CONTENT AREA 2: Definitions and Characteristics

2-1 Explain and behave in accordance with the philosophical assumptions of behavior analysis, such as
the lawfulness of behavior, empiricism, experimental analysis, and parsimony. P. 3-7, 15, 159

UNDERSTANDING SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS depends on Description/Prediction/Control.

A. DECRIBING SENTENCE(S):

1) 3 levels of understanding scientific investigations, in hierarchal order. Repeated observations

involved in first two levels -- where a hypothesis is formed (description) and correlations suggested
(prediction); manipulation/correlation (ie Functional relationship) is then revealed is involved in last
level (control). Functional relationship is the primary product of basic and applied behavior analysis.

2) DESCRIBING SENTENCE/BULLETS – ASSUMPTIONS OF SCIENCE – (DR PEEP)

DETERMINISM – world is orderly/events related in systematic ways to other factors. Scientist assumes
lawfulness, then looks for lawful relations.

REPLICATION – repeating experiments to rule out confounding variables. Increases reliability.

PARSIMONY – takes simplest most logical explanations into account first.

EMPIRICISM – Key = Objectivity/independent of prejudice or subjectivity.

EXPERIMENT – Basic strategy of most sciences.

PHILOSOPHICAL DOUBT – Continually question everything accepted as fact, using knowledge from new
discoveries.

B. EXAMPLE: After several times of clearing dinner plates during which broccoli was served, I noted
my spouse’s plate had the same amount of broccoli on the plate after dinner, as was served during
dinner. The simplest hypothesis would be that my spouse did not like broccoli…(correlation suggested =
prediction level of Scientific Understanding; Parsimony = simplest hypothesis). I could bring this to the
next level of understanding (control) by experimenting by repeatedly putting broccoli in preferred foods
(for example) to see if that food is eaten with decreased frequency than before…this shows the
assumptions of replication, experiment, determinism.

C. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION: When Four-year-old Harry heard his dad’s car in the driveway, he
would predictably run to the front door. Dad would momentarily walk through the front door and give
Harry a big hug. One day, the front step was broken; Dad was forced to come in the side door. One
Wednesday, Harry still ran to the front door, even after he saw Dad come through the side door the day
before (Tuesday). In terms of applied behavior analysis, it can be said that:
a. After repeated observations, Harry has seemed to make a correlation between the sound of
dad’s car and dad walking through the front door, allowing him to predict that standing near the front
door will result in a hug from dad.

b. Harry has correctly deduced that the sound of Dad’s car causes him to come through the front
door.

c. Even though Dad went through the side door once, several observations reveal a correlation
between the sound of dad’s car and dad walking through the front door, so that is where Harry should
continue to wait for his dad.

d. Following the assumption of philosophic doubt, Harry has no need to question the door dad will
come through, in spite of the fact that he came through the side door two days in a row. After all, Dad
used the front door 100 times, so that is the most probable outcome.

Answer – A. Harry is in the Prediction level of understanding, as repeated observations have occurred,
and a correlation may have been revealed based on these observations. It is not b, as there is no way to
tell if one event causes another. It is not c, as philosophical doubt would mean that Harry needs to
consider new information (the broken step) and question past truths. It is not d, as there is always need
to question, according to the assumption of philosophic doubt.

2-2 Explain determinism as it relates to behavior analysis. P. 5, 159, 161

DESCRIBING SENTENCE: Determinism, as it relates to Behavior Analysis, means that, through

observations, facts are categorized and quantified and a preliminary hypothesis is formed.

EXAMPLE: A mom noted that her son cried when they went to the circus and he saw the clowns. She
made the preliminary hypothesis that the son was afraid of anyone in a costume. This is determinism
because repeated observations were not yet made (prediction level) and no manipulations were made
to test hypothesis (control level).
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION: The same mom in the example (above) started to observe her son’s
reaction to people in costumes in general, after that trip to the circus. After five exposures, Mom noted
her son cried each time. He did not however, cry when in the company of a person in uniform (the
mailman, a military person). Mom then suggested a correlation between people in costume and her
son’s crying. To determine a functional relationship between costumed characters and her son’s crying,
Mom planned to expose her son to his favorite cartoon character (in costume) to see if he had the same
reaction to that costume as well. If he did cry, then she could state with certainty that all characters in
costumes caused her son to cry. This mom’s current level of studying the phenomena under study (her
son’s crying) is:

