br.
+ Fr. were not prepared to take joint action to prevent expansionist foreign policies
● Japan claimed that military actions in Manchuria had been to protect their investments/
interests from ‘bandits’
○ … still clear that Japan was the aggressor of the situation
● China appealed to League for help -expecting League to order Japan to stop occupation/
withdraw forces
● Because Japan portrayed actions as ‘attempt to restore order’ → some countries, eg: Br. were
sympathetic
● Japan simply referred to the event as ‘The Manchurian Incident’
● Japan suggested that League to set up Commision of Enquiry to investigate

The Lytton Commission

● December 8th 1931 - League formed a commission headed by Lord Lytton (from Br.)
○ Commission included members from France, Italy, Germany (& even US)
● Lytton Commission presented a report in October 1932 after months of gathering info.
○ TOO LATE
○ Japan’s army had occupied even more of Manchuria (in defiance of Japan’s gov)
● In March 1932, Japan had renamed Manchuria ‘Manchukuo’
● In order not to offend Japan - Lytton report stated that Japan had legitimate econ interests +
special rights - but that its military-actions had not been self-defense
● Report criticized China for deterioration of diplomatic relations between China/Japan
○ Report accepted Japan’s argument that China’s internal unrest/instability had
negatively affected Japan’s econ interests in Manchuria
● Report suggested:
○ Japan + China should begin negotiations to settle outstanding differences
● Final conclusion:
○ Japan should withdraw troops + recognize Chinese sovereignty over Manchuria
○ League should NOT recognize ‘Manchukuo’ as independent country
● Feb 1933 - report adopted by all members of the League (42 votes in favor, 1 against -
Japan)
● A motion was passed - officially condemning Japan’s actions
● Japan delegation walked out of meeting - claiming decision had been ‘unfair’
" Japan withdrew from league March 1933

The League’s response and its significance

● Japan’s withdrawal = first time powerful member had refused advice of League
● Situation complicated by impact of econ. depression
○ Eg: Britain reluctant to use force/apply econ sanctions

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 ○ France didn’t see ‘justification’ in taking action in intervening in ‘a small country’
○ BOTH fearful that interference in Japan wd/ have adverse effects on trade + colonial
interests in the region
● US + USSR - ideal powers to take action - were NOT in the league
● Br + Fr didn’t see dispute in Asia ‘particularly damaging’ to the League’s authority in Europe
○ didn’t think it was a threat to collective security
● League therefore took no effective action
● Despite claiming in Feb 1933 that Manchukuo should not be recognized - no econ. sanctions
imposed
● Later events showed how crucial Manchuria had been for collective security
○ ENCOURAGED GERMANY + ITALY to solve their own econ. issues via aggressive/
expansionist policy
○ Showed weakness of the League
○ Showed that NO State could expect assistance by the League
● Japan’s actions balanced the balance of power in the Pacific - an area where US had been
establishing its own econ interest/political influence for decades

Japan’s Invasion of China, 1937

● Invasion of Manchuria gave Japan a prime strategic position to invade/extend influence in
China
● Japan’s actions vs. Mainland China had begun as early as 1932 w/ Shanghai incident
○ China had also appealed to League - w/ no success
● China turned to League again in 1937 - w/ no success
○ Only received ‘spiritual support’
● Br + Fr were facing increased attempts by Germany (now under Hitler) to undermine post-war
peace settlements of 1919-20
○ Too preoccupied in Europe to challenge Japan

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4.2 What political developments occurred within
China as a result of Japanese aggression
● Jiang Jieshi’s determination to crush communists prevented Nationalist gov. From opposing
Japan incursion into Manchuria in 1931
● Nine-Power treaty nations had met in Brussels October 1937 - but no practical outcome
● October 1937 - Roosevelt called for Japan’s aggression to be ‘quarantined’ → but took no
action
" Only USSR did any help → Sep 1937 - Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression pact w/ China
○ Soviet Aid = volunteer air force, military aid, $250 mil. In credit for purchase of military
supplies
○ USSR = biggest provider of aid to China until 1940 - when US + West decided to
finally help China seriously
● Japan’s attack in 1937 (Rape of Nanjing) led to new determination in China to resist Japan.

