OXFORD HANDBOOK OF

THE ********* **
********************°*********
**********4*e*
*****"**********°**°*******************

*************

THE HISTORY OF
NATIONALISM
. ** ********** ********* * * * ********** ******************************* ********

Edited by
JOHN BREUILLY

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
 readers follow political
follow polit:

to help
They
are
intended

states and
state-led l and
and oppositional
c

These a r e very
selective.

in
n o n - n a t i o n a l

c h r o n o l o g i ess in
in ta.
terms of
the
nationalist
movements

I have organized the

involving
in nation
states.
Parts 3 and
he chronologies
4. The chronologies;o n o back no
movements
in
national
by the chapters 200o.
go beyond
covered
and c a s e s and do not
regions century
further than
the eighteenth

(ExCLUDING
HABSBURC
EUROPE UNTIL 1918
AND OTTOMAN EUrOPE)

DATE EVENT

1707 Union of England and Scotland

Britain and France and is associated with
1756-63 Seven Years War involves global conflict between tn
patriotic discourse and movements in both countries
1772 First partition of Poland
1787 Fiscal measures proposed by French Crown lead to demands for an Estates General to be
called
1789 Estates General called; Third Estate declares itself National Assembly; Declaration of Rights
of Man and Citizen
1792 France: First Republic declared; war between France and other states, which extends with
short breaks until 1815
1793 Second partition of Poland; execution of Louis XVI
1794 Rising in rump state of Poland suppressed
1795 Third and final partition of Poland
1796 Napoleon begins reorganization of Italian lands, first as
1799 Napoleon becomes French First Consul republics and later as monarchies
1804 Napoleon declared Emperor
1806-7 French defeat of
Prussia; end of Holy Roman Empire;
Rhine; formation of Grand formation of Confederation o
1814-15 Defeat of Duchy of Warsaw
Napoleon; Congress of Vienna confirms
under a
Confederation, partition of Poland; organizes bE
monarchy in France organizes Italian lands under Austrian domination, stores
1821 Austrian military re
1830-1 July Revolution inintervention in ltalian states
disturbances in
France; insurrection in
various Congress Poland suppressed by Rusid
establishment of BelgiumGerman and Italian states;
uprising aqainst Dutch ruc
 1832 Mazzini founds Young Italy
1834 Formation of German Customs Union under Prussian leadership
1846 Failed nationalist uprisings in Galicia and Posen
1848-9 Revolutions, with many national demands, followed by counter-revolution in France, the
Habsburg Empire, the German, Italian, and Polish lands
1857 Formation of Italian National Society
1859-60 France and Piedmont defeat Austria in war, sparking off a chain of events leading to
unification of Italy (except the Papal States and Venetia) under Piedmontese rule;
formation of German National Association
1862 Bismarck appointed Minister President of Prussia
1863-4 Insurrection in Congress Poland suppressed by Russia, leading to direct incorporation of
the territory under Russian rule; beginning of 'Russification' policy by Tsarist state
1864 Austria and Prussia defeat Denmark and take over Schleswig and Holstein
1866-7 Prussia and Italy defeat Austria and other German states; Prussian annexes
Schleswig-
Holstein and Hannover; creates North German Confederation; Italy acquires Venetia
1870-1 Franco-Prussian War leads to formation of the German Second Empire; Third Republic
formed in France; Italian troops enter Rome and take over
Papal States
1881 Three Emperor's League hardens control over the Polish lands
1890 Resignation of Bismarck as German Chancellor; Three Emperor's League not renewed
1894 Franco-Russian alliance
1898 Germany embarks on a battleship fleet building programme as part of an imperialist
strategy
1904 Unrest in Finland in response to tightening of Russian control; war between Russia and
Japan
1905 Revolution in Russia stimulates nationalist movements
1907 Elections to Russian Duma encourage nationalist organizations
1914 Start of World War 1
1916 Austria and Germany create an autonomous Poland; ethnic uprising against Russian rule in
Turkestan
1917 Russian revolutions in February and October; Lenin supports 'national liberation' and
Woodrow Wilson 'national self-determination
1918 Germany ends war against Bolshevik Russia with draconian treaty of Brest-Litovsk;
launches offensive on Western Front, which fails, and sues for peace in September;
national and other uprisings throughout Europe
1918-19 Peace Conference in Versailles leads to formation of new nation states in central Europe

