History of India from

C. 300 C.E. to 1206 UNIT 10 EMERGENCE OF RASHTRAKUTAS*

Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Historical Backgrounds of the Empire
10.3 The Rashtrakuta Empire
10.4 Disintegration of the Empire
10.5 Administration
10.6 Polity, Society, Religion, Literature
10.7 Summary
10.8 Key Words
10.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
10.10 Suggested Readings

10.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit, we will discuss about the origin and emergence of the Rashtrakutas
and the formation of Rashtrakuta empire. Later, we will also explore the
organization and nature of Rashtrakuta state with social, religious, educational,
cultural achievements during the Rashtrakutas. After studying the Unit, you will
be able to learn about:
major and minor kingdoms that were ruling over different territories of
south India between 8th and 11th centuries;
emergence of the Rashtrakutas as a dominant power in Deccan;
the process of the formation of Rashtrakuta empire and contributions of
different kings;
the nature of early medieval polity and administration in the Deccan;
significant components of the feudal political structure such as ideological
bases, bureaucracy, military, control mechanism, villages etc.; and
social, religious, educational, architectural and cultural developments within
the Rashtrakuta empire.

10.1 INTRODUCTION
India witnessed three powerful kingdoms between c. 750 and 1000 CE: Pala
empire, Pratihara empire and Rashtrakuta empire in south India. These kingdoms
fought each other to establish their respective hegemony which was the trend of
early medieval India. Historian Noboru Karashima treats the empire as a new
type of state, i.e. feudal state showing both discontinuities and continuities with
states that had emerged in these areas from 3rd century onwards. Rashtrakuta
empire dominated the Deccan for almost 200 years till the end of 10 th century
and also controlled territories in north and south India at various times, which

Dr. Pintu Kumar, Assistant Professor, Motilal Nehru College (Evening), University of Delhi
*
152
lasted the longest of the three. It was not only the most powerful empire of the Emergence of Rashtrakutas
time but also acted as a bridge between north and south India in economic as
well as cultural matters. It also promoted and expanded north Indian traditions
and policies in south India. Significantly, India touched new heights of stability
and achievements in the field of polity, economy, culture, education and religion
in this phase.

10.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDS OF THE

EMPIRE
The word ‘Rashtrakuta’ means chief of the Rashtra (division or kingdom). It is
possible that the line of kings belonged to this class of provincial officers, as the
designation appears in the inscriptions of many dynasties. We may say for sure
that the Rashtrakutas were high officials, either provincial chiefs or another
kind of administrators. For example, a Rashtrakuta Govindaraja, son of Shivaraja
acting as vijnapti (petitioner), is mentioned in the Naravana plates of Chalukya
Vikramaditya II of Badami. Romila Thapar also cites that Dantidurga – founder
of the main branch of the Rashtrakutas – was one of the subordinates of Chalukyas
and a high official in the administration. Historians are still not clear about
origin of the Rashtrakutas and its branches. Following the tradition of devising
Puranic pedigrees, the Rashtrakutas also claim in their inscriptions that they
belong to the Satyaki branch of Yaduvamsha (e.g. Inscription Nos. IX, X and
XXI) and the line of Tungas (e.g. Inscription Nos. XXIV, XXV and XXVI).
Historian Nilkantha Sastri, based on the study of inscriptions, claims that the
Rashtrakutas were of Kannada origin, and their plates indicate that Kannada
was their mother tongue despite the extensive use of Sanskrit. Also, the standard
title Lattaloora-puravareshvara (“the eminent lord of the city of Lattalura”)
assumed by Rashtrakuta princes of both the main line and of the secondary
branches indicates their original home. Lattalura has been identified with Latur
in the Bidar district of Hyderabad. In this way, we can say that Deccan was the
original home of the Rashtrakutas, which generally means the whole region
occupied by the Telugu speaking population as well as Maharashtra with certain
parts of northern Karnataka (Kannada speaking).

