ROMAN REPUBLIC

A political and social insight-- from foundation till 1 st century CE

Indeed, Rome was not built in a day. This geographical mass of hilly terrain,
lying in the heart of Mediterranean owes its history to years of political
conquests, social struggles, class conflicts, ambitious rulers and Senatorial
aristocrats all thriving under the umbrella of Res Publica—the republic. Often
compared, and contrasted with the neighbouring Hellenistic empire, Rome has
a stronger, and more compelling identity than merely being the successor to
the glorious Greek Empire; for this is the Empire which was the cradle of some
of the greatest orators and statesmen who even today, continue to astonish the
world.

This essay will trace the rise of Rome from 8th century BCE, the territorial
conquests, Roman statecraft and political machinery, the growing power of
Senate and the class struggle between the orders. The emergence of some
ambitious dictators and the conflicts which followed are also discussed here.
This essay ends with the establishment of peace and prosperity in the Roman
empire under the efficient rule of Augustus.

Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as

early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centred
on the city of Rome, it expanded to become one of the largest empires in
the ancient world.

During the 5th century BC Rome made systematic progress against her

enemies-the Aequi tribes of the east and the Volsci of the hilly south, using of
policy of divide et impera (divide and rule) by teaming up with the Hernici
tribe to create a divide between Aequi and Volsci. This was the infamous yet
brilliant act of statecraft shown by the Romans, which, even today, holds its
importance as a strong political tool. By the 266 BC the long and arduous
conquest of peninsular Italy was completed. Unification was to be more
difficult, but the way Rome organised her relations with the different peoples
of Italy worked powerfully to promote unity. Rome knew how to bind
together a sprawling empire. Therefore, instead of ruthlessly subjugating the

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defeated, which would have ended up in them revolting against the
empire,Rome adopted the novel policy of establishing colonia and granting
parts of the citizen’s rights to the defeated population. Thus, by allowing
Tusculum to retain its local magistrates and exchanging social rights with
Campania and Etruria, Rome displayed exemplary statecraft, finer than even
the one practised in Greece. Apart from the above mentioned concessions,
princes of various conquered provinces, and rich Romans outside magisterial
class were taken as friends by patricians, who were actually clients entitled
with dignity to benefit from them.

Both ends of Roman empire were served by the building of strategic roads
such as via Latina Rome to Capua, via Appai Rome to Capua(244miles) to
Brundisium, via Valeria Rome to Alba Fucens to Adriatic, via Flaminia( 220
miles) Rome to Ariminum etc. These fully developed road network , linked the
Roman world together, from Britain to the Syrian desert and from the Atlantic
shore of Portugal to the mouth of Danube.

During these years the political machinery of the Roman state underwent a
long and complicated process of development and adjustment, accruing to the
growing tensions within Roman society. Initially, the political machinery of
Rome consisted of an eclectic combination of the magistrates,
the senate and the people. Greek historian Polybius saw constitution of
republican Rome as most impressive example of the virtues of a mixed
constitution- the people standing for democracy, the Senate for oligarchy or
aristocracy and the consuls for monarchy. But taking it as such is uncertain
and truth is that the roman political experience can be only understood in its
own terms However, Romans always looked down upon monarchy with an
eye of suspicion, labelling it as a threat to the Roman empire. The magistrates
represented the executive; but their functions were carefully prescribed, and
their powers limited to holding office for year and working beside colleagues
with equal powers to avoid their graduation to being despotic and all
powerful. The two consuls were the supreme officers of the state, presiding
over meetings of the senate, holding supreme command in wars, and for much
of the period leading armies in the war, but even they worked upon the advice
of the Senate. Thus, on actual terms, it was the Senate which held the helm of
this mighty empire .The great power of the senate rested on its ability to
initiate legislation, to prolong the powers of magistrates and to control foreign

