C_iifonuia 01inician_ 5'!_°'7; - 222-221_, 251-259 (1959).

LSD 692/(BfL)
INTRODUCTION

The Use of

Hallucinogenic Agents
in Psychiatry

OSCAR JANIGER, M.A.,D.O.

Certified in Psychiatry
by the
American Osteopathic Board of Neurology and Psychiatry
Teaching Fellow -- Kansas City College of Osteopathy and Surgery
Professor and Member of Executive Committee of Department of Psychiatry
Coordinator of Mental Health Training
College of Osteopathic Physicians and Surgeons
Administrator of United States Public Health Grant
i for Expansion and Improvement of Mental Health Training
• " Los Angeles
Past President American College of Neurology and Psychiatry

/i Senior Attending Psychiatrist

Los Angeles County Osteopathic Hospital
LosAngeles, California

• o o •

.%,n,,tau the most significant developments in the tensive literature on this subject and to some extent
ar,., ,,t th,. psychoses during the past decade has been from our own experience with several of the halluci-
Ih,, ,,pl,l_cation of specific drug induced states to the nogens administered to 300 volunteers and patients
._ludv ,,t psychotic processes and origins. The idea of over a period of three years.
esh,hlj.hing a model psychosis is not new. but vv;,s Undoubtedly all substances incorporated into the
in|,,1 r,,d more than 1()() years ago b'y Moreau.' x_'ho body have some ultimate effect upon the mental state.
alh,mlm,d to correlate the effects of hashish with the Our concern, however, is first with that broad group
ma||ifestation_ of mental illness. Drugs that are bein_ of drugs that show a pronounced tendency to alter
,..q)h,yed for this purpose are called by a variety ')f states of consciousness, feelings, perceptions and ideas,
names: psychotomimetic, psychotoge.nic, psyrh_)- • and then to attempt to separate from this melange
Ir-pllic and psychedelic. The earlier names emphu- a strain of mind-provoking agents having in com-
._,t. the relationship of this induced state to psychosis; men an immediate and singular action upon psycho-
_l,ile the more recenth" proposed suggest the qualit,¢ logical functioning.
.[ "'mind influencing" in general. Hallucinations are Legendary and anecdotal accounts of the influence
probably the most spectactdar ()f the alterations _)f of drugs and botanicals upon the mind are abundantly
psyche that can occur, and thus hallucinogenic re- scattered throughout written literature. Potions and
mains one of the more popular designations. It is the phihres, elixirs and balms, products of the caldron,
purpose of this paper to review, in a general way. alembic or test tube. guarded by ancient curses, for-
the background, properties and potentialities of tim bidden by law or publicly acclaimed, conceived in
hallucinogenic agents with particular reference t- n|ysterious ritual and by potent incantation or com-
lysergic acid diethvlamide, drawing from the ex- l_)unded by scientific formulary, these medicaments

222 THE CALIFORNIA CLINICIAN

have been pressed into every human service. The been given the impetus to go forth to preach the word.
recipient may be heir to any remarkable turn of No one in our particular series has been lost, as yet.
fancy:--"to dote madly upon the next live creature to the missionary service, but a number of our sub-
that it sees", as poor Titania was so directed by impish jects have developed an interest in mystical and re-
Puck, or to fall into a blissful sleep "free of pain and ligious thought they never have professed before. -
strife and forgetful of every ill", the not unpleasant Others have emphasized a kinship between the drug
plight of Homer's fallen heroes when given the brew state and the heightened, exalted feelings that under-
nepenthe. Pills to purge melancholy, to feign death lie and respire acts of creativity and artistic perfor-
or to transport one to an earthly paradise--or interm- mance. Communication of the experience while under
inable hell, to explore the vast reaches of inner space the drug is very difficult. The novelty of its action
or to reflect on the sublime or "hideous novelties" of and the curious and imponderable state into which
the mind's kingdom, one eventually passes seem to mock description and
to defy _ober analysis. We are here reminded of
From their shrouded and apocryphal sources, cer- the Taoist admonition. "He who knows doesn't say,
tain substances emerge as having predominant effects and he who says doesn't know", A highly articulate
upon the psyche. Mandragora was employed for ten- author, enthralled by the event, was reduced to
turies by the Chinese and Hebrews as an aid in the in- muttering. "another language . . . another language.
terrogation of criminals. 2 After drinking an infusion . . . " Although samples have been culled from thi_
of mandrake root with other drugs. "a confused men- wide stream, the methods of sampling are still pun?,
tal state" was produced, "which often led to a con- and inadequate. Understanding. at best. derives from
fession of crime". The Solanaceous drugs--henbane, the communality of the experience, where feelings
Jimson weed. belladonna and thornapple--used in and impressions are matched when words have lost
medicinal and occult preparations frequently pro- their meaning.
duced states of delirium and wild excitement. Natural
stimulants bearing the euphonious names of kola, Controlled studies of these drug-induced stales of
khat. kava kava. coca. iboga and betel are taken mental abnormality might be said to have begun with
mostly throughout the tropical regions to sharpen the the careful observations of Hum,_hrev I)avv' on the
mind, increase endurance, and quicken the senses, newly discovered nitrous oxi,_e in 18I)0_ He dis-
Alcohol, opium and hashish have long and elaborately tinguished the marked euphoria and noted the mer-
documented histories and have catalyzed the literary curtal changes of mood and perceptt,al distortion_
talents of De Quincy, Poe. Baudelaire. Gautier and that have since been identified wilh 1h,, use of this
Coleridge to some of the most imaginative and richly ga_. Occasional reports of the psyt }ud,,_:, al effects of
brocaded writing in the language. Certain esoteric Cannabis. cholorform and ether are _, he found in
plant substances such as peyote, caapi, yag6. nana- the scientific literature of the 19th cemurv. In 1_,_
catl. cohoba, and ololiuqui produce marked mental Lewin brought peyote to the attention, ,,t the qcientif,
changes with a minimum of delirium and clouding of world. He predicted its possible u_e in p,_chialrlc
consciousness. They were classified as "Phantastica" research and was among the first to und,.r,,ore it,
by L. Lewin a, a pioneer investigator in psychophar unique activity on the psyche. Several eminent phv
macology and presently comprise almost all of the sicians of this period, notably Emil Krapelin. VG,_,
natural hallucinogenic agents. Mitchell and Havelock Ellis. experimented with pe
yote. or with its active ingredient, mescaline, and
Hallucinogenic drugs were used for a great many were greatly intrigued by its potentialitie, Their
centuries by non-research mihded people. The long interest provided a stimulus to many of the qtbse
chronicle of man's search for a means to escape hi_ quent investigators who gave exhaustive but primar-
"sweating self" and to transcend his daily experience ih" descriptive accounts of the effects ,,f n|escali||e
has been most recently- and thoughtfully explored by on a number and variety of subjects, l.acking a unify-
Aldous Huxley in The Doors o[ Perception. The early ing princif)le or guiding hypothesis, research on the
savage was surely not averse to a chemical vacation hallucinogens became gradually attenuated.
when he could find one. and we can only imagine
how many unpleasant experiences he must have had About fifteen years ago. thi., once promising ap-
before he chanced upon a root or a leaf that restored pr(nwh was reactivated hv an unexpected circum-
his body or beguiled his mind. It appears likely that stance--the chance discovery of a chenmal of extra-
some religious practices might have arisen part passu re'dreary potency thai was seemingly cal_abh, of pro-
with the discovery and use of these agents, much a; dr|clog states analog(als to s<hizophrenia in n(,rnm[
the special ceremonial rights were evolved about the }ltnllaH being_. The drug was named l.vsergic acid
use of peyote and later became institutionalized in diethvlan_ide o|' [£D. The advent of I.Sl). abelted by
the "Native American Church". Non religious pc,- the rapid advances in the fields of ne||rol)hv_iology
sons taking these drugs have often expressed feeling, and neurochemistrv an<t by lhe upsurge of inlerest
of awe and a sense of ecstasy and profound illmniua in tit(, newer psychotherapeutic agents su(h as the
tion. They might, in other times and places, have Rauwolfia alkaloids and the phenothiazin,,,, led to