HABSBURG EMPIRE

DATE EVENT

1780 Joseph ll becomes Emperor, introduces enlightened reforms

1789 The first Czech patriotic newspaper founded
1791-2 Magyar and Bohemiarn nobility demand repeal of reforms
1792 Slovak Learned Society founded; wars against France begin
1804 Francis l, Holy Roman Emperor, declares himself FrancisI, Emperor of Austria
1806 Abolition of the Holy Roman Empire
1808-9 Patriotic' war against Napoleon
 CHRONOLOGIES
XX

DATE EVENT proposes

the name Slovene
J. Kopitar
created by Napoleon; philologist
1809 llyrian provinces founded
Czech Patriotic Museum
1818 national reforms
1825 Hungarian Diet begins
almanack
1830 First Slovene literary enter Hungarian Diet
Kossuth
liberals led by
1841 Magyar Slovak written language
new version of
1843 Slovak patriots approve chamber of Hungarian
Diet
in the lower Slovenes officially
1847 Liberals achieve majority programme;
national revolution; publication of Czech political
1848 Magyar Austria
approved as anationality in revolution suppressed
implemented; Magyar
Constitution proclaimed but
never
Austrian
1848-9
Neo-absolutist government in Austria
1851-9
1861 Start of constitutionalist era with Prussia
Austria defeated in war

1866 Concept of Unified Slovenia approved;

creates dualist monarchy
1867 Austro-Hungarian compromise
dualism
1867-8 Mass protests in Bohemia against
1868 Magyar-Croatian agreement; start of Magyarization
German-Czech compromise
1871 First unsuccessful attempt at
1874 University in Zagreb opened
lands
1907 Universal directsuffrage for Austrian and Bohemian
Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia; Transylvania
1918 Dissolution of Habsburg Empire; formation of
incorporated into Romania

OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND MIDDLE EAST TO 1923

DATE EVENT

1791 Sultan Selim || starts rationalizing reforms in the empire

1789 First steps toward state organization in Montenegro
1792 Declaration in favour of 'Romanian nation' published in Transylvania
1804-13 Serbian peasant uprising leads to autonomy (George Karadjordje)
1815 New Serbian upheaval (Milos Obrenovic)
1821 Start of Greek revolt
1822 Greek independence and first Constitution
1826 Serbian Matica founded in southern Hungary
1827 British, French, and Russian intervention in favour of Greeks
1829 Greek independence approved by Great Powers
1830-1 Autonomous Serbian Principality approved
1835 Establishment of first school with Bulgarian as language of education
1839 Formal declaration of
1848
equality between Muslims and Christians
Russia invades Danubian
1852 principalities
1859
Independence of Montenegro under Russian protection
Unification of Wallachia and Moldavia
1861 into one independent state
Danubian principality becomes
1862 Kingdom of Romania
Bulgarian government in exile formed
1875-8
Eastern Crisis (from Bosnian revolt through prising to Ottoman
Serbian and suppression
of Bulgarian uprising
Ottoman-Russian War)
 CHRONOLOGIES XX1

1876 23 December: Promulgation of Ottoman Constitution

Albanian national
1878 14 February: Suspension of Ottoman Constitution; Prizren League, first
association
and
1878 Treaty of Berlin: Great Powers approved independence of Serbia, Montenegro, Romania,
Bulgaria; Bosnia and Herzegovina occupied by Austria
1882 British occupation of Egypt following rising under Arabi Pasha
1893 Underground Army for Macedonia's liberation established
1897 First Zionist Congress (Basel, Switzerland)
1903 linden revolt in Macedonia; linguistic definition of Macedonian nation
1911 talian invasion and occupation of Ottoman-ruled Tripolitania (Libya) and the Dodecanese
islands
1912-13 First and Second Balkan Wars; independent Albania recognized by Major Powers; takeover
of Ottoman territory by Greece and Serbia
1914 November: Ottoman entry into war on side of Central Powers
1917 2 November: Balfour Declaration
1918 Formation of Yugoslavia
1919 Transylvania becomes part of Romania; uprising in Egypt
1920 Treaty of Sevres (ending state of war between Allies and Ottoman Empire); San Remo