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affairs. And, they were further enhanced by the collective influences, wealth
and experience of its members, who belonged to the affluent patrician class.
Needless to say, the senate was neither sovereign nor democratic. Cato,
observed that the Roman Republic was shaped through the problems and
strains of the long struggle between the orders – between
the patricians aristocracy and the plebeians. After the middle of 5th century
BCE the patricians had monopoly of the political, social and economic powers
whereas plebs represented landless peasants and debtors to wealthy families.
The plebeians, or the masses, for long had been the clients of the rich
patricians who accepted his aristocratic authority, escorted and favoured the
patron in public events and voted for them. But, this was a symbiotic relation
and, in return, the patron was legally bound to help the clients and place them
before their own kin. The practice of clientele was hereditary but gradually,
over generations, some plebeians escaped clientele by becoming socially and
economically powerful . Therefore, the newly rich plebeians demanded the
membership of the senate. On the other hand, the condition of poor plebs
became miserable due to the recession of the 5 th century BCE. It made them
debtors and eventually slaves of their creditors under the contract of
Nexum .Thus, representation in political mechanism seemed to them the best
way to address their grievances and seek protection against the patricians.
The plebeians’ strike of 494 and 287 BCE, where they refused to serve the
army, forced the patricians to agree to their demand of a separate council-
Concillium Plebis and their own officers, the tribunes under the tribunate.
This assembly of plebs consisted of ten tribunes annually elected by a voting
unit called tribe. These were the democratic units were the rich had no
superior voting powers. Its quintessential function was to protect the poor
against any violence and oppression by the magistrate. For this, they held
meetings to pass their resolution, called plebicita. Though the words of law
announced elaborate rights to the plebeians, in reality, however, the tribunate
had to wear the proverbial crown of thorns till 4 th century BCE. The
tribunician power was only confined to the city. Their plebicitas could only be
turned into laws by votes in centuriate assembly, which further was
dependant on sanction by the Senate, till 339 BCE. In fact, till this time,
plebeians were not even selected as the consuls . infuriated, the tribunes
resorted to manipulating their Veto right into vetoing all legislative proposals
and official acts of the Senate and each other as well, causing chaos in
functioning of the government. The objective of the wealthier plebeians was
admission to highest magistracies. At this point, one would have expected an
internal rebellion of the plebs against the higher orders. But Rome, being a

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genius in statecraft, again proved its mettle by making constitutional
arrangements to accommodate the plebs into the existing social order,
keeping in mind their growing economic power. Intermarriage between the
orders, which was initially banned in the Twelve Tables, was allowed in 445
BCE. Gradually, this intermixture of orders undermined Patrician’s
exclusiveness in the government. In 287 BCE, Quintus Hortensius, a pleb
dictator passed a law granting full legislative competence to tribal
communities under a tribunician presidency. In 451-450 BCE, the tribune got
the right to codify and publish their laws( its publication, however, took place
only in 304 BCE) the Nexum was also abolished in 326 BCE, releasing many
slaves from its captivity to serve in the army. Under the leadership of Licinius
and Sextius, it was demanded that at least one consulship per year should be
made available to the wealthy plebs. Licinius himself became the 1 st plebeian
consul in 366BC and in 351BC the magistracies had been held by plebeians.
Finally, in 172 BCE, both consuls were plebeians for the first time. Apart from
this, they also promoted laws demanding easy terms in repayment of loans
and limitations on amount of Ager publicus(common land) any single man
could cultivate. It undoubtedly was a major issue in the struggle of the orders,
and the similar demands for land reforms raised by the Gracchi brothers a
century later stand as a testimony to its importance. As someone has aptly
said-“the bells of prosperity clamour into the jingles of divinity”, the doors of
the great priestly colleges and other prestigious offices were also opened to
the wealthy plebeians in 300 BCE.

To a lay person, these changes might seem as those leading to foundation of

an egalitarian society, sans any social hierarchy. But, reality did not turn out to
be as rosy. The final shape of this social struggle didn’t lead to upheaval of
orders or a radical change in Roman society; instead, power was enjoyed and
exercised only by a handful of rich plebeians as tribunates eventually lost the
idea of equality and democracy. It gave birth to a new nobility which admitted
only a few plebeians, and was still dominated by patricians. Therefore, by
allowing few concessions, the patricians succeeded in avoiding a rebellion and
upheaval of orders by the plebs, and perpetuated their dominant position in
the Senate. The social order of Rome, thus, remain unchanged.