JULY• 1959 223

 several important and stimulating hypotheses im- impairment, clouding of consciousness and delirium,
plicating altered brain chemistry and physiology in attributes of a toxic psychosis are infrequently en-
the etiology and development of schizophrenia. With countered in the drug-induced state. Individual and
the growing realization of the usefulness of LSD and unique properties of the hallucinogenic drug reactions
similar agents in the developing experimental psy- are the vivid and brilliantly colored visual effects,
chiatry, the quest was on to examine or reevaluate a synesthesias, and the richness and the singularity of
host of substances that might be likely to induce psy- the fantasies and images evoked. These, at times, may
ehotic behavior. Several of the natural products al- seem utterly alien and removed from the person's
ready mentioned were long known to possess halluci- previous life experience. It should be noted that many
nogenic properties. A few synthetics and derivatives classical signs and symptoms are not always linked
other than LSD have been added to this list. However, together, nor is any of them entirely native to the
the number of these drugs remains surprisingly small, group to which it was artificially assigned. We are
probably not more than ten or twelve in all. forever reminded of the vagueness of our attempts to
What is the nature of the psychological disorder pigeon hole the perversities of psychological function
produced by the hallucinogenic agents? This is a by meeting many a familiar symptom in "wrong" or
pertinent but controversial question. I think that unlikely places. It seems a growing thought that the
most of the cognoscenti would agree that some type of brain works in marvelous and complicated themes,
psychotic reaction is produced, but a good deal of harmonies and resonances, but that major dishar-
monies follow somewhat fundamental rules. Inter-
opinion has been expended on the nature of the psy-
chosis. There are those, particularly among the Euro- ference with this basic organization may lead to
pean investigators, who feel that the phenomena similar consequences in a diversity of pathologies.

are on the order of a toxic psychotic reaction. Perhaps If we are willing to settle the burden of sympto-
the largest body of opinion would place the problem matic drug resemblances upon a form of schizo-
in the province of the functional psychoses. A third phrenia, provided that we have come to agreement
group say that it contains features of both. or that it as to what schizophrenia is. we may be in a position
might embody a special psychosis of its own. to postulate a model functional psychosis or analogue
If the drug effects mirror those of a toxic reaction, of schizophrenia that may be heuristicallv applicable
then this is not an outstanding fact. There are a great in a variety of ways. This is not. of course, to say that
many agents, one of the most common being alcohol, an hallucinogen causes schizophrenia, or that its ef-
that produce toxic psychotic reactions when taken fects are schizophrenia. Because of the protean nature
into the body. Closely related are those psychotic of the symptoms of schizophrenia, it may be best to
reactions produced when the body itself manufactures decide what type or phase of this disease suits our
noxious agents as a consequence of disordered metab- model best. My own feeling is that the acute, exota-
olism, as in specific liver, thyroid or kidney conditions, tory, undifferentiated schizophrenic syn d ro me is
These are referred to as endogenous toxic psychoses, most illustrative. I would say that in many persons
while the former are characterized as exogenous re- an LSD or mescaline psychosis comes closer to this
actions. The distinction between these two modes of picture than to the family resemblance this form of
origin is poorly and arbitrarily delimited. We do not schizophrenia bears to other forms. However, audi-
know enough about basic metabolism to determine tory hallucinations and catatonic symptoms as well as
when, if, and at what point an exogenus substance more chronic aspects of this disease such as marked
may set in motion a metabolic chain of events leading regressive behavior, impoverishment of thought, and
towards "endogenus" mental aberrations, flattening of affect are only occasionally found in the
model psychosis.
If the drug reaction is of the order of a functional
psychosis, one without any clearly defined toxic or In addition to the interesting prospects of a model
any known organic cause, then we are indeed inter- psychosis, there are a number of provocative uses for
ested. Schizophrenia, in this category, is probably the these drugs being developed which more appropri-
most obscure and malignant of the mental afflictions ately relate to one of the most versatile of this group.
LSD. Prior to a more detailed consideration of this
--and the most wide-spread. A good many similitudes
exist that would suggest a relationship between the semi-synthetic, it would be well to sum up the various
hallucinogenic psychoses and a schizophrenia-like re- attributes of the natural hallucinogenic agents as pre-
action. Dissociation of thought and affect, perceptual sented in the chart that follows _. I have included soma
distortions, depersonalization, difficulty in thinking for its historical interest, but still it remains an enig-
abstractly, autism and double consciousness--all tak- matic drug. seemingly unrelated to anv presently
ing place in a clear sensorium--are signatory of many known substance.
schizophrenias. These features are often found in the (To be concluded in the August i,_,ue.)
model psychoses. Disorientation. amnesia, intellectual (Bibliography in August issue,

224 THECALIFORNIA
CLINICIAN
Native Name Scientific Name Active Ingredient
C'thno-Geography Distribution

SOMA HAOMA SUMA Asclepias Acida? Unknown

Aryans in prehistoric India, early Iranians; Sarcostemma Viminale? "Astringent Narcotic Juice"
Southern and Western Asia

CANNABIS INDIAN HEMP Cannabis Sativa L. Cannabidol

(Bhang, Hashish, Ganja, Marihuana) MORACEAE Tetrahydrocannabinols
Ancient China, india, Persia, Greece and North Africa From Asia to Europe (1500 B.C.)
Presently used throughout the world, especially Asia and to America with early set-
Minor,Asia and Africa tiers

PEYOTE MESCAL BUTTON Lophophora Williamsii Mescaline

Several Mexican Indian tribes since pre-Columbian times, (Anahalonium Lewinil) Nine alkaloids isolated
including the Aztec, HuichoJ, Tarahumara, Plains, eastern CACTACEAE
and southwestern Indians of the United States north to Central and north Mexico
Wisconsin, especially Apache, Omaha, Kiowa, Coman- Southern Texas
the, Delaware, Oto, etc.