The Rashtrakuta dynasty is famous for a long line of brave warriors and able
administrators, which helped them in the formation of a vast empire. They
fought continuously with the Pratiharas, eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (in modern
Andhra Pradesh), Cholas, Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madurai. The
Pallavas were in decline and their successors – the Cholas – were emerging.
Weaknesses of these kingdoms became helpful in victories and the establishment
of Rashtrakuta empire. There was no power in northern India strong enough to
interfere with affairs of the Deccan that also provided an opportunity for the
emergence of Rashtrakutas. Thapar argues that geographical position of the
Rashtrakutas, i.e. in the middle of the Indian subcontinent led to their involvement
in wars and alliances with both the northern and, more frequently, the southern
kings. It resulted in expansion of the empire in all directions. Historian Karashima
argues that one of the crucial factors for the formation of Rashtrakuta power
might have been an environment within their territory favourable to the growth
of agriculture. Thapar also explores favourable economic factors and mentions
that the Rashtrakutas had the advantage of controlling a large part of the western
seaboard and, therefore, trade with West Asia, particularly with the Arabs,
provided the wealth to back their political ambitions. 153
History of India from
C. 300 C.E. to 1206 10.3 THE RASHTRAKUTA EMPIRE
There were several branches of the Rashtrakutas ruling in different parts of
India in the early medieval period. Earliest known ruling family of the
Rashtrakutas was founded by Mananka in Malkhed, having the Paalidhvaja
banner and the Garuda-laanchhana. Another Rashtrakuta family was ruling in
the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. The Antroli-Chharoli inscription bearing
the Garuda seal dated 757 CE mentions four generations: Karka I, his son
Dhruva, his son Govinda, and his son Karka II belonging to a collateral branch
of the Malkhed line holding sway in the Lata country in Gujarat. Dantidurga
was the founder of the imperial Rashtrakuta line. He seems contemporary of
Karka II. Exact relation of these kings to the Malkhed line cannot be decided
with certainty, though it is not impossible that Karka I of the charter of 757 CE
was identical with the grandfather of Dantidurga himself. The kingdom was
founded by Dantidurga who fixed his capital at Manyakheta or Malkhed near
Modern Sholapur. Manyakheta branch of the Rashtrakutas soon became dominant
and imperial by assimilating other branches in due time. We can prepare a
dynastic chart of the imperial line of Rashtrakutas with their titles as follows:
Danti-varman

Indra I

Govindaraja

Kakka I

Indra II

Dantidurga (Prithivivallabha, Maharajadhiraja, Parameshvara,

Paramabhattaaraka)

Krishnaraja I (Shubhatunga, Akaalavarsha, Rajadhiraja, Parameshvara)

Govinda II (Prabhutavarsha and Vikramavaloka)

Dhruva (Nirupama, Kali-vallabha, Dharavarsha, Shrivallabha)

Govinda III (Jagattunga, Kirti-Narayana, Janavallabha, Tribhuvanadhavala,

Prabhutavarsha, Srivallabha)

Amoghavarsha I (Sarva) (Nripatunga, Atishayadhavala, Maharaja-shanda,

Vira-Narayana)

Krishna II (Akalavarsha and Shubhatunga)

Indra III (Nityavarsha, Rattakandarpa, Kirti-Narayana, Rajamartanda)

Amoghavarsha II

Govinda IV (Suvarnavarsha, Prabhutavarsha, Chaanakyachaturmukha,

NripatiTrinetra, VikrantaNarayana)
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 Emergence of Rashtrakutas
Amoghavarsha III

Krishna III (Akalavarsha)

Khottiga

Karka II

We now come to the main line of Rashtrakutas. Dantidurga, a strong and able
ruler, was the real founder of a lasting empire. The earliest record of his reign
– the Ellora inscription of 742 CE – mentions the titles prithvivallabha and
khagavaloka (he whose glances are as keen as the edge of a sword) for him.
Lata and Malava were in a disturbed condition after the Arab invasion and
taking that advantage Dantidurga took control of the territories. Dantidurga also
attacked Kanchi, the capital of the Pallavas, and struck up an alliance with
Nandivarman Pallavamalla to whom he gave his daughter Reva in marriage.
The warlike monarch Dantidurga captured the outlying territories of the extensive
Chalukyan empire and then assaulted on the heart of empire and easily defeated
Kirtivarman. The Samangadh inscription of 754 CE records that Dantidurga
overthrew the last Chalukya ruler of Badami called Kirtivarman II and assumed
full imperial rank and described himself as:
Prithvivallabha,
Maharajadhiraja,
Parameshvara, and
Paramabhattaraka

Kirtivarman continued to rule with diminished glory until the reign of Dantidurga.
Dantidurga describes his territory as comprising four lakhs of villages, which
probably included his sway only over a little more than one half of the Chalukyan
empire of Badami.