1920-2
Conference (formal Anglo-French partition of Middle East); Iraqi Revolt
Turkish-Greek War
1922 Britain recognizes kingdom of Egypt
1923 Treaty of Lausanne (granting Turkey much more favourable terms than the now defunct
Treaty of Sevres); 29 October 1923: Proclamation of Turkish Republic, with Mustafa Kemal
(later Atatürk) as president

EUROPE AFTER 1918

1919 Formation of Weimar Republic

1922 Formation of USSR initialy with six 'national republics': Russia, Ukraine, Belorussia,
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia; Mussolini becomes prime minister of Italy
1923 Failure of putsch in Munich led by Hitler
1927 Romanian Fascist organization the Iron Guard established
1932 USSR: Nationality to be entered on passports
1933 Hitler appointed German chancellor; Nazi takeover
1936-9 Spanish Civil War ends with Franco's military dictatorship
1938 USSR: National republics now reached fifteen; plus thirteen autonomous Soviet Socialist
Republics and seventeen national regions and autonomous provinces; Austria merged with
Germany; Munich agreement on Czechoslovakia
1939 Start of Second World War
1941 German attack on USSR; renewed Russification policy by Stalin and deportation of whole
peoples
1945 USSR confirms and extends its direct or indirect control over Eastern Europe
1948 Tito-Stalin split; break between Albania and Yugoslavia
1949 Establishment of NATO0; constitutions for the Federal Republic of Germany and the German
Democratic Republic
1953 Death of Stalin
1955 Establishment of Warsaw Pact
 CHRONOLOGIES

Xxii Revolution
Hungarian
Party;
of the European
Communist
Soviet
Congress of
forerunner

at 20th Community,
Khruschev's speech Economic
1956 establishes
European
with USSR
Treatyof Rome relations
1957 breaks off
Albania
Union formed in
Belgrade;
to republics
movement
secession
1961 Non-aligned
Constitution grants right of
1963 Third Yugoslav Romania
in
Ceausescu takes
over

1965
1968 Prague Spring now totally
isolated
with China;
Albania breaks
1972
Death of Tito
1980
of Turkish people leader in USSR
Gorbachev party
Forced Bulgarization Mikhail
1984
Hoxha, ruler of
Albania; USSR; Slobodan
n a t i o n a l i s m in

1985 Deathof Enver warns of threat of

Perestroika; Communism
Gorbachev publishes
Serbian League
of
1987 head of communist states in
comes to power as USSR and
other
d e m o n s t r a t i o n s in
Milosevic
anti-communist

1988 Start of large

Eastern Europe Europe
communist regimes
throughout Eastern war between "Yugoslavia'
1989 Collapse of declare independence;
Croatia and Slovenia
1991 End of Soviet Union;
Croatia
effectively Serbia) and Bosnia-Herzegovina
declares
Croatia and Slovernia;
1992 European Union recognizes
with Serbia
independence and at war
between Bosnia and Serbia
1996 Dayton Agreement ends war
ended following NATO bombing
1998-9 War between Serbia and Kosovo;
Tudman
1999 Death of Croatian President Franjo
End of Milosevic's rule in remainder of Yugoslavia
(Serbia and Montenegro)
2000

MIDDLE EAST AnD NoRTH AFRICA AFTER 1923

.
*****

1924 Turkey abolishes Caliphate

1925-7 Syria's Great Revolt
1928 Muslim Brotherhood founded in Egypt
1929 Western Wall riots in Palestine
1930 Anglo-Iraqi treaty (implemented 1932); name of Constantinople changed to Istanbul
1932 Turkey admitted to League of Nations
1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty; Arab High Committee formed to combat Jewish claims;
treaty (never ratified by French); Bakr Sidqii's Franco-Syrian
1937 coup in Iraq
Assassination of Bakr Sidqi; British Royal Commission
on Palestine
establishment of Jewish and Arab states recommends
1936-9 Arab Revolt in Palestine
1939 British White Paper on
Palestine; the
denounced by both Arabs and Jews British plan for an independent Palestine by 1947
1941 Rashid Ali's Revolt in
Iraq; demand for British
French seize Syria and military withdrawal from Irag; British and ree
Lebanon from Vichy France
1942 Egypt cleared of Germans
1944-5 Formation of Arab
1947 British League
proposal to divide Palestine
Nations rejected by Arabs and Jews and
1948 Formation of state of matter referred to Unicu
Israel, which defeats Arab
attacks
 CHRONOLOGIES XXiil