TEONANACATL Psilocybe mexicana and Psilocybin

(Sacred Mushroom) several others
Among the Chinantecs, Mezatecs, and Zapotecs of Paneolus Campanulatus
southern Mexico Var. Sphinctrinus-southern and
central Mexico

OLOLIUQUI Rivea Corymbosa Gluco-Alkaloid

(Piule,
Bador) CONVOLVULACEAE
Chinatec, Mazatec, Mixtec, Zapotec, in Oaxaca, Mexico Central America, West Indies,
Northern South America

COHOBA Piptadenia Peregrina Bufotenine

eerica, Niopo, Yopa, Yupa) (Acacia Niopo) N.N. Dimethyltryptamine
_.eil_m. Northern South America, Amazon region MIMOSEAE and theiroxides
Pe,_u I Ikazi[ (Mura, Mauke) Vaupes Nipo in Vene- West Indies,
zuele ._) Guahibo Cohaba in West Indies Northern South America

YAGE Haemadictyon Amazonicum N.N. Dimethyltryptamine

(Yahe, Caapt, I_) (Prestonia Amazonicum) Ya.geine?
Amazonia APOCYNACEAE

CAA/q AYA HUASCA Banisterio Caapl Harmine, Harmaline Tetrohydroharmine

(Natema, Nepe, Pinde) MALPIGHIACERE (Yageine, Telepathine, Banisterine,
Along 1he rivers of the Amazon regions of Peru, Colum- Leucoharmine)
bia, Equeder, and Brazil
 Preparation and Adminstration History

Fermented sap mixed with milk, butter, barley or water, Introduced into India and Iran 2-3000 years ago from
strained through wool and drunk Central Asia?
Use eventually restricted and disappeared; replaced by
Yoga?

Dried flowering tops of pistillate plants are smoked. In early Indian, Chinese, Greek, Assyrian literature to
Extracts and resins are ingested, before 1000 B. C.
Early use as a medical remedy as well as in the produc-
tion of states of euphoria and excitement
Similar to the "nepenthos" of Ancient Greece?

Fresh or dried cactus heads eaten Used for centuries prior to European conquest by Aztecs
Powder and brew may be used and other Mexican Indians; spread to Rio Grande bard-
Taken over a period of one to several nights er and thence throughout the Amerind population
A Christian version of Peyotism resulted in the formation
of the Native American Church, an organization of
federated tribes.

Dose prescribed varies with the size and age of the In use by Aztecs
individual
Usually 15 mushrooms, but larger doses have been
reported

Dose varies; about 13 seeds are taken in water or Use known to Aztecs
alcoholic beverages "Flowers of the Virgin"

Pods and seeds dried and powdered. Forcibly inhaled First described by Ramon Pane who salted with Cotum-
through a forked tube bus in 1496 (Haiti)
Mixed with water and administered as an enema

All parts of plant extracted in a brew Centuries of use by tribes of the Amazon
May be mixed with aya huasca

hormine Lower part of the stem is triturated and passed through Centuries of use. Known since the time of Cortez
le, a sieve; water is added to make a brownish-green bitter Described by Spruce in 1853
_3rew
 Effects
Ritual and Folklore Physical

Offered as a libation in religious ceremonies Intoxicant?

Hymns off Bk. IX of the Rig-Veda are addressed to the deified
soma-juiCe or soma
The celestial variety was drunk by the gods and incited Indra to
establish the Universe.

In Hindu tradition regarded as a holy plant brought from the Vertigo, parasthesias, nausea, dyspnea, dry
ocean by Shiva. Used as an aid in religious meditation. Regard- mouth, headache, tachycardia, light-headed-
ed by some Mohammedan sects as an embodiment of the spirit ness, analgesia
of a prophet. Venerated by some Central African tribes. Sup-
posedly employed by assassins or hashish e_ters to initiate mem-
bers to incite violence.

Various rituals, legends and beliefs are associated with plants' Nausea, vertigo, headache, incoordination, op-
use. In Mexico an agricultural-hunting religious festival is pre- pression in chest
ceded by a ritual pilgrimage to gather the plant. In the United
States formal all night meetings are held v_ith many prescribed
ceremontol accompaniments.
Taken in a group to enhance religious concentration and as a
sacrament; also a panacea and a means of prophesying and
divination

As o _.acr_men, ,,, rebgtous ceremonies presided over by a cur- Drowsiness, muscular incoordination, mydriasis,
ondo,* difficulty in speech, ataxia
In dlv0notto_ and prophesying and also as a panacea

Taken at night, atone or with curandero Dizziness, lassitude? Begins quickly-lasts about
"Plant s_piritsspeak to taker" three hours
In divination, as a medicine and in magical and analgesic oint-
ments

Used in a semi-religious debauchery lasting several days Intoxication; increased activity

To prepare some tribes for battle or for the hunt Talkativeness, singing, shouting, and 16aping
Clearing the head and increasing endurance about
As a medicament--for the ague Decreases hunger and thirst
Increased endurance

In group ceremonies Increased motor activity followed by a state of

As a means for divination and telepathy drowsiness

Used in whipping ceremony (Yurupari) By Columbian tribes. By Vomiting; vertigo; staggering; excetation; nor-
the Uapes at a Dabocuri or "Feast of Gifts." Forbidden to wom- oasis preceded by agitation
en. Young men under influence of Caapi dance to exhaustion.
Drunk by medicine men in adjudicating disputes, in divination or
casting spells
 Effects
Physical Psychological

Intoxicant? Inspired man to charity, insight and joy

"Best of Gladdeners"
Conducive to longevity
Bestows the gift of spiritual life

Vertigo, parasthesias, nausea, dyspnea, dry Euphoria, excitement, anxiety, fragmenta-

mouth, headache, tochycardia, light-headed- tion of thought, temporal and spatial dis-
ness, analgesia tortion, delusions, disturbances of visual
perception, visual hallucinations, deperson-
alization, body image distortions, wave-like
effects

Nausea, vertigo, headache, incoordination, op- Hallucinations, perceptual changes, intensi-

pression in chest fication of emotions, time and body image
distortions, oil with clear consciousness

Drowsiness, muscular incoordination, mydriasis, Exhiliration and levity, emotional excesses,

difficulty in speech, ataxia "Fantastic visions in brilliant color"

Dizziness, lassitude? Begins quickly--lasts about Increased suggestibility. Visual hallucina-

three hours tions. 60-100 seeds produced a state of
apathy and anergy together with some de-
gree of heightened visual perception and
increase in hypnogogic phenomena. (Os-
mond)

Intoxication; increased activity Strange visions

Talkativeness, singing, shouting, and leaping "Temporary madness"
about "Wild excitement"
Decreases hunger and thirst Followed by a period of tranquillity
Increased endurance

Increased motor activity followed by a state of Vivid hallucinations

drowsiness "Blue halo" effect

, Vomiting; vertigo; staggering; excetation; nar- Visual hallucinations

cosis preceded by agitation Sensory illusions
"Fantastic visions"
 The California _l_c_.
...... _.i_ 55,_O .81 l _ _5I (i _ I. _ l_:t) !9J!9.

CONCLUDED

The Use of

Hallucinogenic Agents
in Psychiatry

OSCAR JANIGER, M.A., D.O.