The Second United Front

" Japan’s increasingly aggressive actions/incursions between 1932-27 caused Jiang’s generals
to force him to form a second united front in December 1936 w/ Communists to resist
Japan
● Yet … despite this second united front, CCP + GMD still clashed
● Jiang’s forces mostly concentrated on South China - Communists in North able to take control
of rural north
● CCP’s determination to fight Japan + their econ/social reforms gained them much popular
support
● WWII ended 1945 → civil war between CCP + GMD resumed
○ Despite US support for Jiang … GMD defeated 1949

The Second Sino-Japanese War after Pearl Harbour

● After US declared war on Japan Dec 1941 … US military supplies arrived in Jiang’s wartime
capital Chongqing via Burma road
● US airfields built in SE China → enabled US bombers to disrupt Japan’s maritime trade + cut
off Japanese imports
● April 1944 - Japanese forces launched offensive to capture US airfields
○ By 1944 - Japan occupied large areas of SE China
○ Chongqing now cut off from coast
○ (This was the HIGH POINT of Japan’s conquest)
● Aug 1945 - US dropped nukes on Hiroshima/Nagasaki ending WWII + Sino-Jap war
● Japan still had 1 mil. Troops in China

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4.3 What was the International response to
Japanese Aggression
● Apart from League … numerous other countries responded to Japanese aggression which
contributed to outbreak of WWII
● Member states of League always pursued individual national interests → undermining the very
purpose upon which the League was founded

Soviet Foreign Policy

● Since 1931 w/ Japan’s invasion of Manchuria → Stalin worried about growing threat of Japan
● During Russian Civil War 1918-1920 → Japan intervened + occupied parts of Siberia
● Clear to Stalin that Japan intent on expanding into Soviet territories near Manchuria
● Stalin concerned that Jiang more focused on defeating CCP’s Red Army than Japan
● To stay on ‘friendly terms’ w/ Japan - Stalin agreed to sell Eastern Railway to Japan’s
Manchukuo
" Stalin’s fears continued 1936-37 when Japan, Italy, Germany signed anti-comintern pact
● Given Br + Fr continuous appeasement in Europe … Stalin now concerned that USSR would
face a double attack from Germany + Japan
● As a result … in August 1937, USSR + signed treaty w/ Nationalist China which agreed that
USSR would send military supplies to GMD
" Tensions w/ Japan continued → from May - August 1939, clashes between Soviets + Japan
took place on border between Manchukuo + communist Mongolia
○ Japan expected quick victory … since Stalin’s purges of military leaders had
weakened Red Army
○ USSR put up stiff resistance … August 1939 → Japan’s forces suffered defeat at
Khalkhin-Gol
● September 1939 - USSR + Japan ceasefire
● Within Japan’s gov → debate between ‘Strike North’ (vs. USSR) or ‘Strike South’ (vs. Pacific/
SE Asia) factions … now clear that ‘Strike South’ was better option
● April 1941 - Japanese-Soviet Non-Aggression pact
○ USSR + Japan wd/ each respect Manchukuo + Mongolia
● Prior to pearl harbour … Soviet spies had discovered that Japanese gov. had decided against
advancing north into the USSR
● Nazi Germany launched invasion on USSR June 1941
○ Japan DID NOT support Germany … despite having signed Tripartite Pact Sep 1940
● Japan + USSR remained at peace throughout WWII … until August 1945 → USSR disowned
their 1941 non-aggression pact and declared war on Japan/invaded Manchuria

The Western Democracies

● 1930s - Western foreign policies constricted by Great Depression
● Britain + France concentrated on solving their own economic interest
○ Often, they cut gov + armament expenditure
● Aggressor nations (Germany, Italy, Japan) → realized that econ. problems made Western
nations less threatening opponents
● Br + Fr in 1930s - in too weak a position to defend intl. status quo
" Aggressor nations saw territorial expansion as a way of solving their econ problems & were
quick to exploit the reluctance of Britain/France and ‘the international power vacuum’
● As league became increasingly ineffective, nations turned to direct diplomacy + tried to
involve US in limiting military aggression
○ Led to calling of 9 power treaty conf. Oct 1937 to deal w/ Japan’s invasion of China

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The Nine-Power Treaty Conference
● In response to Roosevelt’s ‘Quarantine Speech’ October 1937 (talking about the spread of
international lawlessness) … Br. proposed that China’s case should be transferred to Nine-
Power Treaty conference
● Nine Power Treaty connected to Washington naval conference of 1922 → bringing USA into
the picture
● Nine-Power Treaty Conference members met in November 1937
● Br + Fr already following appeasement … reluctant to take action (esp. when realizing US
didn’t want to take action either)
● By end of month … no effective action taken
● Not until WWII wd/ China receive significant aid from Western powers
○ In the meantime… Japan continued war in China
● Br. even recognized Japan’s conquests in China in July 1939