Dantidurga died childless, which aroused a dispute between Krishnaraja I –

his uncle – and other family members who succeeded in seizing the throne for
a while but whom Krishnaraja I overthrew easily in 756 CE because of his
popularity. He had the titles Shubhatunga (High in Prosperity) and Akalavarsha
(Constant Rainer) mentioned in Bhandak Inscription of Krishnaraja I of 772
CE. The newly established Rashtrakuta kingdom expanded in all direction under
him. He started with the completion of the overthrow of the Chalukyas of
Badami. The Bhandak plates of 772 CE show that the whole of Madhya Pradesh
had come under his rule. In other inscriptions, he is said to have overcome
Rahappa and thereby gained the Palidhvaja banner and the imperial title
Rajadhiraja Parameshvara. Historian Sastri treats Rahappaas Kakka II of Lata
which may be taken to mark the end of the first Lata branch of the Rashtrakutas.
Southern Konkana was also conquered and brought under his sway by Krishnaraja
I. He also expanded his empire in the southern direction by establishing lordship
over the Ganga kingdom. Also, his son and yuvaraja Govinda compelled
Vijayaditya I of the Vengi branch of Chalukya for formal submission. The
Rashtrakuta empire under Krishnaraja I may, thus, be taken to have extended
over the whole of the modern Maharashtra state, a good part of the Mysore
155
History of India from country, practically the whole of the former Hyderabad state, with Vengi farther
C. 300 C.E. to 1206
east acknowledging its supremacy and a good portion of Madhya Pradesh.

Krishnaraja I died sometime between 772 CE and 775 CE and was followed on
the throne by his son yuvaraja Govinda II. Govinda II bears the titles
Prabhutavarsha (Profuse Rainer) and Vikramavaloka (the man with a heroic
look) in the Alas plates. His name is omitted in some of the later grants of the
line. It was due to civil war for the throne between him and his younger brother
Dhruva ruling in the region of Nasik and Khandesh as the governor. The first
war between brothers ended disastrously for Govinda II. He then allied with the
Pallava ruler of Kanchi, the Ganga king, the king of Vengi and the ruler of
Malava who were traditional foes of the Rashtrakutas, but got defeated in a
battle and Dhruva assumed the sovereignty. Dhruva assumed the titles:
Nirupama (Unequalled),
Kali-vallabha (fond of war),
Dharavarsha (Heavy Rainer) and
Shrivallabha (the Favourite of Fortune).
Dhruva severely punished all kings who assisted Govinda II in the late civil war
after securing the throne. He made his younger but ablest son Govinda III
emperor during his lifetime.
Govinda III (793-814) became one of the greatest Rashtrakuta rulers who had
the titles of:
Jagattunga (prominent in the world),
Kirti-Narayana (the very NârâyaGa in respect of fame),
Janavallabha (favourite of the people),
Tribhuvanadhavala (pure in the three worlds),
Prabhutavarsha (the abundant rainer), and
Shrivallabha.
He first quelled the rebellions of his elder brothers in the south. In the north,
after a successful expedition against Nagabhatta of Kanauj and the annexation
of Malawa along with Kosala, Kalinga, Vengi, Dahala and Odraka, Govinda III
again turned to the south. We are told in the Sanjan Inscription that Govinda
“terrified the Kerala, Pandya and the Chola kings and caused the Pallavas to
wither. The Gangas of Karnataka, who became dissatisfied through baseness,
were bound down with fitters and met with death.” Govinda’s southern campaign
seems to be no more than a digvijaya: the traditional proclamation of superior
power by a triumphant march across the territory of the neighbouring rulers
demanding tokens of their submission. Performing better than his father’s
expectations, he spread the fame of the Rashtrakuta empire literally from the
Himalayas to Cape Comorin through his skills both in diplomacy and on the
battlefield. It is said that the Rashtrakutas became as unassailable as the Yadavas
after the birth of Sri Krishna.

Govinda’s successor became his only son Maharaja Sarva better known as
Amoghavarsha I (814-878 CE) who, also like his father, proved himself as one
of the greatest of Rashtrakuta monarchs. Amoghavarsha ruled for 68 years, but
156
by temperament he preferred digvijaya in the sphere of religion, literature, and Emergence of Rashtrakutas
architecture better than to war. He had the titles:
Nripatunga (Exalted among kings),
Atishayadhavala (Wonderfully white in conduct),
Maharaja-shanda (Best of the great kings), and
Vira-Narayana (The heroic Narayana).
He was genuinely interested in the religious traditions of contemporary India
and used to spend his time in the company of Jaina monks and other forms of
spiritual meditation. His inscriptions count him among the most prominent
followers of Jainism. He was not only an author himself but also a patron of
authors. Jinasena, the author of Adipurana, was among the Jaina preceptors of
Amoghavarsha I. He did not only promote Jainism but also the Brahmanical
religion and also performed several rituals for the welfare of his subjects. He
was also a great builder and is celebrated in the inscriptions Nos. XXIV, XXV,
and XXVI as the maker of the capital city Manyakheta to excel in the city of
Indra.