Certified in Psychiatry
by the
American Osteopathic Board of Neurology and Psychiatry
Teaching Fellow -- Kansas City College of Osteopathy and Surgery
Professor and Member of Executive Committee of Department of Psychiatry
Coordinator of Mental Health Training

College of Osteopathic Physicians and Surgeons

Administrator of United States Public Health Grant
for Expansion and Improvement of Mental Health Training
Los Angeles
Past President American College of Neurology and Psychiatry
Senior Attending Psychiatrist
Los Ange/es County Osteopathic Hospital
LosAngeles, California

A Swiss chemist. A. Hoffman '_.working in the San- Beginning with a careful study by Stroll: on Ihe
doz Laboratory in Switzerland in 1943 on certain clinical properties of LSD. a few papers were pub.
derivatives of lysergic acid (from ergot), became lished in this area during the next several years. A
strangely ill. Writing in his laboratory journal, he flurry of interest then began, which has resulted in
noted the following: "I was seized by a peculiar sen- more than five hundred papers to date _. with a mark-
sation of vertigo and restlessness. Objects. as well as edly progressive increase over the past three )'ears.
the shape of my associates in the laboratory, appeared Partly responsible for this was the concurrent investi-
to undergo optical changes. I was unable to concen- gation of another chemical substance known as 5-
irate on my work. In a dream-like state I left for hydroxytryptamine, or serotonin, a neuroregulatory
home... (I) fell into a peculiar state of _drunken- agent, and the observation that LSD is a potential
ness' characterized by an exaggerated imagination, antagonist of _erotonin in vitro. This has led to some
With my eyes closed, fantastic pictures of extraordi- interesting speculations concerning it* possible meth-
nary plasticity and intensive color seemed to surge od of operation in the human, which shall be men-
towards me. After two hours this state gradually sub- lioned later.
sided..." What are the clinical attributes of I,SD? Note-
What he was describing were the now familiar _orthy is the extremely small dose necessary to cause
changes that characterize the I_SD psychosis. He cot- profound alterations in the emotional and mental
rectly surmised that the substance he had been pre- state of the individual. As little as 10 to 20 millionths
paring, lysergic aci_l diethylamide, was responsible of a gram may provoke clinical changes. As the dos-
for his condition. Self experiments later confirmed age increases, the psychological effects seem to be
this. reinf_rced up to a point--about 75 to 125 meg. Be-

AUGUST • 1959 251

yond this any marked modifications of action seem to particular emotional conflicts or may be their sym-
take place in increments of several hundred or more bolic expression, or they may represent peculiarities
micrograms in what would appear to be the breaching of the drug's action upon susceptible tissues. An un-
of successive thresholds. Enormously larger doses on usual interpretatiu_a given in several instances was a
the order of milligrams per kilogram of body weight fancied reliving of the experience of one's own birth.
have been given to experimental animals. In rats, as In an appreciable number _,f subjects undergoing
an example, the minimal lethal dose is about 3.2 mg/ these phenomena the area of involvement was one in
kg intravenously. Oral doses up to 1500 meg. have which some previous pathology had existed--an old
been given to humans with no lasting physical effects, wound or locus of strain. In relation to this the sub-
Two of our subjects, receiving g00 and 1()00 meg.. je(t may report heightened awarenes_ and accessibil-
displayed a remarkable stability of hlood pressure, ilv _f his bodily processes. In one striking case a
pulse, temperature and respiration while undergoing patienl was able t(> identify the "'source" of pain re-
the most extravagant psychological distortions, suhing from chronic colitis. This. he stated, enabled

Four phases of the drug's action have been deline: him to deal "directly" with his somatic prohlem and
atedY During the first hour a prodromal stage may to ultimately overcome it. If we mav momentarily
be distinguished by the onset of physical changes return to the analogy of the model psychosis, it may
which tend to persist with some modification through- be w'_rth noting that many acutely schizophrenic per-
out the height of the experience: changes in visual sons complain of various aches and paros which are
generally disregarded or interpreted as psychological
perception may usher in the second or predominanlly manifestations of slates of tensiun. One might specu-
psychological phase, which may last from one to five late that these are the somatic concomitants of the
hours; a gradual diminution of both the autonomic
underlying metabolic disturbance.
and psychological effects over the next few hours may
be considered a third period. After eitects for one or A subject taking an oral dose of 100 mcg. of LSD
more days constitute the final stage, may typically begin w feel the effects about thirty
minutes to one hour later. First he may become aware
In many subjects relatively small doses of I,SD of some disconcerting physical signs such as trem-
may produce marked fluctuations in autonomic re-
,Imnses. Variances in blood pressure, pulse, respira- bling, chills, feverishness, mild nausea, labored
tlrm. sudation, salivation, body temperature, pupillary breathing, feeling of intoxication, lethargy, or per-
,_t_ va.,_motor function have been reported. In gen- haps a sense of tension, anxiety or expectancy.
_.ral. ,vmpathetic effects predominate, but signs of Accompanying these there is often a decided emotion-
" al enchancement and lability. Overwhelming ira-
parasympathetic stimulation may regularly occur, as
well as an occasional paradoxical or inverted reaction pulses to giggle or laugh, or more rarely cry, are
of these systems. The initial degree of autonomic commonly observed. These seemingly unprovoked
involvement does not seem to offer any clue as to the alterations in mood may be quite perplexing. The
explanation of one person was that Der Narr stupts
intensity or nature of the oncoming psychological
reaction. We have had limited success in attempting mich. or "The Fool is jostling me."
to predict the extent of vegetative lability that might The following is a highly personalized, composite
be occasioned by the drug. Estimates based upon the picture of the essence of the LSD state gathered from
postulated psychological response proved more help- several articulate and representative reports. The su-
ful in this regard than thb subject's previous record premely individual nature of the drug experience
of autonomic consistency. Persons fearful and anxious seems to lend itself best to this subjective form of
or strongly resistant and defensive in respect to the presentation.
psychological changes elicited by LSD may exhibit
marked divergences in autonomic response. After you have become somewhat more familiar
, with the restless state of your nervous system you
Motor reactions under the drug range from ex- settle down to await what _hall befall. In about an
treme agitation, pacing, flexing of muscles, writhing hour you begin to notice an extraordinary change in
and clonic movements to relative immobility and
catatonic-like states. The majority of our subjects your state of consciousness.
showed an inclination to lie down or to remain At first yon seem rather confused, at least accord-
passively seated whenever possible, ing to common sense standards. People ask you ques-
Further somatic effects of note are the frequent tions, and you answer dreamily. You want to get up
occurrence of generalized or specific pains at almost and get a Kleenex. "but it's too much trouble". Yet
any site in the body. Particularly during the height of you often feel that things are extraordinarily clear.
the reaction, the subject may report sensatimls of You become alert, and very sensitive to minute
being crushed, drawn, pummeled, stretched, twb;ted changes. "I see! No_ I begin to see!" you say, awed
or squeezed. Areas of predilection of these unpleas- by revelation. "See, what?" you gesture vaguely or
ant occurrences may be related to the somalizalion of impatiently. Or if you are w r i t in g down your