1949 Israel admitted into United Nations

1952 Anti-British riots in Egypt; King Farouk abdicates in favour of his son, Fuad
1954 Gamal Abdel Nasser takes power in Egypt
1956 Suez crisis: Anglo-French forces land in Egypt; soon removed following Egyptian
resistance and pressure from USA; Sudan, Morocco, and Tunisia declare independence
1958 Syria and Egypt form the United Arab Republic (UAE) with Nasser as president;
monarchy overthrown in Iraq
1961 Syria leaves UAE
1967 Six-Day WNar
1969 Yasser Arafat elected chairman of Executive Committee of the Palestine Liberation
Organization
1970 Death of Nasser
1973 Renewed Israel-Arab War
1975 Onset of civil war in Lebanon
1978 Camp David accord signals withdrawal of Egypt from united Arab front against Israel
1979 Iranian Revolution; Saddam Hussein becomes president of Iraq
1982 Israel invades Lebanon; start of war between Iraq and Iran
Late 1980Os Palestinian revolt in occupied West Bank and Gaza; formation of Hamas
1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait defeated by military forces led by USA; end of Iraq-lran war

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA AFTER 1800

***°

DATE EVENT
1814 Cape of Good Hope becomes British colony
1836 Beginning of 'Great Trek
1838 Battle of Blood River: Boers defeat Zulus
1869 Opening of Suez Canal
1873 Ashanti War
1879 British-Zulu War
1883 Germany begins settlements in south-west Africa, France taking over upper Niger
1884 Berlin Conference of fourteen states to agree on teritorial claims in Africa
1885 King Leopold takes over Congo; Germany annexes Tanganyika and Zanzibar; British
protectorates over North Bechuanaland and Niger river region
1886 Anglo-German agreements on areas of control in west and east Africa; German-
Portugese agreement in south-west Africa
1887 Britain annexes Zululand; British East Africa Company chartered
1890 Cecil Rhodes premier of Cape Colony; Lugard occupies Uganda for British East Africa
Company
1895 Creation of Rhodesia and East African Protectorate
1896 Kenya incorporated into East African Protectorate
1899 Second Boer War
1901 Ashanti kingdom annexed to Gold Coast colony
1902 End of Second Boer War
1910 Union of South Africa established
1918 Britain takes over Germany's East African colonies
1920 Colony of Kenya created
1945 First parties formed in Uganda
1946 New Constitution in Gold Coast; first British African colony with African majority in
legislature
XXiv CHRONOLOGIES

DATE EVENT
1947 Nigeria acquires modified self-government
1948 National Party wins general election in South Africa
1952 Formation of Uganda National Congress; state of emergency declared in Kenya folloWing
murders by what British identify as the 'Mau-Mau'
1953 Federal constitution of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
Nkrumah forms government in Gold Coast following electoral victory of Convention
1954
People's Party
1957 Ghana becomes independent
1960 ndependence for Belgian Congo: France agrees to independence for Dahomey, Niger,
Upper Volta, Chad, Ivory Coast, Central Africa, and French Congo;
Nigerian independence
1961 Independence for Sierra Leone
1962 Independence for Uganda and Tanganyika
1963 Kenyan and Zanzibari independence
become
1964 Lambia (formerly Northern Rhodesia) and Malawi (formerly Nyasaland)
independent; creatiorn of Tanzania
1965 White regime in Southern Rhodesia unilaterally declares independence
1967 Civil war in Nigeria, which lasts until Biafran defeat in 1970
1975 Angola, Mozambique, and other Portugese African colonies independent
1979 Southern Rhodesia becomes independent as Zimbabwe under majority rule
1990 Release of Nelson Mandela
1994 Introduction of majority rule in South Africa; Mandela becomes president