At this point, craving foreign territory Rome swiftly conquered the western
world and the coastal districts of the Hellenistic World. In this quest Rome

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conflicted with Carthage which was defeated over the course of the three
Punic wars. At the end of the three wars in 146 BCE Rome had annexed Spain,
Corsica, Sardinia and Northern Africa hence emerging as the undisputed
superpower.

The main powers in the east were Philip the 5 th and King Antiochus. The
immediate cause for Roman intervention was an appeal by the states of
Rhodes and Pergamum to Philip 5th to capture small states in Asia Minor. Thus
Rome declared war in 200 BCE. The Roman army finally met Philip’s in the
battle in 194 BCE. The defeated Philip had to promise to stay out of Greece.
The war with Antiochus began in 193 BCE and he was defeated in 189 BCE.
As discussed above, the Roman policy was not to take direct responsibility of
the conquered territory. A conservative wing led by M.Cato wished to have
little to do with the Hellenistic World. However another group led by the
Africanus, Flamininus and Aenilianus believed that Rome should supervise
the Mediterranean world and should take the fruits of East as well.
It was in this background of the military success and political contest that
preceded and hence formed the background for the formation of one of the
greatest empires of history.

            The second century BC was a threshold period in the history of Rome. It
controlled the entire Italian Peninsula and the Mediterranean. However
internal problems started to show themselves during this period. The
Republican system which had worked for centuries was beginning to open up.
Various reforms carried out in the previous centuries had uplifted the
Plebians to certain extent. The Marian Reforms had revolutionized the
military, making it the finest in the the ancient world. However it led to the
strengthening of the positions of various Generals who vied for power. The
army was no longer loyal to the Senate but to individual generals, who could
use their troops as leverage in the political arena in Rome.

This period marked the territorial conquests and subsequent Hellenistic

influence on Roman empire. The conquest of the Greek east from 200
onwards provided ready access to Greek artistic and intellectual skills,
techniques and its wealth on a staggering scale. The governing class made
conflict by success and now exposed to full impact of the Greek world, turned

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much of its energy not simply to solving the problems posed by contact with
the Greek world but also to the acquisition of Greek culture and to the pursuit
of the luxurious and ostentatious lifestyle available as a result of contact with
the Greek world and access to its material resources. These circumstances led
to a progressive disturbance of the equilibrium within the governing classes.
With the deterioration of the Roman oligarchy, there was a growth in number
of people involved in the political struggles. If Rome did not have enough new
magistrates every year to cover her imperial responsibilities, she had to
prologue existing magistrates and this process itself was a bone of contention.
Hegemony could be asserted as the cause for the competition among the
Roman elite. There was a need for personal relationship between members of
her own aristocracy and it was notable in provincial communities in order to
organize her supremacy with a small number of officials. The pattern of
clientele and areas of governance was gradually moving from public to private
hands. The growth of the empire brought with it the dangerous development
of the 2nd century-- the increase in competition within the aristocracy and
increased prestige for those members who were heavily involved in trade
overseas, providing the oligarchy with wealth, which made it easier for them
to acquire extra land, provided them with slaves to work on it, but in turn
offered no alternative land elsewhere to the displaced population. The
adaptation of Greek culture was also one of the factors contributing to the
increase in competition within the aristocracy. Expressing its concern the
Roman aristocracy took a number of steps, such as measures to regulate the
holding of office, measures against bribery, etc. In addition to the attempts to
police itself, the oligarchy also attempted to devise various methods of
strengthening control over the lower orders involved in the political arena, by
the factors outlined by Polybius. So, in the 2 nd century, oligarchy appeared
alert and ready to innovate in the matters of foreign policy. But there also
appeared the signs of increasing tolerance which can also be documented in
the later centuries, in the internal affairs of Tiberius Gracchus. In the 2 nd
century the tribunes continued to be drawn from the nobility and their
political activity continued to relate to traditional aspirations, but they
showed an increasing tendency, tinted with a selfish motive however, to
champion the discontents of the lower orders against the collective rule of the
nobility. But the aristocrats, still holding large political power, could not be
weakened. The census at the end of the 3rd century and beginning of the 2nd
century showed decline in the number of Assidui (the medium landholders
conscripted during wartime). This was due to the station of troops outside
Italy on permanent basis and the loss of a holding of land adequate to provide