252 THE CALIFORNIA

CLINiCiAN
thoughts y_u are reduced to translating the material most be_utih_l _ight ewq' _oen b)" anyone on earth or
of consciousness which you cannot put into words, anvwher_" But you will say this again of other
into mutilated metaphors, or familiar analogies to sights. The color fantasie_ flow with great plasticity.
describe that blinding clarity. Yet all you can sav "The deqgns acre formal, symmetrical, and exqui--
about it is that it shines out of such an unfamiliar itelv perfect but dravv_l it_ jeweled illumined colors
form of consciousness that it has no counterpart in like melted precious .qones. They f_rmed patterns
that ordinary "cleary" sensorium fed only by the which dissolved swiftly 1o be replaced bv other pat-
trickles of common sense. Later. looking back from terns, scinlillating transparencies, like filament, ,,f
"normal" less dilated consciousness, you remem- amethyq, and emeralds." And the light from _ithin
ber that during the entire experience you had sus- shine_ with such luminosity "that I was over-
pendod ordinary logic--without missing it. You felt w'hehned by the beauty".
given a refreshing rest. Meanwhile you may enchant As you watch this show. you may lose all track el"
yourself with the airy thought that the experience time. A new vista opens up all in a moment, and
has an odd logic of its own. if you could but trans- while v(,u feast upon it "time stands still". You have
late the "tongue that dwells in eyes and hearts." Yet
now, it is quite enough to let it flood your brain, and a feeling of "newness". There is no past or future.
"This nl,mlont." you know, "this ecstacv, is the only
leave the question of whether your consciousness is time I am alive. Happiness is not something t(_ be
clear or clouded
of distinction. to those who can draw sharp lines experienced s,metime in the future, on vacation, after
retirement. It is now". You are so ax_are of this
Now your senses seem to take in more sight and precious moment, you fear it will pas,. You make the
sound, "The eye can become a camera with an auto- sad comment on time's revenges. "time would pass
matic zoomar lens." It rushes up for close, almost and it would all end." An attendant a_,k_ you: "Cav_
microscopic vision. And then, your eye sends you you tell me when one mirmte has gone by?" After
strange messages that make you wonder: "What i[ hall-a-minute you reply that you lost interest: "The
everything's alive?" You see an animistic world "liv- question seems silly. Nlinutes are only intervals u,°.d
ing, walls inhaling, oil paintings with muscles moving to coun| ordinary things. But in one of these nnnuh',
under the canvas." You realize that this is the way an infinity of extraordinary events, live_ and ,t,,,,,..
some artists see their paintings all the time. breathing could be going on". Clock time is irrelewml; ),,u ,,,.
and alive. "Others do not. They see it as a still life." involved in a larger cosmic time. whic},, tells you that
You endow these animated things with a conscious in a flash you can see all.
personality. You see the hedge breathing. "It swells Your mind may be flooded with all these vibra-
and subsides with a regular inhalation and expulsion tions, visions and flaming jewels, so that you may not
of breath, calmly, contentedly. The houses across the
be able to handle simple abstractions. You not only
road are breathing, too. They are clearly enjoying the couldn't tell tin]e, you may not concentrate _)n any
whole activity very much." And suddenly you feel
assignment. The attendant asks you: "If your sanity
involved with life everywhere. You can't even light a depends on it, tell me why a rolling stone gathers no
cigarette in a detached way, "Just as the match
moss." The question seems hilarious, and you greet it
•catches the tobacco leaves, they seem alive, like tiny with laughter. Or you frown in an attempt to simulate
insects, scuttling away to escape the slow flame."
deep thought. Suddenly the meaning of the universe
Before you can adjust to these illusions your becomes completely clear--but you are not able to
perceptions are stretched on other racks. You may answer why a rolling stone gathers no moss. What a
feel ravenously hungry• But your appetite is taken small insignificant question, when w)u are synthe-
away, or distracted by the birds outside, singing to sizing all the great paradoxes of cosmology. You for-
derange your senses. The sounds you shouht hear, you get to an,.vver for you are listening to the voices that
begin to see and touch, as if all your senses were on a call you to come into Eden• The attendant asks you a
single antenna. You can touch the sour]d, and watch problem in simple arithmetic inw)lving three steps of
it conduct the tempo of the breathing walls. "With addition and one of subtraction. You try- to repeat the
each trill, the feathers vibrated. The music is part of problem, but an angel beckons to you with her trans-
lucent lips and luminous hands. The attendant re-
the bird's featliers." You move your hand to the music
and are moved to speak aloud. You stop. astonished peats the problem. You answer: "I could do it if l
wanted to but I don't want to." The attendant asks
for your gesturing hand is entangled with your words.
"The words became a gesture, gestures graceful and you to please try anyway. You think about it. and
deliver your verdict: "I shouldn't do it. for I feel that
gradual..." Now wherever your eye falls on the re-
It wouldn't consider this important".
splendent world it seems to be a "feast of the senses."
Gold is one of your favorite colors and you see it You begin to lose your inhibitions but you feel no
everywhere: "The bands between the tiles shone like compulsion to do anything bizarre. You don't want
• bars of gold under water." This. you swore, "Was the to be distracted, but you are compliant. Someone asks

AUGUST• 1959 253

you wh+tt kind <d nnlqc vet+ w.uht like t<_ he++r. "1 -iI, tit,,)1 Ill\ _.\,.-. I !.... I, ,,r .... It.. _,_lit+.' _',,,,t_+ ,I
answered that it really made tie ttifference at all- 1 I},lt i_,l_+,,,_ tl,.,,iq,,,-,I,.I,,'_.l+ .,t,I I I.... !, ,,!,1:_ ._+t
wax incapable of telling one kind of music tt'<ml am pri,,+,,td .,,,v _tl,t. ,_,,. \\t_x I ,_l_l,,\,'t II,,r,*_,,t
other." Who wouldn't be? \Vho has "'ten .,5nlphcmies here ill till' ",illll_' Illll" 1 (;ILL '2"1 *:t-h{, t" ,till [

of colored chords'" detonating ill his head? You can xx,,,h,r if t."- i,l nti,l,' "
be moved around v_ithout interruttling your view )if /Xl l}l{' vel'\ "-,/lllllllll {_[ t[h' ,][ i_:' ,'I',,, !-. li**'l,' i- ,t

the visions--for you are the cameraman. (lire: t(_r. atM feelirJg ¢_1 c,,lltillullni ,,l tl,,x_,l_: i !,!I ,- :1 xx,.
projectionist, and can show them v,here you t)lease, were. a'. individual-. II,b n,,',' I[_.L,_ x\l,k, It..... l, 111 ,,
"Dr. K. suggested that _xe take a walk in a nearby ,'ire, .... but X_llirll,,-l, ,.\ill) _ill- _xt_,l_ ,,_ ,,,n.'
park and I promptly acquiesced." That w_ud "acqui- together and i-in a- ,me. ,," ,li,,,t,l_,',r al,t join the
esced" is the key" word for m l_alin it nlean_. 1o rcsl
satisfiedin. ri\er".