INDIA FROM THE LATE 18TH CENTURY

DATE EVENT

1793 East India Company introduces the Permanent Settlement

1802 Start of a series of victories by the Company leads to its control of large parts of India
1857 Revolution in India (Indian Mutiny)
1858 Powers of Company transferred to British Crown
1877 Queen Victoria declared Empress of India
1886 First meeting of Indian National Congress
1906 All India Moslem League formed
1909 Indian Councils Act gives greater powers to legislative councils and ensures appointment or
an Indian to Viceroy's executive council
1919 Constitutional reforms increase Indian participation in government and widen franchises
to local legislative councils;
troops fire on demonstrators in Jallianwala Bagh; martial law
declared in Punjab; Mahatma Gandhi starts first
1921 First Indian Parliament meets non-cooperation campaign
1922 Gandhi sentenced to six
1925
years' imprisonment for civil disobedience
Establishment of Hindu nationalist
Volunteer Corps) organization Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (National
1929 Round Table Conference
between
Gandhi opens civil disobedience Viceroy
1930 and Indian leaders on dominion status
1931 Delhi pact: civil campaign; Simon Report on India published
disobedience campaign suspended,
Table Conference, Congress promises to recognize rou
political prisoners released
 CHRONOLOGIES XXV

1932 Indian Congress declared illegal; Gandhi arrested; third India conference in London
1934 Gandhi suspends civil disobedience campaign
1935 Government of India Act reforms government; separates Burma and Aden from India;
grants provinces greater self-government; creates central legislature in Delhi to come
into operation on 1 April 1937
1937 Congress wins elections to provincial governments but abstains from forming
agovernment, demanding full independence
1940 Congress rejects Viceroy's invitation to serve on
Gandhi arrested
War Advisory Board
1942
1945 Congress demands Britain 'Quit India'; Congress and Muslim League win most seats for
Central Legislative Assembly
1946 Constituent Assembly, boyeotted by Muslim League, discusses independence
1947 Independencedeclared; country partitioned into India and Pakistan, with many deaths
and refugees in Punjab and Bengal
1948 Gandhi assassinated
1950 Indian Constitution recognizes fifteen official languages
1951 Jana Sangh, Hindu nationalist political party, formed
1956 Reorganization of Indian provinces along linguistic lines agreed
1959 Ayub Khan bans political parties in Pakistan
1970 Victory for East Pakistan Awami League in general election
1971 East Pakistan becomes independent state of Bangladesh
1977 Jana Singh merges with Janat party to win general election
1980 Bharatiya Janata (BJP) Hindu nationalist party formed
1984 Assassination of Indira Gandhi by one of her Sikh bodyguards
1992 Destruction of Ayodhya mosque; violent Hindu-Muslim conflict

SoUTHEAST AsIA FROM THE MID-18 TH CENTURY

*°**°*

1740 First of series of wars and annexations by Duteh East India Company
1819 Sir Stamford Raffles of British East India Company establishes trading post on Singapore
island
1863 French take formal control over Cambodia
(Singapore, Malacca, Penang) becomes
1867 France annexes Cochinchina; the Straits Settlement
a British Crown colonyY
1884 French take formal control of Vietnam
1885 British takes formal control of Burma
1898 USA takes control of the Philippines
Reformation Society)
1904 Phan Boi Chau founds Viet Nam Duy Tan Hoi (Vietnam
1908 Formation of nationalist organization Budi Utomo in Java
1920 Formation of Indonesian Communist Party
founds Indonesian Nationalist Party
1927 Formation of Vietnamese Nationalist Party; Sukarno
Indochinese Communist Party
1930 Vietnamese Communist Party changes name to
1940-4 Japanese conquest of Southeast Asia
leaders proclaim independence in Indonesia and
1945 Japanese forces surrender, nationalist
Vietnam
French troops arrive in Vietnam, Dutch troops in
1946 Philippine independence proclaimed;
Indonesia
XXVi
CHRONOLOGIES

1949 Dutch
1954
acknowledge Indonesian independence
Accords: Independence for Cambodia and Laos, French withdrawal from Vietnam;
ieva
Democratic Republic of Vietnam confined to north, with US-backed regime created in the