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the necessary property qualification. Roman expansion till then, was carried
by an army of part time farmers, part time soldiers. The result was reluctance,
at times protestations, to be conscripted, which was perhaps bolstered by an
increase in the practise of conscription due to a decline in the number of
assidui. The decisions consuls involving conscriptions were at times vetoed by
the tribunes acting in protection of the potential recruits. Therefore from 151
BCE onwards, literary records provide the evidences of distaste for military
service. All of this evidence relates to the difficult and unrewarding chore of
service in Spain and that there was no real shortage of assidui and, the Roman
oligarchy was deceived when it stepped up recruitment of Italians and
lowered the property qualification of assidui. On the other hand, there were
developments of large landholdings which resulted in the expropriation of
freeholds or dispossession of another family. Concentration of land holding
occurred as a result of simple purchase or pressure to sell which turned into
more violent expropriation. Long absence of peasants from their lands due to
their service in the military made it easier to expropriate their land and to
usurp communal rights over Ager publicus, and the increase in the wealth of
the oligarchy followed. However, expropriation of free holds was not the only
factor affecting the pattern of agrarian settlement in Italy. The rich were
engaged in the exploitation of the increasing areas of public lands. By 167
BCE, pressure had already existed upon Roman aristocracy to prohibit
occupying more than the permitted maximum of 500 iugera of ager publicus
and to keep more than the permitted maximum of animals on the its other
areas. Therefore, there was no novelty in attempting land reforms in Rome.
Thus, it should not be seen as a surprise that the similar reforms introduced
by Grachhi brothers(Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus) in 133 and 123 BCE
were passed and accepted to an extent, and Roman citizen started settling on
individual plots rather than in organized colonies far from Rome.. It was this
development which led to the institution of Roman colonies early in the
second century.

The first of many conflicts to flare up in this period were the Italian Wars( 90-
85 BCE). These were put down by one of the Rome’s most influential dictator,
L.Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BCE), who was granted consulship in 88 BCE for
his contributions. However events in the east heated up, The King of Pontus
Mithridates VI had attacked the Aegean. The Greeks had all joined in a
rebellion against Roman Rule. Sulla rose up to the challenge and defeated all
opposition to roman rule. The period from 83- 79 BC Sulla ruled as a dictator
having all his opposition crushed. However the period is also known for

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Sullan Reforms which included restoration of jury-courts with the senate, land
distribution measures, citizenship for the allies and the most incredible one-
the distribution of free corn. These reformswere aimed at winning support of
all strata of society. But, Sulla’s methods are criticised by puritans on grounds
of morality, as he often used the richest bounties from the war booties to buy
the loyalty of the upper order. He was ruthless towards his opponents, and is
believed to have put the Roman constitutional arrangements in a jeopardy.
Nevertheless, the reorganization set in by Sulla was to be of great benefit in
the coming years. This acted as a prelude to the entry of Pompey and Caesar.

Roman Aristocracy had been divided into two main camps, the Optimates,
which was the conservative group made up of the majority of the senate,
priests and magistrates. Its main leaders were Sulla and occasionally, Cicero
and Pompey (Gnaeus Pompius Magnus). However, after the struggle over
modification of Sulla’s laws, more enterprising and self-seeking men joined
the other faction, the Populares, which advocated a group of people working
together under the political machinery, instead of the traditional system of the
leader and his followers. It was composed of disparate elements like idealistic
reformers, ruthless equestrians and discontented aristocrats. It was the group
one can relate to the leftist reformers of today’s times.
           