Of all the big changes you notice, lhe change m 1.SIt may n,lgnit'y defense,; and destructive in)-
self concept and t)o(tv image i_ the ttu>i i,_men,c, pt_l_e_ ¢d xx hich _\e're unaware. I.ike a lens. the drug
You feelat first no definile shar l) location of vein's, elf. t)loxxs thetn up t,) immense tlroportions. \_,:e may
"I was being unghled from nly earth gravirv...l seek heaven_vith our reasonit_g mind, and court hell
was in space. I was standing on )tie rim (_f a i>lanel "" xxith ,,." heart_,. Yet) may suffer from a rage to kill,
have thoughts el ";uicide; or nlaV believe you're being
This "you" which stands outside yours, elf st|<_x\s n_,
rigid shape• "'I feel dissociated and removed. "I'hi_,gs- per'q'cutett. You nll, V feel that your friends are plot-
myself--feel strange." Or v.u nmv .;ee vour'aelf writ ling against you. )hal everwme is watching you; out-
large: "I suddenly find myself ab.ut fifteen feel tall-- wit lhetn and you hike six' pleasure in your secret
• <h,\erne,s. "_'()|1 lnaV gi\'o ill to jealous.v; the suspicion
looking down at mv feel. which seen> a long v,av."
And you nmy lake new pleastu'e in v()ur betty, aq il that sonic.he ix g.ing I. hike something (if yours. You
just discovering it: "I became aware of tile almost nlav believe thai you are being deliberately poisoned:
"'The whole picture t-ok m_ ue\'+ meaning. I realized
unbearably good. painfully sweet dispositi,n of my lhat the drug he had given hie was not I:SD. Sud-
physical self• I was aware of myself t_ the r.ols of nlV
hair. I began to tou('h my body". <tenlv 1 knew it was some other (trug which was going
• lO rob tile of sanity pernlanently. I suddenly under-
You may have a strange reacti(m to the nlirror, as stood the \_hole train of events. 1 understood the role
if seeing a stranger. "Someone showed Int. a mirrtlr (tf each separate person that had c(mtributed to get-
and I looked in It, see myself. The face I saxx looked tang me there at this time. It became completely clear
so beautiful. Then. in a tragic burst of evil creativil.v, how the whole ('onspiracy had been handled to put
I composed my face into the way it 'normally' is -- me here. helpless." Yet. ew_n Hell may be valuable•
and felt great sadne%, that I could not see lhat beau- The subject who feared poison came out of it. faced
tiful face all the time." You feel able to step ()tat of the his fea,', and wrote of that terrifying afternoon: "I
rented costume of the self you held rigidly within recognized those six }'_ours as the mosl significant
narrow bounds, learning experience (>f my life"• You may see no

When the visions are flowing, you actually see the bright breathing jewels (if fire. no visions of dazzling
things you describe. But when transcendent feelings splendor: "The world was drab and dead -- when not
flow, you want to describe unity, illumination, reve- t)ositively creeping with fearful plots and conspir-
lation, rebirth, and exaltation. Then you are re<luce(t acies. I thought I was a dope fiend, an alcoholic and
to finding the most fantastic phrases to evltke the a leper. The whole experiment had been hell. There
unevokable, h is as if you saw a new color, one i_ul- was no clear iml)ressions of anything except pain and
side the band of the spectrum peoph' n()rmallv see. I wanted it to end. 1 said over and over again. 'I can't
"You would need to use old words in wild ways. Or in- go through il. I can't. It came to me that I had stopped
vent a new word which conmmnicates (rely h) those life in my childhood, slopped living and merely been
who have seen your new color. No amount of logic existing the rest of my life."
can refute it. For it didn't come to you via logic, but l)uring the first experience, you do not care to
through direct contact, as if it st)route(t _xithin x-ot_ bother with summoning spirits from the vasty deeps
sui generis. "At the height of the drug I w_,s really of your memory. You would rather watch the wild
aware of only two things: mv own existence and the ('olors of the pageantry. You feel that you would
world of nature which seemed to me beautiful and rather apt)ly the Niagara of ideas flooding your brain
right/" The world seemed right. "The drug brings _>t_t to look into present problems. But there's no reason
a feeling of warmth, goodness, love. benevolenc¢ .... why. with skilled help you cannot turn and explore
laughter, great grinning at everything, a_ if my per- lhis fhlod of insights into the past. You nmv have a
s}anality were a Cheshire cat. all disappeared ex(epl vision which resurrects in great detail an actual
this uncontainable smile." This love may be whal scene from childhood: "Then I brought back the ceil-
leads you to feel a sense <)f uni(ln: "D,'hen this feeling ing of the church of my chihth<tod. It was complete