South, reunification postponed

1957 Federation of Malaya granted independence
1959 Singapore granted independence
1962 Military coup establishes Army rule in Burma
1963 Singapore, Sabah, and Sarawak join Federation of Malaysia
anti-communist
1965 Singapore expelled from Malaysia; Army coup topples Sukarno, sparks
pogroms in Indonesia
1969 Ethnic riots in Malaysia lead to authoritarian controls, New Economic Policy; Indonesia
absorbs West Papua
1972 President Marcos proclaims martial law in the Philippines
1973 Student-led protests end military rule in Thailand
Reunification of Vietnam, incorporation of South into DRV;: Communist victories in Cambodia
1975
and Laos; Indonesian invasion of East Timor, initiating twenty-four years of occupation

1976 Army coup restores military rule in Thailand

1978-9 Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia, onset of ten-year ccupation
1986 People Power' revolt ends authoritarian rule in the Philippines, oligarchical democracy
restored
1988 Election of civilian prime minister in Thailand
1989 Vietnamese withdrawal from Cambodia
1991 Military coup in Thailand
1992 Civilian rule restored in Thailand
1993 UN-supervised elections in Cambodia, incumbent Hun Sen remain in office
1997-8 Asian economic crisis
1998 Indonesian President Suharto forced to resign
1999 UN-Supervised referendum for independence in East Timor, Indonesian military occupation
ends

NORTHEAST ASIA FROM 1840

DATE EVENT

1839-42 First Opium War

1850-5 Tai'ping Rebellion
1854 USA makes first trade treaty with Japan
1857 Royal Navy destroys Chinese fleet; British and French forces take Canton
1858 End of Anglo-Chinese War; further ports opened
up to Britain and France; opium trade
legalized; Anglo-Japanese commercial treaty providing for unsupervised trade and setting
up of a British residency
1860 Anglo-French forces defeat Chinese at Pa Li Chau
1864 British, French, and Dutch fleets attack Japan in reprisal for closing ports and expelling
foreigners; Japan made to pay indemnity
1868 Shogunate abolished; Meiji dynasty restored
 CHRONOLOGIES XXVI1

1871 Abolition of domains and

replacement by prefectures
1877 Satsuma rebellion crushed
1887 China cedes Macao to Portugal
1889-9 Japanese Constitution followed by first general election
1893 China-Japan War
1895 Japan gains port facilities and ceded areas at end of war
1897 German and Russian occupations in China
1898 Formation of The Boxers, an anti-Western organization; emperor starts extensive reforms
but removed by dowager empress who revokes reforms
1900 Boxer uprising; many foreigners killed and the occupying powers suppress uprising
1901 China made to pay indemnity to occupying powers
1904-5 Russo-Japanese War ends with substantial cessions by Russia
1905 Sun Yat Sen founds union of secret societies to expel Manchus from China; Korea made a
Japanese protectorate
1908 Dowager empress dies
1910-45 Korea under Japanese rule
1911 Establishment of Chinese Republic with Sun Yat-sen as president and Chiang Kai- shek his
military adviser
1919 4 May: Student demonstration in Beijing against treatment of China at Versailles Peace
Conference
1922 Nine-power treaty in Washington preserves principle of 'open door in trade with China; civil
war

1924 First Kuomintang Congress includes Communists

1925 30 May: Worker demonstration in Shanghai against foreign firms
1927 Conflict between Chiang Kai-shek and communists who are massacred in Shanghai
1928 Clashes between China and Japan; China annuls 'unequal treaties'; Chiang Kai-shek elected
president of China
1933 Japan occupies China north of Great Wall and withdraws from League of Nations
1934-5 Long March led by Mao Zedong
1936 Chiang Kai-shek enters Canton and declares war on Japan
seizes Beijing, Tienkin, Shanghai, Nanking, and Hangchow; Kuomintang and
1937 Japan
Communists declare common front against Japan
1938 Japan installs puppet government of Chinese Republic of Nanking
1941 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour; China allied with USA
1942 Major Japanese advances, including in Singapore and Burma, Indo-China, and the Dutch
East Indies
meet in Cairo
1943 Churchill, Roosevelt, and Chiang Kai-shek
two atomn bombs on Japan, which surrenders a week later; fighting breaks out
1945 USA drops
between communists and nationalists in north China
1946-52 US occupation of Japan
extensive powers;
1948 Chiang Kai-shek re-elected president by Nanking Assembly and granted
communists announce formation of North China People's Republic
Communist People's
1949 Chiang Kai-shek forced to withdraw to Formosa (renamed Taiwan);
Mao Zedong
Republic proclaimed under leadership of
1958-61 Great Leap Forward' in China
1976
1966-76 Cultural Revolution; death of Mao Zedong in September
launches economic reforms
1978 Deng Xiaoping
1979 Formal diplomatic relations between China and USA