There were many rebellions in the far-flung Rashtrakuta empire under his long
reign. His death was followed by the accession of his son Krishna II in about
879 CE. Krishna II had the titles Akalavarsha and Shubhatunga. He was not
wholly successful in curbing rebellions. The only success of his reign was the
termination of Lata viceroyalty. The wars he undertook against Vengi and the
Cholas got him on the whole nothing but disaster, disgrace, and exile for some
time. His son Indra III became king in 915 CE. Indra III had the titles:
Nityavarsha (constant rainer),
Rattakandarpa (Eros among the Rattas
Kirti-Narayana, and
Rajamartaong (Son among kings).
Amoghavarsha I’s grandson Indra III re-established the empire. The advance of
the Rashtrakuta forces through Lata and Malawa right up to Kalpi and Kanauj
and the dethronement of Mahipala were, no doubt, significant military
achievements of Indra. After the defeat of Mahipala and the sack of Kanauj in
915 CE, Indra III was the most powerful ruler of his times. According to Al-
Masudi who visited India at that time, the Rashtrakuta king Balhara or
Vallabharaja was the greatest king of India and most of the Indian rulers accepted
his suzerainty and respected his envoys.

Indra III’s reign comes to a close towards the end of 927 CE. He was followed
on the throne by his son Amoghavarsha II and reined for one year according
to the Bhandana grant of Silahara Aparajita (997 CE). His younger brother, the
ambitious Govinda IV, celebrated his coronation with great pomp. Govinda IV
had the titles:
Suvar Gavarsha (rainer of gold),
Prabhutavarsha,
Chanakyachaturmukha,
VikrantaNarayana, and 157
History of India from Nripati Trinetra.
C. 300 C.E. to 1206
He was not a good king. His life, rule and acquisition of throne provoked
resentment among the feudatories. They became united for a revolution which
ended with the defeat and dethronement of Govinda IV and the transfer of the
crown to Amoghavarsha III in 934-35 CE for saving the fair name of the royal
family. Amoghavarsha III had a short reign of four to five years. He was a
gentle, peaceful and wise king and strongly marked by a religious turn of mind.
He engaged himself in the promotion of the royal family by granting many
villages to Brahmins and building many temples of Shiva. His son and yuvaraja
Krishna III managed all other affairs of the state. His greatness as a soldier is
indeed attested by the early wars he waged as crown prince on behalf of his
brother-in-law Butugga, and perhaps by the success of Rashtrakuta arms in the
confused struggles that went on the Vengi kingdom. The Deoli and Karhad
plates (Nos. XXIV and XXV) indicate that Krishna III became king after his
father’s death in 939 CE and bestowed with the particular imperial title
Akalavarsha.

Krishna III was the last in a line of brilliant rulers. He was engaged in a struggle
against the Paramaras of Malava and the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. The
Karhad plates (No. XXV) issued from the king’s camp at Melpadi in the North
Arcot district mention that he also undertook one of the earliest but extensive
military conquest against the Chola ruler of Tanjore, who had supplanted the
Pallavas of Kanchi. Krishna III defeated the Chola king Parantaka I (949 CE),
annexed the northern part of the Chola empire and distributed the Chola kingdom
among his servants. He, then, pressed down to Rameshwaram and set up a pillar
of victory there and built a temple. After his death, all in late 966 CE or very
early in 967 CE his opponents united against his successor half-brother Khottiga.
The Rashtrakuta capital Manyakheta was sacked, plundered and burnt in 972
CE by the Paramara kings and the emperor was forced to abandon Manyakheta.
Karka II succeeded Khottiga, who was overthrown by Tailla II, Chalukya. The
Bhandana grant of Aparajita (997 CE) and the Kharepatan plates dated 1008 CE
state that Tailapa, the Chalukya defeated Karka in battle and the Rammarajya
ceased to exist. It marked the end of the Rashtrakuta Empire.