254 THE CALIFORNIA CLINICIAN

in every detail: the stern, white-haired God with his chotherapy has been reported bv a number of in-
white beard and heavily muscled body draped in vestigators.' ..... The consensus of opinion of those hay-
brilliant blue fabric .... I found a kneeling figure ing the most experience in this use of the drug appears
.... I put my hands together in an attitude of to be that it facilitates the recall and abreaction of
prayer .... " "forgotten or repressed" material.'" ':_ _ It promotes
the patient-therapist relationship and seems to ac-
Here we have described first hand, the character-
celerate the process of psychoexploration.'" Insights
istic changes in consciousness, attention and concen-
produced under the drug appear to carry an emotional
tration, intellectual functioning and suggestibility, impact and conviction infrequently encountered in
Perceptual alterations are expressed by the visual
conventional psychotherapy. Patients have reported
hallucinations, pulsating and flowing movements, in-
the recapturing of long forgotten traumatic episodes
tensification of color, synesthesias and time distortion. with great vividness and clarity of detail." yet
Modifications in body image and self-concept are de-
all the while maintaining a curious detachment and
pitted together with feelings of depersonalization, emotional dissociation permitting further introspec-
autism and detachment. The transcendental feelings lion and self-observation. Many, illustrative examples
of awe, illumination, profundity, sublimity and af
are given of specific conflicts resolved through the
firmation are well represented as well as the negative use of this modality.'-' _' LSD has been said to shorten
ideas of reference, paranoid delusions and expressions the duration of formal analytic therapy by reducing
of rage and self-destruction. Finally, a brief illustra-
tion of the heightened faculty of recall is given. Other resistance and increasing the patient's receptivity to
frequently noted psychological phenomena would in- interpretations by the therapist.'* It permits extension
clude the alternating, wave-like quality of the drug's of treatment to those patients not amenable to other
kinds of therapy. 14' 15 A co-worker. _s reviewing the
action, the spatial distortions and the lightening shifts therapeutic aspects of the I_SD experience, has sum-
in the subject's frame of reference, marized his findings as follows: "It permits the pa
The experience generally may persist for some tient to distinguish between the creative, observati,,,,l
eight to twelve hours, gradually becoming more and defensive functions of the ego.., and may rm,.,,I
ephemeral toward the later hours -- often giving way the maladaptive nature of his defenses. It is t'atM_ _,
to a fatigued and emotionally spent state which may in the process of becoming aware of the bounda, ,,.... !
be accompanied by a sense of purging and calmness, self and the existence of other modes of reacti,m.
sometimes depression. Sleep may be difficult, and it Thirty writers, artists, and musicians, who have
has been our custom to give the subject a sedative taken I_SD and mescaline in the course of a study we
before retiring. In a number of individuals a persist- have been making on creativity, invariably (,,,,,
ent after-effect lasting for several days has been noted.
mented on the similarity of the drug-induced state t,,
This may be in the nature of feelings of general well-
what they felt might be an essential matrix from
being and freedom from anxiety. In others a pro- which the imaginative process derives. Almost all
longed anhedonic, flattened reaction may occur or speak of having gained a far greater insight into the
one of marked sensitiveness or irritability, nature of art and the esthetic idea. What features of
From the perusual of several hundred reports, the drug reaction lend support to these persistent
questionnaires, card sorts, tape recordings and ex- notions? Perhaps the unusual wealth of associations
tensive direct notes taken by both subjects and ob- and images, the sharpening of color perception, the
servers, it is evident that no two LSD reactions are synesthesias, the remarkable attention to detail, the
alike, even in the same individual. Engrafted on what accessibility of past impressions and memories, the
might be termed the basic drug reaction, consisting of heightened emotional excitement, the sense of direct
many of the aforementioned features, is an mordi- and intrinsic awareness, and the propensity for the
environnlent "to compose itself" into perfect tableaus
nately complex overlay and interweaving of the fo,'n,
and harmonious compositions, are all contributory to
and content of the experience, deriving from the indi- the artist's conviction that he is able to fashion new
vidual's personality and his accumulated experience, meanings to an emergent world. One of our collabor-
his mood at the onset of the venture, the setting m
ators on this project has stated the matter in this
which the drug was administered, as well as his state
way: _u
of health, condition of rest, and perhaps the amount
of food and salt he has ingested. Occasionally, sub- "The
and in nature of art,
the first poetryan oreshangement
instame any creativity from
is essentialh"
the usua'l.
jects will evidence outstanding deviations from the f,om the stereotyp4_dThe esthetic experience occurs, always
concomitanl v_,ilh the feeling of something strange, unusual
conventional response. Three persons were minimally and incredible , , . a quality in common in the perceptions,
effected by 200 meg. or more of LSD. No psvchologi- th,,ugi_ts
tive adt_!ts.and feelings of children, sdfizoph,'enics and crea-
eel changes could be elicited, and only the most fleet-
ing physical reactions. '"1'}_,.
ing to childs strangeness
fo, mulatr comes
his notions out of
de nero in his
the dilemma of hav-
world where his
blinding mvsterws are 'laken-forgranted verities of e_,'er,v-
The use of LSD as an adjunctive agent in psy day comm(mplace'.

AUGUST • 1959 255

 "The schizophrenic's feeling of strangeness is experienc,,d fall along classical lines of inquiry. Biochemical in-
a_ ego alien, as disintegrative, as a prison senten{e maroon
mg hint on the desert island of his own inaccessibly private vestigators are attempting to answer questions con-
world, cerning the distribution,metabolismand fate of this
"The creative adult embraces his experience of strangeness substance ill lhe body a_(t the brain, its interaction
and wonder as a gift of new sight for himself and his with specific enzyme systems, and its relationship to
fellows, other chemical events in the organism. Neurophysi-
"'In some manner as yet o'hscurethe 1,SI) process wrenches ologists have shown an interest in its effect on neural
the subject loose from his well-established conceptual moor
inlgs and sets him adrift in strange, exotic and fantastically transmission and organization. Bvhaviorial scientists
improbable waters." are working on prol_h, ms of the relationship of the
Artistic productions -- paintings, poems, sketches drug-induced state to group interaction, personality
and writings--stemming front the experience often integratiotJ, conditi(ming, and other aspects of adap-
show a radical departure from the artist's customary ration. Clinicians have been tweoccupied with the
mode of expression. Paintings become more expansive psychopathological, diagnostic and therapeutic ira-
and vibrant, with an apparent disregard for likeness plications of a controlled, transient, modifiable dis-
and conventional structural detail. The artists' _en sociative process.

eral opinion is that their work becomes more expres- A sizable body of data concerning the manifold
sionistic and is permitted a vastly greater degree of activities of LSI) has accrued and a few theories, but
freedom and originality, as yet no definitive theoretical synthesis has emerged.
Tolerance for LSD builds up very rapidly; > 2, On the contrary, many of the more recent findings
hence, physiologic addiction is unlikelv. Psychological render the original bold and .qdtatorv hypotheses less
dependency has not yet been reported. Because of the tenable.
intense and unpredictable nature of the reaction, it The theory-maker is often m the equivocal position
is not likely to be sought after as a divertissement, of the unfortunate, man who had no nose. This caused
Severe side reactions and harmful effects of I,SD him nmch grief and embarrassment, for whenever
occur relatively infrequently and seem entirely re- he would be seen on the streets of his community, he
lated to its psychological activity. Extreme emotional would be met bv derisive cries of. "]'here goes the
,,utbursts. panic states, overt paranoid reactions, per- man with no nose!" Finally he decided to get the
,,,tent depressions. TM a rare suicide3" and the reactiva- finest artificial nose that could be made. Armed with
t,m of a frank psychosis _' have been noted. Occasion- his elegant new nose he sallied forth. But to his dis-
ally subje<'ts will report transient flashbacks of an may. his tormentors still appeared. This time. they
LSD-like nature for months after the drug expert- were shouting. "There goes the man with that nose!"
enceY _ These grossly untoward reactions have oc- General metabolic studies show that only a small
curred almost always in persons who are psycho- fraction of the total dose of I=SD ever reaches the
logically disturbed or have had a history of emotional brain. ++:<' After one or two hours it is no longer de-
illness, tectable there. By this time 70 percent of the total
Precautions in screening prospective candidates for dose has been metabolized by the liver. Since the
the drug, the attendance of an experienced therapist metabolites excreted by the liver seem to be biologi-
or monitor in suitable surroundings, and the ready cally inactive, it would appear that LSD may be
availability for application of antidotes such as chlor- mainly responsible for triggering the psychotic reac-
promazine or sodium amytal should prevent these lion and that the events that follow are no longer
complications and allow for a safe procedure, dependent upon its presence.