a. Description

b. Control

c. Prediction

d. None of the above

Answer: C/Prediction – because she has repeatidly (moving her beyond description) observed the same
event and the similar variables, and noted a high degree of probability of the resulting behavior. It is not
control,(b), as no manipulation of variables has been done. She is planning to change one variable
(exposure to a favorite costumed character) – which suggests a move to the control level, (although the
more exposure to favorite cartoon characters with no crying son, the higher the reliability). However,
Mom can never say with certainty that all costumed characters CAUSE her son to cry. Causal
relationships are impossible, according to Pennypacker et al, as you can never eliminate every variable
that could cause a behavior. (Cooper p 4)

2-3 Distinguish between mentalistic and environmental explanations of behavior. P. 5-6, 11-14

DESCRIBING SENTENCE: Mentalistic explanations of behavior consider that an inner, covert (mental)
dimension of behavior exists (eg, hypothetical constructs and explanatory fiction) which affects
behavior. Environmental explanations of behavior (overt) rely on public events to explain behavior.

EXAMPLE: A child tries hard on a test because he is determined to always do his best is a mentalistic
description of the behavior; while a child tries hard on a test because he gets an A on the test, (and gets
a dollar from his dad for every A) is an environmental explanation of the behavior.
MULTIPLE CHOICE: A ten year old Olivia has just practiced for two hours on the piano, double what her
music teacher told her to do. Olivia did not practice for the last recital, and she noticeably missed notes.
Her favorite aunt is coming to this recital. Olivia’s mom is overheard telling her dad that she is practicing
because she learned her lesson from not practicing the last time, and doesn’t want to be embarrassed
again. Her father contends that she is practicing to please her aunt. Both parents are exhibiting
mentalistic explanation called…

A. Hypothetical Construct

B. Explanatory Fiction

C. Superstition

D. Determinism

Answer: B/Explanatory Fiction because when a person has been subject to a mildly punishing
consequence he may change his behavior. But when someone says a behavior is because of that event,
you are introducing a fictitious variable that has not been proven (ie, embarrassment or wanting to
please) – which is called explanatory fiction. It could be Hypothetical Construct – but that usually refers
to an unobserved process (eg, Freud’s ID) so B is the better answer. Superstition is a single (unrelated)
act done in an effort “cause” another act – which is not what Olivia is doing (as practice certainly relates
to doing well); and determinism relates to the world being an orderly place where scientists look for
lawful relations (which has not been done in this instance).

2-4 Distinguish among the experimental analysis of behavior, applied behavior analysis, and behavioral
technologies. P.10-11, 14-16, 20-21 (f. 1.2)

Describing Sentence – Experimental Analysis of Behavior/EAB is basic research branch of science and
done in a controlled setting while Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is usually done in the natural setting,
and means that the analysis is: Applied (socially important behaviors), behavioral
(observable/measureable), analytic (functional relationship established), technological (procedurally
clear), conceptually systematic no “bag of tricks” – relates to principles of behavior, effective – improves
behavior and has generalized outcomes – behavior change lasts over time in natural environment –
Behavioral Technologies is a collection of procedures that have arisen from EAB and ABA practices, that
may be replicated by others (because of their clear descriptions) and are applied to solve problems.

Example – When Skinner put a rat in a box and gave them food for pushing the correct lever, (and that
increased the lever-pushing behavior) that was EAB – as it was done in a controlled setting. The concept
of the reinforcement was then applied to the natural setting (eg, praise for desired behavior) and used
in ABA. The concept, because of Behavioral Technologies, was brought into parenting and the work
place (pay raise amount tied to work production).
MULTIPLE CHOICE

The target behavior identified for a particular second grader with behavioral problems was: During
classroom meal times, Johnny will not repeat his food request continually to the teachers until it is given
to him – eg, “Teacher I want more milk/”Teacher I want more milk”. Instead, he will tap on the lunch
table three times when he wants more food (and a teacher would immediately respond by asking what
he needed. The flaw in this behavior is that:

A. It is not something that one can use Experimental Analysis of Behavior tools with.

B. It is not an applied behavior.

C. It is not technological

D. It cannot be generalized easily in other settings.

ANSWER: D/It cannot be generalized easily. If he was at a relative’s home for an annual visit, and tapped
on the table, it is very possible only his immediate family would know what that meant; it also entails
the teacher paying attention only to him at the classroom meal times. The reason it is not A, is that one
wouldn’t use EAB in a natural setting like the classroom. It isn’t B as the behavior IS applied (socially
significant) because repeating a request could alienate him from others (annoying); And it isn’t C as the
target behavior was defined (where, when, who).

2-5 Describe and explain behavior, including private events, in behavior analytic (non-mentalistic) terms.
P. 7, 9-14, 25-45,260-269, 537-538, 599-600.

Describing Sentence: Behavior consists of an antecedent, a response behavior, and a consequence

(reinforce or punisher). The response could include a private event like a thought or talking to oneself
when no one else is around.

EXAMPLE: A person could drive by a candy store, which becomes the antecedent for a thought response
(private event/not measureable). The consequence could then be stopping to buy a candy gift.
Motivating operations also come into play If private events are included in one’s definition of behavior,
it is called radical behavorism. Conversely, Methodological Behaviorism ONLY considers behaviors that
are observed and measured. The Cooper text (like Skinner himself) considers Radical Behaviorism in its
teachings.

Multiple Choice: A person has been driving for hours, has a headache and is hungry. He sees a Burger
King and quickly turns into the BK parking lot and orders a #4 through the drive-thru. He leaves BK
feeling much better. The Discriminating Stimulus (SD) in this sequence of behaviors is_______ and the
consequence is ___________.
A. Being Hungry/Turning into the parking lot

B. Seeing BK/Satiation

C. Turning into parking lot/Ordering food

D. Eating Food/Satiation

ANSWER: B/Seeing BK is the SD. It is not A (being hungry) – that is the MO. The difference is that the SD
(burger king) is that it makes the food more available, but the MO (being hungry) makes seeing the BK
more valuable. If the person wasn’t hungry, the sight of a BK would be less valuable, and he would
probably drive by it. It is not C, as turning into the lot was not a stimulus that for getting food, but a
reaction/behavior toward getting food. It is not D, as eating food is not the stimulus, but a
reaction/behavior to the stimulus (seeing the BK).

2-6 Use the dimensions of applied behavior analysis (Baer, Wolf, Risley 1968) for evaluating
interventions to determine if they are behavior analytic. P. 16-18.

DESCRIBING SENTENCE: The acronym for the dimensions of applied behavior analysis (ABA) is BAT CAGE:
B=behavior; A= analytical; T=technological; C=Conceptually Systematic; A=Analytical; G=Generalized
E=Effective. These dimensions set the stage for the questions one can ask when evaluating
interventions.

EXAMPLE: Is it Technological (are procedures clear)? Are the behaviors observable and measureable?
Can the behaviors be generalized (transferred) to the client’s natural settings? Was a functional
relationship revealed, meaning the procedure was analytical? (etc) If the answers are yes, the behavior
is analytic.

MULT CHOICE: A procedure involves seeing if a child’s behavior improves with dance. During a dance
lesson, the mother reports that it seemed he didn’t have as many tantrums as he does when he is not in
a dance lesson. Why isn’t this intervention analytic?

A. It is not conceptually systematic.

B. The procedures were not clear, (it would be hard to repeat exactly), so it was not technological.

C. The tantrums were a socially important target behavior, as it would improve the person’s life
not to have tantrums.

D. Both A and B

ANSWER: D – the procedure did not follow any of the dimensions of behavior – including the fact that it
was not conceptually systematic (A) and the intervention procedure was not clear (technological) (B) –
ruling out those two answers. Tantrums are an applied behavior (socially important) (C) – but we do not
know what is meant by “tantrums” in this case, so that is not the best answer either.

2-7 – Interpret articles from the behavior analytic literature. P. 93-94, 149-155, 230-252 (see discussions
that accompany graphs thru-out text).