The late 1st Century BC finally saw the Roman Republic crumble and
replaced by a new political entity. To set the stage of these two career one
must closely examine the complicated lines of political development during
their formative years. Sulla had left the Senatorial Aristocracy firmly in
control, this was to remain the important conservative force. This group
through its control of the religious machinery and matrimonial links
maintained tight control over power. Immediately after Sulla's death the
senate faced the demagoguery of M. Aemilius Lepidus, one of the consuls for
78 BCE, which led to a minor revolt crushed at the Milvian Bridge just north of
Rome. The senate came out triumphant because of a young protege (106-48
BC). He along with M. Licinius Crassus (c.112-53 BC) crushed the servile
rebellion started by the gladiator Spartacus. This social unrest continued as a
threat till the last decades of the republic. An evidence of this is the brutal
crucifixion of 6000 unclaimed slaves along the Appian Way by Crassus. Both
Pompey and Crassus against Optimate opposition secured election as Consuls
for 70 BCE. They released the Tribunes from Sullan restrictions. Crassus
remained in Rome during the 60s and built up a skillful political machinery

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embracing people like Caesar to give him and his equestrian friends a potent
voice. Pompey on the other hand was handed imperium over the
Mediterranean to wipe out the pirate activities in this region. By the Manilian
Law of 66, he was given command to deal with Mithridates for once and for
all. Pompey seized the opportunity and annexed Syria and Palestine. He went
about reorganizing roman rule in the east founding new provinces and cities.
Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) is the most famous of all the rulers of
Rome,whose tragic end is lamented upon by history and literature alike.
While the general quality of the late republic help explain the rise of Caesar,
much must be attributed to his own remarkable powers. Caesar was in truth
the most well rounded person of the era. His clan the Julii traced its origin to
Iulus, son of the Trojan Hero Aeneas, who in turn was the son of the Goddess
Venus. Nevertheless the Julian clan produced only two great men- Caesar and
his grandnephew and heir Augustus. He started his political career under
Crassus, who had raised an army and joined Sulla on his return to Italy, and
was a notorious profiteer. He served as a Quaestor in 69-68 BCE. He secured
election as the Pontifex Maximus in 63 BCE despite severe opposition. After his
praetorship in 62 BCE he served as propraetor in Spain in 61BCE, where he
gained some military experience. In the year 60 BC Caesar stood for
consulship against virulent oppostion from the conservatives lead by Cato.
This led him into collaboration with Crassus, who had bid for tax collection of
Asia and Pompey, fumigated after the senate refused to recognize his
reorganization of the eastern territories he conquered in 62 BCE,and rejected
land grant for his veterans. The collaboration of these three is popularly
known in history as The First Triumvirate of 60 BCE. The ring secured the
election of Caesar as one of the consuls. After seeking in vain the support of
the senate and the other consul, M. Calpurnius Bibulus, he then turned to
direct action. With the aid of Pompey's veterans and the threat of force he
overrode the vetoes of Bibulus and of the Tribunes to carry out the land law
and other legislations desired by his partners. Caesar's reward was
appointment as governor of Illyricum and Cisalpine Gaul for five years. To this
was added Transalpine Gaul upon the death of its governor, one of those
accidents that stud the course of history; for thereafter Caesar's attention
came to be focused on Gaul. Thus began the annexation of Gaul lasting 8 years
from 58-50 BCE. This was a turning point in history as the star of Caesar rose
high in Rome, the enormous riches of Gaul was used to bribe Roman Officials.
The effects on Caesar were enormous, he perfected the art of generalship
learning from his mistakes so as time went on he never committed any serious
blunder. Not only did he gain military confidence; he won the hearts of his