LSD has been given to a variety of animals through Studies on cerebral respiration in ultra suggest a
various portals of entry and has been used ingeniously rise in oxygen consumption and the accumulation of
in a great many laboratory experiments. Thus it has hexosemonophosphate?" These conclusions have not
been discovered that it will inhibit the steps of waltz- been substantiated by other investigators a_ or by the
ing mice.'-" "improve" the angles of spiders' webs in 1,i_,o determinations of cerebral blood flow, oxygen
(Zilla)._" cause Siamese fighting fish to become more consumption, or glucose utilization in human subjects
pacifistic and hang tail downwardY" darken the skin under the influence of LSD. :''
of female guppies. +''produce disorganized movement
in the mystery snail (Cyprina)5" intensify the motil- Enzymatic investigations have not uncovered any
ity of the liver fluke (Fasciola),'-' and produce a rise cerebral enzyme system that is peculiarly vulnerable
in tile absolute visual threshold of pigeons.:':' Dogs. to LSD. Pseudocholinestrase in the brain has been
cats. mice, and rabbits sh_)w characteristic behavi_wal reported to be blocked by I,SD, but true cholinestrase
alterations and manifest many sign_ of central _vm- is unaffected.:'"
pathetic stimulation. I_SI) has been found to exert specific antagonism
Patterns of attack on the mode of action uf I.SD to the peripheral action of 5-hydroxytryptamine or

256 THF CAtIFORNiA CtlN[CIAN

serotonin in various smooth muscle preparations in conversion of adrenochrome into dihydroxyindoles"
animals. *° It was postulated that the psychological (non-psychotomimetic) resulting in an excess of
disturbances produced by LSD and other presumed plasma adrenochrome and the increased production of
anti-metabolites of serotonin may be related to their adrenolutin?*
interference with this substance in the brain where it
has normally been demonstrated to occur. '1 05 Despite From the point of view of conditioning theory,
the provocative peripheral effects of serotonin there LSD prolonged the rope-climbing time in rats for a
is presently little evidence for its involvement with food reward '_ and produced a specific block in a
LSD centrally. The assumption that varying levels conditioned "avoidance" response?" In this connec-
of serotonin in the brain may be responsible for el- tion the work of Bridger and Gantt _7 with mescaline
terations in psychological functioning remains a spec- on dogs with classical conditioned motor and cardiac
ulative one. Further challenging the role of serotonin reflexes is of interest. They came to the conclusion
as a mediator in psychic processes is the observation that the mescaline psychosis in man as well as ani-
that several substances having little mental activity, reals may be considered a form of cleavage between
particularly BOL-48, show powerful anti-serotonin the Pavlovian systems of "higher nervous activity",
qualities in vitro? s The metabolism of serotonin has and as a result "the primary conditioned stimulus
also been implicated as a possible factor in the de- comes to act as if it were the more primitive, uncon-
velopment of psychosis. Aberrations in its biochemical ditioned stimulus; in humans the second signal sys-
action may lead to the production of "natural" tern of words, ideas and abstractions comes to act as
hallucinogens in the body such as bufotenine or cer- if it were the more primitive, primary conditional re-
tain tryptamine derivatives.** flex system of direct, concrete impressions of stimuli.
Thus, verbal concepts or abstractions of reality come
Investigations of LSD on the spontaneous electrical to act like direct impressions of reality itself.. "
activity of the cortex indicate that "in man as well as These investigators '_*further suggest that in the mes
animals LSD (and mescaline) produce minimal caline state extinction of the conditioned stimulus doe,
changes in the 'resting' electroencephalogram gen- not occur as it would normally when not reinforced
erally in the direction of desynchronization and ac- by experience or reality, but reenforces itself by
celeration of alpha frequencies. ''_'_ Studies of the drug identification with the unconditioned stimulus, l)ur
on specific afferant pathways revealed that evoked ing such mescaline induced "inhibitory and disorgan-
auditory and visual primary responses are facilitated ized" states, ideas may thus take on the qualities of
in the cortex of unanaesthetized cats. *_ This is in con- compulsions, obsessions and delusions.
trast to the findings that LSD seems to exert an in-
hibitory effect on specific intracortical and transcal- Psychological tests and measurements of subjects
losal pathways as well as on the diffuse proiection taking LSD as yet have contributed little to the ad-
systems of the thalamus and the ascending reticular vancement of our understanding of the psychological
substance. .7 A dual action for LSD has been sug- action of the drug. Personality and diagnostic tests
gested: a facilitating one on axosomatic synapses and present a gamut of nebulous and contradictory find-
an inhibitory effect on axodendritic synapses. '* Vat- ings difficult to evaluate. Performance and aptitude
iations in procedures, methods, and dosages add dif- tests indicate that with higher doses of LSD there is
ficulty to the interpretation and equating of these an impairment of mental functioning and integration
experimental findings, especially as measured by specific tests of intellectual
ability. _'' attention and concentration/_ recognition
The engaging hypothesis has been put forth that and recall of various stimuli, _' motor performance, "_
LSD might interfere with the metabolism of adrenal- spatial perception '_:'and psychomotorcoordination/_ _
in and encourage the production of a psychotogenic
metabolite of this psychosensitive material. *° Osmond CONCLUSION
and Smythies, _° noting the similarity in structure be-
tween the mescaline and adrenalin molecule, thought What conclusion may we draw from this general
that some intermediate substance, perhaps a metabol- overview? There is, as yet, no accounting for the ex-
traordinary and manifold actions of the hallucino-
ite of adrenalin, might be operative in the production genic agents. A translation of the drug effects from
of a schizophrenic psychosis. Adrenochrome, an oxi- the biochemical, neurophysiological and psychological
dation product of adrenalin, may be such a sub- level of investigation to their place in the total inte-
stance? _ Adrenolutin and adrenoxine, '_' are similarly grative functioning of the human being seems a long
suspect. Clinical studies on these adrenalin derive- way from accomplishments. There are promising.
tives have been suggestive but inconclusive, the Sas- leads, but for the moment this is all. Areas of fruitful
kachewan group reporting mental disturbances from injury that would merit greater stud)" are the use of
their use, while other have been unable to confirm these agents in psychotherapy_as teaching and train-
their results/':' In a recent paper, Hoffer et el. sng- ing aids in psychiatric fields, as a diagnostic device,
gest "that LSD inhibits an enzyme responsible for the as a method of investigating the creative, assimilative

AUGUST• 1959 257

 I
l!

and transcendental attributes of the mind, and above sibility of altering seemingly unalterable reality.
all. as an unprecedented means for studying psychic Most impressive to all was the drug-provided ability
functioning. It seems ironic that the attention of the to assess the limtis of self by going beyond them to
scientific world has been primarily drawn to the aber- find a new perspective not bound by an irrevocable
rant and pathological nature of the drug's activity, self-concept. Among the most important derivatives
of this "shock of liberation" is a feeling of "reconcili-
We should look beyond psychosis. For at least two ation" as if all conflicts were immediately and in-
hundred of the subjects participating in our project, sightfully resolved. In the history of human experi-
the drug experience had its own unique rewards, ence these sudden vistas of insight have been regarded
Their statements at the time and in follow-up in- by some as the emergence of a new sanity. Perhaps
quiries are a remarkable record of the impact that we may find in the proper application of these ancient
this event had on their minds, drugs and their modern equivalents the meaning of
Frequently reiterated themes were those of the re- this "emergent sanity".
vitalization of feeling and the intrinsic awareness of In our search for an unprecedented attack on the
the forces of life and creativity and their mutual in- problerhs of self-understanding we should welcome
terpenetration of the world. An astonishing aspect of the help of a drug that truly enables us to heed the
the drug state to the matter-of-fact, habit bound per- talmudic injunction: We do not see things as they are,
,._}nwas the coming face to face with the distinct pos- we see them as we are.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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