1989 June: Suppression of protest in Tiananmen Square

1997 Hong Kong incorporated into China
Xxvii CHRONOLOGIES

CoLONIAL AND PosT-CoLONIAL AMERICA

1754-63 French and Indian War, North America

of Bourbon Reforms
1759 Charles ll (r.1759-88) accedes to Spanish throne; era

1762 British capture and briefly hold Havana

1764 British Sugar Act imposed on Thirteen Colonies formed
1765 British Stamp Act imposed on Thirteen Colonies,
Stamp Act Congress
colonial boycott; Jesuits expelled
1767 British Townshend Duties on selected imports prompt
from Spanish America
tea in harbour
1773 Boston Tea Party, colonials protest by dumping and end local
British Coercive Acts shut down Boston
harbour, ban public meetings,
1774
meets
government; first Continental Congress
1775 April 19: Battles of Lexington and
Concord begin armed conflict
July 4: Declaration of lIndependence of
1776 January: Tom Paine's Common Sense published;
the United States of America signed
for USA
1777 Articles of Confederation establish national government
form alliance with USA; Spanish colonial
1778 British defeated at Battle of Saratoga; French
Reforms
as measure of Bourbon
trading system partially opened
revolt in Colombia
1780-1 Tupac Amaru revolt in Peru; Comunero
1781 British surrender after Battle of Yorktown
1783 Treaty of Paris formally ends British-USA conflict
1788 Charles V (r.1788-1808) accedes to Spanish throne
Constitution of USA establishes stronger federal government and adds Bill of Rights;
789
French Revolution sparks revolts in French, Portuguese, and Spanish American colonies
anti-Portuguese Tiradentes Conspiracy in Brazil
1791-1804 Slave revolt in Saint Domingue wins independence for new Republic of Haiti
1794 Colombian patriot Antonio Nariño publishes French revolutionary 'Declaration of the
Rights of Man'
1803 Louisiana Purchase
1806 British invade and briefly hold Buenos Aires
1807 King João VI and court flee Portugal to Brazil to escape Napoleonic invasion
1808 Napoleon places his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne; Peninsular War begins; US
termination of external slave trade
1810 Creoles establish ruling juntas in Venezuela, Chile, and Argentina; Miguel Hidalgo's 'Grito
de Dolores' in Mexico; Hidalgo executed in 1811
1812 Constitution of Cádiz promulgated; US at war with Britain (until 1815)
1814 Ferdinand VIll returns to Spanish throne
1815 Simón Bolivar retreats to Jamaica; execution of José Maria Morelos in Mexico
1821 Mexico becomes independent; King João VI returns to Portugal from Brazil
1822 de San Martin and Simón Bolivar confer in Guayaquil, Ecuador; San Martin goes into
Jose
self-imposed exile in France; King Pedro I declares independence of Brazil
1824 Bolivar defeats Spanish forces at
Junin, and Jos Antonio Sucre does the same a
Ayacucho, consummating independence of Spanish South America
1829-52 Argentina: Confederation of Rio de la Plata run by arbitrary
power as dictator O
establishes dominance of Buenos Aires
1830 Disintegration of Gran Colombia (est. 1819) into Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador,
Indian Removal Act
1830-42
Mexico: Civil war between conservatives andliberals; in 1836 secession of lexas,
which
becomes a US state in 1845
 into Costa Rica, El
of United Provinces of Central America (est. 1823-4)
1838-40 Disintegration of today
the independent states
Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua,
Mexican-American War: US acquires over one-third
of Mexico's territory, including
1846-8
California
South Carolina secedes
1860 Republicans (Abraham Lincoln) win presidential election;
1861 Start of US Civil War
and installs the Hapsburg Maximilian
as
Mexico: Napoléon ll supports conservatives
1862
emperor
1 January: US Emancipation Proclamation