10.4 DISINTEGRATION OF THE EMPIRE

Ahavamalla Tailaparasa, one of the most potent feudatories of the Rashtrakuta
Empire, became strong enough within a few years of the death of Krishna to
overthrow Karka II and establish himself as independent monarch by laying the
foundation of the Western Chalukya Empire of Kalyani. There were several
reasons behind the sudden disintegration of the Rashtrakuta empire. The
Rashtrakutas continuously engaged in the struggle with the Pratiharas, the
Chalukyas, the Pallavas, and the Palas who were relatively equally matched
empires, which turned into a war of attrition and the almost simultaneous decline
of the rival powers. The Rashtrakuta Empire was based on a large number of
small and big feudatories, and these samantas took advantage to break away
and found smaller kingdoms. These feudatories always aspired to be independent,
so local wars between them and the overlords were frequent, which disturbed
the peace of the empire. Amoghavarsha never eliminated the threat of rebellion
by subordinate rulers in his rule. Krishna in the process of saving the Rashtrakuta
empire made it weak from the core. He rewarded warriors, relatives and friends
158
like Butuga and Taila for their services, loyalty, and bravery with an open heart Emergence of Rashtrakutas
and they became great powers of the empire. For example, Krishna III did not
foresee the feudal developments likely to endanger the stability of his empire,
and he gave the province of Tardavadi 1000 near the heart of the empire as
anungajivita (military fief) to Taila. Their sway extended over home territory
and directly administered by the emperor. In this way, Krishna was a good
friend but by no means a wise emperor. He allowed momentary personal feelings
to betray him into courses of action which proved politically disastrous to the
empire. We can conclude that the feudalism — once the strength of the
Rashtrakutas – swallowed them when kings became weak and incapable of
managing feudatories.
Check Your Progress 1
1) Read the following sentences and write True or False.
i) The Rashtrakuta kingdom survived longer than the Pratiharas and the
Palas which ruled over the Deccan for more than two centuries. ( )
ii) All the Rashtrakuta princes assumed the title of Lammalura-
puravareshvara. ( )
iii) The Deccan was the original home of the Rashtrakutas. ( )
iv) The Rashtrakutas were high officials; either provincial chiefs or another
kind of administrators. ( )
v) The warrior Rashtrakuta kings established and expanded their empire
supported by the growth of agriculture, the control of western seaboard,
and the trade with the Arabs. ( )
2) Fill in the blanks.
a) The Rashtrakutas often struggled with their contemporary kingdoms
such as:
..................................................., ...................................................
,........................... ........................., ...................................................
3) Note down five favourable factors in the formation and expansion of the
Rashtrakuta empire.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
4) How did Krishnaraja I and Govinda III contribute to the expansion of the
Rashtrakuta empire?
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
159
History of India from
C. 300 C.E. to 1206 10.5 ADMINISTRATION
The warrior kings of the Rashtrakutas created a vast empire in South India
which was touching the northern parts of India comprising approximately seven
and a half lakh villages. The Rashtrakutas not only won and created a vast
kingdom but also maintained it well. A powerful monarchy was the core of the
empire, assisted by a large number of feudatories. Interestingly, the realm was
getting feudalised more and more with the maturity of the reign of each
Rashtrakuta king. The system of administration in the realms was based on the
ideas and practices of the Gupta Empire and the Harsha’s kingdom in the north,
and the Chalukyas in the Deccan. As before, the monarch was the fountainhead
of all powers including the head of administration and the commander-in-chief
of the armed forces. The king was responsible for the maintenance of law and
order within the kingdom and expected absolute loyalty and obedience from his
family, ministers, vassal chiefs, feudatories, officials, and chamberlains. The
king’s position was generally hereditary, but the rules about succession were not
rigidly fixed. The eldest son often succeeded, but there were many instances
when the eldest son had to fight his younger brothers and sometimes lost to
them. Thus, the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva and Govinda IV deposed their elder
brothers. Kings were generally advised and helped by many hereditary ministers
chosen by them from leading families. We do not know how many of them were
there and how they worked. From epigraphic and literary records it appears that
in almost every kingdom there was a chief minister, a minister of foreign affairs,
a revenue minister and treasurer, chief of armed forces, chief justice, and purohita.
In the Rashtrakuta kingdom the directly administered areas were divided into:
Rashtra (province),
Visaya, and
Bhukti.
The head of a Rashtra was called Rashtrapati (governor) who sometimes enjoyed
the status and title of a vassal king. The Visaya was like a modern district under
Visayapati, and the Bhukti was a smaller unit than it. A body of assistants called
the Rashtramahattaras and Vishayamahattaras respectively assisted provincial
governors and district level governors in the Rashtrakuta administration. The
roles and powers of these smaller units and their administrators are not clear. It
seems that their primary purpose was the realisation of land revenue and some
attention to law and order. It appears that all officials were paid by giving them
grants of rent-free land.

The feudatories played an essential role in the formation and administration of

the Rashtrakuta empire. We know that the Rashtrakutas won many battles and
expanded the empire which was not possible without the help of feudatories.
The lords from the Ganga kingdom were primarily known for their valour in the
expeditions of Rashtrakutas. The kings regularly rewarded these chiefs with
land-grants for their loyalty and bravery that resulted in the emergence of lords
as powerful as the king. For example, the position of Taila and Ganga Butuga
in the reign of Krishna III. Sastri mentions from the study of inscriptions that
Butuga was ruling Belvola 300, Purigere 300, Gangavadi 96000, Kisukad 70,
Bagenad 70 and Banavasi 12000. The empire consisted of the areas administered
directly and areas governed by the vassal chiefs. The areas ruled by the vassal
160
chiefs were autonomous as far as internal affairs were concerned and had a Emergence of Rashtrakutas
general obligation of loyalty, paying a fixed tribute and supplying a quota of
troops to the overlord. The vassal chiefs or their son were required to attend the
darbar of the overlord on special occasions, and sometimes they were expected
to marry one of their daughters to the overlord or one of his sons.