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men and increased the strength of his army from 2 to 13 legions. By 50 BCE
Caesar had become deft alike in oratory, politics and in military art. Each of his
possible competitors was lacking in one. By 49 BCE however cracks had
started appearing between the members of first triumvirate. Crassus had died
fighting the parthians in 55 BCE. The conservatives wanted to try Caesar for
irregularities committed during his consulship in 59 BC. Through complicated
maneuvers the extremists quashed Caesar's plan to stand for consul in
absentia in 48 BC. Thus in 49 BC the senate voted martial law (the senatus
consultum ultimum ) and entrusted the Republic to Pompey. Left with no
choice Caesar rebelled against the Republic and crossed the Rubicon the legal
boundary of Italy with a small force on the 11th of January, starting the First
Civil War (49-45 BCE). Caesar sped down the east coast of Italy and the new
Pompeian recruits surrendered in masses. Pompey and the conservatives had
to abandon Rome and flee to Brundisium in the East. Caesar then consolidated
his rule in Rome while Pompey built up his army in the East. In the fall of
49BC he reached Brundisium and set sail for the east. In 47 BC the two armies
met in Battle in Pharshalus in Greece where Caesar was outnumbered 2 to
1.However, despite all odds Caesar emerged victorious with the help of his
lieutenant Mark Antony. Pompey fled to Egypt where the cautious ruler
Ptolemy VII had him executed in order to please Julius Caesar. He then spent
the next few years destroying opposition to his rule and wiping out the
remnants of the senate army. However he gave amnesty to all who gave up
arms and thus got the majority of the rebels to his side. He spent the next few
years as a dictator in Rome, blatantly refusing to share powers with the
republic and proposing his status openly. This fatal mistake of Caesar led to
his assassination in 44 BC by a group of senators led by Marcus Brutus and
Gaius Cassius.

The Second  Civil War (44-42 BCE) broke out with Caesar’s trusted
lieutenant Marc Antony ( who proved himself a traitor after seizing Caesar’s
confidential papers, plans and his money) and his grandnephew Octavian
forming an alliance with M. Aemilius Lepidus. These three formed the
Second Triumvirate to combat the armies of the conspirators. The civil war
ended with the battle of Phillipi in 42 BC. The ‘last republican leaders’, Cassius
and Brutus both committed suicide after this defeat and many other young
Roman aristocrats were slain, including M. Porcius Cato and Cicero. Octavian
returned to Italy while Antony stayed back in the east. The Roman World was

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thus divided among the triumvirs –Octavian getting Italy, Spain and Gaul
while Antony received the eastern provinces and Lepidus held Africa.

However cracks erupted and Lepidus was exiled and war broke out between
Antony and Octavian, leading to the Third Civil War. Octavian was assisted by
his trusted General Marcus Vispanius Agrippa and Diplomat Gaius Maecenas.
Antony was helped by his mistress, Cleopatra VII, the Queen of Egypt. The
two forces met in the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE. Antony was defeated
decisively and fled to Egypt with Cleopatra VII where they both committed
suicide, thus paving the way for Octavian supremacy, hereafter until his death
Octavian retained all the powers of state. The year 27 BCE, marks the start of
Octavian Rule with the Senate honouring him with the title of “Augustus”,
which held religious connotations indicative of his all powerful status.
Thereafter he is referred to as Augustus Caesar (27 BCE-17 CE). He began an
extensive series of reform in all spheres of Roman Life. This effectively ended
the Roman Republic and started a new era in Roman Polity called the
“Principate” or the early Roman Empire.
          

  Augustus’ situation was precarious in the empire ravaged by incessant

warfare which had drained the treasury. The people were longing for peace.
The boundaries of the empire were insecure; the provinces were sullen and
discontent. There were a large number of war veterans who had to be settled
in Italy these were among a host of problem confronting Augustus. He started
off settling the veterans in Italy and its neighbouring provinces and whatever
remained was formed into a permanent army and navy. In 27 BCE the senate
granted him proconsular imperium over Spain, Gaul and Syria for a 10 year
period and granted him the title Augustus. He proclaimed the restoration of
the Republic but however behind the veneer of the Republic was the strong
hand of Augustus. He was the “princeps” or first citizen of Rome. Technically
the Republican Government continued in the same old fashion. The senatorial
provinces to which senate assigned proconsuls were subject to Augustus
overriding power (maius imperium). The Roman Army which had bloated to
50 legions during the civil war was cut to 28 legions. It was no longer a
conscripted army instead a group of professionals serving for period of 20
years. Along with the Legions which were all citizen body a new provincial
army called the Auxilia was formed. These consisted of provincials who after
25 years of service were granted Roman citizenship. These were then posted
to areas which suffered frequent outbreaks of rebellion.