The Response of the US

The US + Japan before 1931

● 1868 → US had forced Japan to open up to US trade
● Since then … US concerned about rapid industrialisation/modernisation taking place in Japan
○ Threat to US interests in pacific
● US therefore got involved in several pacific conflicts:
○ Eg: joined other european nations to intervene in Boxer rebellion
○ Had helped end Russo-Japanese war 1904-05, via treaty of Portsmouth
● US main aim = limit Japan’s territorial gains
● After Roosevelt… Taft took over
○ He pursued ‘Dollar Diplomacy’ → using US financial power to ensure US econ.
domination in pacific (+ also Latin America)
● 1911, US helped develop railway systems in China
● US banks tried (and failed) to buy South Manchurian Railway Company
● Woodrow Wilson denounced ‘Dollar Diplomacy’ … US foreign policy still centered on limiting
Japanese expansion
● When USA recognized new nationalist gov in China after 1911 ‘Double Tenth’ Revolution
(overthrowing the last emperor) … Japan angry
○ Japan wanted China to be unstable (which meant no international support) so that it
could exploit the situation + expand
● Pre-1931 … despite minor tensions, US + Japan relations = mostly stable
● When depression hit … militarism took over Japan + tensions increased

The US and the Manchurian Incident

● US increasingly concerned about its interests in Asia after Manchurian incident
● Despite not being a member of League … US sent representatives to join Lytton Commission
+ informed that it would not accept territorial changes achieved by use of force
○ Such expansionism = against Kellogg-Briand pact
○ Kellogg-Briand signed in 1928 by US/France + 60 other countries incl. Japan …
promised that no signatories could use force as a way to achieve national objectives
● US condemnation not backed by solid action
● Even in 1931 … US didn’t begin limiting trade w/ Japan
● ^ since US took no action … convinced Fr. + Br. that they shouldn’t either

The US and Japan’s invasion of China

● US concerns mounted in 1937, when Japan invaded China + claimed their ‘New Order’ policy
in Asia

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 ● Unlike Br. + Fr. → US not preoccupied w/ Nazi Germany … therefore seemed reasonable for
US to take action against China
● Oct. 1937 - Roosevelt delivered ‘Quarantine Speech’ → suggested US should help countries
attacked by aggressive nations
○ China read this as meaning the US would eventually help
○ This boosted morale in China

Increased tensions between the US and Japan

● Nine-Power treaty resulted in nothing
● Br. + Fr. doing nothing to help China … too busy w/ appeasement in Europe
● US following ‘isolationism’ policy
● HOWEVER … in December 1937, US joined Br. + Fr. in making loans to China for war
supplies
● Yet … in 1939, US negotiated trade agreements w/ Japan
○ This allowed Japan to purchase military trucks, machine tools, + strategic materials
(oil, steel, scrap iron)
○ ^ these were VITAL to Japan’s army
● Eventual econ. sanctions were a response to Japan’s actions in Indo-China … not China
● Until 1940 … US continued verbal condemnation
● Public opinions in the US = sympathetic to Chinese
● As US strengthened ties w/ Jiang Jieshi + GMD … US harshened its stance towards Japan
● Br. + US had initially hoped that Jap. expansion wd/ be directed vs. USSR
○ Within Jap gov → ‘Strike South’ Faction won … meaning they wd/ advance into
Britain, France, and Netherlands territories
○ (due to Soviet’s strong resistance during Mongolia border clashes 1939)

US ban, July 1941

● July 28th, US announced total ban on vital supplies (oil + iron) to Japan, freezing all
Japanese assets in the USA
○ This was a response to Japan’s decision to place a large armed force in southern
Indo-China
● Roosevelt said that Japan’s assets wd/ not be restored UNTIL Japan made peace w/ China
● Only other way for Japan to access oil in the region = via British + Dutch colonies in SE Asia
● Netherlands defeated by Nazi Germany 1940
● Japan was still not strong enough to take on Anglo-American naval force
● Japan feared that US was building up its navy to block further expansion
○ Led to attack on Pearl Harbour on Dec 7th 1941
○ ^ Japanese attempt to secure its natural resources
● After Pearl Harbour … Japanese force now in good position to expand further in the region
● First attacks on Dutch East Indies began December 1941 … one day after Pearl Harbour
● Japan also launched simultaneous attacks on Philippines, British owned Hong-Kong, and
Malaya

35