The Rashtrakuta kings had large and well-organised infantry, cavalry, and a
large number of war-elephants mentioned in the chronicles of Arab travellers.
The large armed forces were directly related to the glamour and power of the
king, which was also essential for the maintenance and expansion of the empire
in the age of wars. The Rashtrakutas were famous for a large number of horses
in their army imported from Arabia, West Asia, and Central Asia. The real
power of the Rashtrakutas is reflected from their many forts garrisoned by
special troops and independent commanders. The infantry consisted of regular
and irregular soldiers and levies provided by the vassal chiefs. The regular
forces were often hereditary and sometimes drawn from different regions all
over India. There is no reference to war chariots which had fallen out of use.

Below these territorial divisions was the village. The village was the basic unit
of administration. The village administration was carried on by the village
headman and the village accountant whose posts were generally hereditary.
Grants of rent-free lands were paid to them. The headman was often helped in
his duties by the village elder called grama-mahajana or grama-mahattara. In
the Rashtrakuta kingdom, particularly in Karnataka, we are told that there were
village committees to manage local schools, tanks, temples and roads in close
cooperation with the headman and received a particular percentage of the revenue
collection. Towns also had similar committees, in which the heads of trade
guilds were also associated. Law and order in the cities and areas in their
immediate vicinity was the responsibility of the koshta-pala or kotwal. The
petty chieftainship and the increased hereditary elements weakened the power
of village committees. The central rule also found it difficult to assert his authority
over them and to control them. It is what we mean when we say that the
government was becoming feudalised.

10.6 POLITY, SOCIETY, RELIGION, LITERATURE

The acquisition of several titles by the Rashtrakuta kings itself seems the adoption
of the practice of north Indian kings. We can take a glimpse of the Rashtrakuta
culture through titles used by different kings such as Prithvivallabha,
Khagavaloka, Maharajadhiraja, Parameshvara, Paramabhammaraka,
Shubhatunga, Jagattunga, Akalavarsha, Rajadhiraja Parameuhvara,
Prabhutavarsha, Nityavarsha, Suvarnavarsha, Vikramavaloka, Nirupma,
Shrivallabha, Janavallabha, Rajamartanda, NripatiTrinetra, KirtiNarayana,
VikrantaNarayana etc. These Brahmanical titles and the performance of Vedic
sacrifices became a means to legitimise their rule following the north Indian
practice. It is interesting to note that the number of titles of the kings corresponded
to the power of Rashtrakuta kings and sometimes we find older titles also
reused. Politically, they were engaged in assuming high sounding titles such as
Maharajadhiraja, Parameshvara, Paramabhammaraka etc. and granting rent-
free lands and villages to lords for their services for claiming the excellent
position and the sole owner of the state. Another interesting way of proclaiming
the subordination of feudatory and defeated rulers was to install their portrait
161
History of India from images as dvarapalakas in temples in the capital city. For example, Govinda III
C. 300 C.E. to 1206
introduced two statues of the lord of Lanka like pillars of victory in adorning the
portals of a Shiva temple in Manyakheta. The Rashtrakuta kings also donated
villages to learned Brahmanas known as Agrahara villages. Govinda IV created
400 Agrahara villages at the time of his accession. Krishna maintained and
symbolised his high imperial position also through the great works of art, the
celebrated temple of Kailasha at Ellora being the most prominent among them.
The temple of Kailashanatha is one of the largest rock-cut temples carved out of
a single huge rock, which is universally recognised as the high-water mark of
the excellence of the style of architecture and sculpture initially associated with
the Pallavas.