1863 Lincoln
Robert E. Lee surrender to Ulysses Grant at Appomattox; 14-15 April: Abraham
1865
assassinated
defeat Paraguay
1865-70 War of the Triple Alliance: Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay
1867-76 Mexico: Maximilian defeated by Liberals with help of United States
1868-78 Cuba: First war of independence
and Bolivia, which is left
1879-83 Chile: War of the Pacific-Chile seizes nitrate deposits from Peru
landlocked; Argentina and Chile: War of the Desert; 'Pacification' of the Mapuche
(extermination of indigenous peoples)
1886 Cuba: Slavery abolished
1888 Brazil: Slavery abolished
1889 Brazil: Army overthrows emperor and a republic is founded; First Inter-American
Conference held in Washington at US instigation
1895 Cuba: Second War of Independence launched
and expels Spain
1898 Spanish-American War: US intervenes in Cuban independence struggle
of Cuba
from Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines; US military occupation
Constitution gives US right to
1902 Cuba: Inaugurates Republic, but Platt Amendment to
and 1917
intervene, which it does militarily in 1906-9, 1912,
Colombia; Canal; Treaty signed
1903 US intervenes to secure Panama's independence from
US assumes control of customs'
immediately (Canal opens 1914); Dominican Republic:
house
Honduras: US marines intervene, and again
in 1907 and 1911
1905
and 1916-17)
1910-20 Mexico: Revolution; US sends troops twice (1914
1915-34 Haiti: US military occupation
1916-24 Dominican Republic: US military occupation
leads guerrilla struggle against US military occupation
1927-33 Nicaragua: Augusto Sandino
Sandino killed 1933; US withdraws in 1934 but
(since 1912, with short interruptions);
leaves behind pro-US dictator
Somoza
to restored oligarchic rule from 1932; Brazil: Oligarchic
1930 Argentina: Fascist coup gives way who dominated
Liberal Revolution led by Getúlio Vargas,
government overthrown in
Brazilian politics until death in 1954
wave of economic nationalism
across the
1938 Mexico: Nationalization of oil industry pioneers
region in alliance)
1938-52 Chile: Popular Front governments (Communist Party
on the Axis powers (Chile in 1943;
Latin American countries support US in declaring
war
1941-2
Argentina in 1945)
1947 Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty) signed
by US and Latin
American countries-a mutual assistance pact
founded as section of the United Nations
1948 Organization of American States (OAS)
Movement)
1952 Bolivia: Revolution carried out by MNR (National Revolutionary
Guatemala: Reformist government led by Jacobo Arbenz overthrown in uprising
1954
land reform that affected United Fruit Company (UFCO)
orchestrated by CIA, after
XXX
CHRONOLOGIES

1959 Cuba Revolution led

Cuba: by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara; attempts to imitate itin many
other Latin American countries
states (except Mexico)
1960 Cuba: US economic embargo declared; later supported by OAS
President Kennedy launches
1961 Cuba: Bay of Pigs invasion by exiles organized by CIA fails;
aid over ten years, plus COunter-
Alliance for Progress ($20 billion development
insurgency training for Latin American militaries)
no formal treaty signed until 1989:
1962 Cuba: Alliance with Soviet Union sealed although
Missile Crisis
to 'No more
OAS support for military invasion
ensure
1965 Dominican Republic: US secures

Cubas' overthrown by coup, which

government led by Salvador Allende;
1970-3 Chile: Popular Unity
Pinochet until 1990
leads to military rule by Augusto Venezuela:
1976 Argentina: Coup initiates seven years of military rule and 'Dirty War;
Nationalization of oil industry (negotiated)
Sandinista Revolution; Brazil: Formation of
Workers' Party (PT) led by Lula' da
1979 Nicaragua:
Silva