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Augustus raised a new force to guard himself, which was called the
Praetorian Guard. There were nine cohorts of these based in Italy with three
being on the outskirts of Rome. This served as Augustus’ personal guard and
helped maintain law and order. To this he added another group called the
Urban Cohorts -- the police force of Rome. These were the only military forces
permanently stationed in Italy. The army was now sent to conquer Germania
and secure the northern boundaries of the Empire. Thus, in 15 BCE
Switzerland and Austria fell into Roman hands. Attacks by Agrippa and
Tiberius bought Roman power to the middle of the Danube and further
campaigns led to the conquest of Moesia (Bulgaria). Thus by the 9 BCE Roman
army had reached the banks of the Elbe. No Roman Leader had ever added so
much territory as did Augustus. Conquest however, was easier than
consolidation and soon revolts were breaking out in these areas. In 9 CE
Governor of Germania, Inferior P. Quinctilius Varus was sucked into a trap in
the Teutoburger Forest by Arminius. Three legions were wiped out, Varus
committed suicide and Germany was lost. Ageing Augustus didn’t have the
military strength or energy to launch a recon quest and thus the Roman
frontier remained on the Rhine. Thus began a period of frontier defence when
the legions were stationed at the borders. These legions became the source of
Romanization. Near its posts rose colonies which often developed into cities.
Trade and commerce flourished. This was the period of Pax Romana-- the
Roman Peace.

Pax Romana was a wise arrangement of Augustus which safeguarded the

stability and prosperity of the Mediterranean and permitted the extension of
civilisation far inland. Augustus was followed by a series of Julo- Claudian
Rulers till 68 CE. These were Tiberius (14-37 CE) and Gaius Gracchus (37-41
CE), Claudius (41-54 CE) and Nero (54-68 CE). Following the overthrow of
Nero by the revolt of the provincial armies, the military became the
kingmaker. Already in 41 CE the Praetorian Guard had installed Claudius in
opposition to the Senate. The major armies engaged in a quick but violent civil
war which threw up the General T. Flavius Vespasianus (69-79 CE) as the
Emperor. Vespasian’s two sons Titus (79-81 CE) and Domitian (81-96 CE)
ruled in succession, until the safety valve of assassination again came into play
and removed Domitian.
 Therefore, at the end of the 1st Century AD Rome was still growing strong
under the successful working of the Roman Administration under the
Principate founded by Augustus.

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Thus, the story of Roman empire has woven into itself vivid hues of human
nature—passion, conspiracy, compromise and of course, betrayal. However, in
an empire riding high on ambitions, treachery was but just a tool to fulfil the
innate desire to savour the fruit of power and position. For centuries stand
witness to the fact that trust and betrayal go hand in hand in making empires
as well as ruining them, and, the legacy still continues.............
              

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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1. Anderson, Perry: Passages From Antiquity To Feudalism
(part 1,chapter 4—ROME)

2. Boardman, John: The Roman World

3. Brunt, P: Social Conflict In Roman Republic

4. Crawford, Michael: Roman Republic

5. Dudley, Donald: Roman Society

6. Rostovtzeff, Mikhail: History Of Ancient World (Volume II)

7. Starr, Chester G.: A History Of The Ancient World

8. Stobart, John.Clarke: The Grandeur that Was Rome

TEAM MEMBERS

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1. Khangembam Chetan Singh

2. Kusasing Nsrangtse Zeliang

3. Linko Agnes

4. Lianching

5. Minga Sherpa

6. Mohini Mehta

7. Nandini Mehrotra

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