The society at the time of Rashtrakutas became more stratified based on caste
system. Besides the usual four castes, i.e. Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and
Shudras, there existed some discriminated and untouchable social groups such
as:
shoemakers,
carpenters,
bamboo-workers,
fishers,
washermen,
sweepers,
Chandalas etc.
The dominant castes followed their traditional duties such as Brahmanas were
devoted to religious rituals and teaching and Kshatriyas were engaged in
administration and war. The Vaishyas had degenerated to the status of Shudras
due to the decline in commerce and engagement in agricultural activities.
Simultaneously, the position of the Shudras improved considerably due to the
expansion of agriculture and enlistment in the army. The condition of women
seems to not have degraded in contemporary society. Women participated in
religious and administrative activities with men. Ladies of the king’s household
also attended the court on festive occasions. Princesses were also appointed to
government posts, such as the Rashtrakuta princess Chandrobalabbe, a daughter
of Amoghavarsha I, administered the Raichur doab for some time. According to
Arab writers, in the Rashtrakuta Empire ladies did not veil their faces, which
indicate towards the non-existence of the purdah system. A. S. Altekar says that
the widow marriages had gone out of fashion in the higher levels of the society,
but the widow’s right to inherit the property of her husband was being gradually
recognised.

Archaeologist Pandit Vishveshwar Nath concludes through the studies of

inscriptions that the kings of the Rashtrakuta dynasty from time to time used to
observe the Shaiva, the Vaishnava, and the Shakta religion. The Rashtrakuta
kings presented an excellent example of religious tolerance and gave patronage
to all the faiths such as Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Islam. They did not
kill anyone for his or her religious beliefs. Toleration was also shown between
the members of the different sects. The hope that religious charity will earn
divine favour became a funding source to religious and socio-religious activities.
162 In this phase of Indian history, the southern states came more and more under
the spell of the Vedic and Agamic religion. Temples became a centre of Hindu Emergence of Rashtrakutas
gods and goddesses, culture, religion, education, and rituals. Buddhism was the
least popular religion. The number of monasteries declined considerably during
the rule of the Rashtrakutas, and the inscriptions reflect only three large, active
and vital monasteries: at Kanheri, Kampil, and Dambal. Jainism continued to be
a strong rival of Hinduism due to the generous patronage of the Rashtrakuta
kings like Amoghavarsha I, Krishna II and Indra III and the literary and religious
activities of some famous monastic scholars. A great patron of Jainism,
Amoghavarsha I appointed a Jaina monk Gunabhadra as tutor to his heir-apparent
Krishna II, extended patronage to many Jaina scholars and gave grants to several
Jaina monasteries. Even Muslims were welcomed and allowed to preach their
faith by the Rashtrakuta kings. It meant that politics and religion were, in essence,
kept apart. Religion was necessarily a personal duty of the king. Thus,
Amoghavarsha I, who was a staunch follower of Jainism, also worshipped the
Hindu goddess Lakshmi equally. In this sense, we can say that the state was
mostly secular.

Altekar mentions that Agrahara villages, Jaina and Buddhist monasteries, and
temples also acted as the centres of higher Sanskrit education in the Rashtrakuta
empire. These institutions provided instruction in different branches of learning.
The Rashtrakuta kings were also learned person such as Amoghavarsha himself
wrote the Prashnottara Ratnamalika: a small Jaina dialectic. The plates issued
by the Rashtrakutas show the extensive use of Sanskrit and the presence of
several scholars in their court. The liberal support and promotion of Sanskrit
and Kannada education in the empire led to the composition of several pieces of
literature and significant development in the field of research, logic, art, and
sciences. Halayudha wrote his Kavirahasya in the court of Krishna III, which
explains the conjugational peculiarities of roots have the same form with a
eulogy of the poet’s patron. Jainism had notable patrons in the Rashtrakuta
court. Amoghavarsha I had many Jaina authors in his court. Naturally, Jaina
literature made significant progress in this period. Harisena, his spiritual preceptor,
had composed the Harivamsha in 783 CE but his Adipurana, which he left
unfinished, was begun in the 9th century. It was completed by his disciple
Gunachandra in 897 CE. The Amoghavritti of Sakatayana — a work on grammar
— and the Ganitasarasamgraha of Viracharya — a treatise on mathematics —
were also composed in the reign of Amoghavarsha I. Later, Somadeva composed
the Yashastilaka and Nitivakyamrita. Also, the Kannada literature witnessed its
beginning and significant prosperity in the Rashtrakuta period as Amoghavarsha
himself was the author of the Kavirajamarga: the earliest work on poetics in
Kannada. Amoghavarsha also refers to his contemporary Kannada poets Srivijaya
and Gunavarman I whose works exist only in scattered quotations. Several
Kannada works were written at the court of the Chalukyas of Vemulwad, who
were feudatories of the Rashtrakutas.

Pampa I, the earliest and most celebrated of the Kannada poets, flourished here
and wrote the Adipurana and the Vikramarjunavijaya. The latter provides valuable
information about the northern campaign of Indra III. Ponna, the author of the
Shantipurana, is another famous poet of this period who got the title of
Ubhayakavichakravartin on account of his proficiency as a poet both in Sanskrit
and Kannada by Krishna III. Chamundaraja, the Jain general and minister of
Marasimha II of Gangavadi, composed the Chamunarayapurana in prose. Ranna,
the author of the Ajitapurana and the Gadayuddha, was his younger
163
History of India from contemporary. Altekar points out that in this period most of the Kannada writers
C. 300 C.E. to 1206
were Jainas by faith, which shows an essential step towards religious cooperation
and tolerance in the field of academics. The vernacular language was necessary
for preaching to the masses, which led to a plethora of vernacular literature.

Check Your Progress 2

1) Which of the following statements is Right or Wrong?
i) The system of administration in the Rashtrakuta empire was based on
the ideas and practices of the Gupta Empire, the Harsha’s kingdom,
and the Chalukyas. ( )
ii) Provincial governors and district level governors in the Rashtrakuta
administration were assisted by a body of assistants called the
Rashtramahattaras and Vishayamahattaras respectively. ( )
iii) In the Rashtrakuta kingdom, there were only directly administered
areas. ( )
iv) The Rashtrakutas were famous for a large number of horses in their
army imported from Arabia, West Asia, and Central Asia. ( )
2) List the central administrative units of the Rashtrakuta kingdom.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
3) In Section A are given the names of Kannada authors and in B the titles
of their books. Match Section A and Section B.
Section A Section B
a) Amoghavarsha I i) Kavirajamarga
b) Pampa I ii) Shantipurana
c) Ponna iii) Ajitapurana and Gadayuddha
d) Chamundaraja iv) Chamundarayapurana
e) Ranna v) Adipurana and Vikramarjunavijaya
4) Describe religious policy of the Rashtrakutas.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................

164
 Emergence of Rashtrakutas
10.7 SUMMARY
The history of the Rashtrakutas is considered as an important phase in the
history of India. From the collapse of the Chalukyas of Badami to the revival of
Chalukya power under Taila II at Kalyani is roughly two centuries, and during
this long interval the line of Rashtrakutas started by Dantidurga continued to
rule Western Deccan. The circle became complete. Their direct rule was confined
to the area that is called Rattapadi seven and a half lakhs in Tamil inscriptions.
In the North, the Pratiharas and the Palas were defeated in wars by the
Rashtrakutas, and the Paramaras became their vassals. In the South, the Ganga
country was a viceroyalty under the Rashtrakutas for many years, and the rising
empire of the Cholas suffered a severe loss. In the eastern half of the Deccan,
the Rashtrakutas tried to bring the Chalukyas of Vengi under control. A series of
battles strained the resources of the state and gave rise to feudal conditions and
the growth of mighty vassals who disturbed the peace of the realm and ultimately
overthrew the Rashtrakuta power. The memorials of Rashtrakuta rule in art,
architecture, religion, and literature claim an essential place in the heritage of
India. The Kailasha temple of Krishna I reflects extraordinary architecture.
Hinduism and Jainism prospered in the Rashtrakuta empire in an environment
of religious harmony. In this era, Kannada became one of the important languages
of South India through the evergreen works of several scholars. The administration
of the empire won the admiration of foreign visitors.

10.8 KEY WORDS

Palidhvaja : Royal banner.
Parameshvara : Devotee of Shiva.
Anungajivita : Award for extraordinary military service.
Rashtramahattara : Official of province.
Agrahara : Brahmin village.

10.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1
1) (i) True (ii) True (iii) True (iv) True
2) The Pratiharas, the Palas, the Cholas, the Pallavas, the Eastern Chalukyas.
3) See Section 10.3
4) See Section 10.3
Check Your Progress 2
1) (i) Right (ii) Right (iii) Wrong (iv) Right
2) Butuga and Taila. See Section 10.5.
3) (a) i (b) v (c) ii (d) iv (e) iii
4) See Section 10.6
165
History of India from
C. 300 C.E. to 1206 10.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
Altekar, A. S. (1934). The Rashtrakutas and Their Times. Poona: Oriental Book
Agency.
Karashima, Noboru (ed.) (2017). A Concise History of South India: Issues and
Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Mahalingam, T. V. (1955). South Indian Polity. Madras: University of Madras.
Mishra, Jayashri (1993). Social and Economic Conditions under the Imperial
Rashtrakutas: Circa A.D. 750-973. United States: Commonwealth Publishing.
Sastri, K. A. Nilakantha (1958). History of South India: From Prehistoric Times
to the Fall of Vijayanagar. London: Oxford University Press.
Sharma, R. S. (2008). Indian Feudalism. New Delhi: Laxmi Publications.
Thapar, Romila (2002). The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins
to AD 1300. New Delhi: Penguin Books.

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