I

UNIT 1 POLITICAL FORMATIONS IN

CENTRAL AND WEST ASIA

Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction '
1.2 Geographical Delimitation of Turan and Iran
I
I
1.3 The Antecedents of Uzbegs and the Safavis
1.4 The Historical Perspective on the Eve of the Political Formations
'in Cent& Asia
1.5 Origin of the Safavis :Historical Perspective
1.5.1 The Tripartite Conflict of the Uzbegs, Persians and Timurids
1.5.2 Recovery and Resurgence of the Uzbeg Power
1 5.3 The Uzbeg Empire - .
1.6 Origin of the Safavis : Historical Perspective
1.6.1 The Aq Quyunlus and Qara Quyunlus
1.6.2 The Turcomans and the Safavis
1.6.3 Shiism and the Safavis
1.7 The Safavis and the Uzbeg-Ottoman Confrontation
1.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.9 Key Words
1.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

1.0 OBJECTIVES
The study of this unit would enable you to:
understand the appearance of the Mughals on Indian borders and to learn about
their origin and antecedents,
demarcate the geographical boundary of the two powerful neighbouring states of
the Mughal Empire,
acquaint yourself with the historical perspective of the establishment of the
Uzbeg and Safavi ~Empires,
. analyse the factors which influenced and shaped the internal and external
decisions and policies of the Mughals at earlier stages.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The conquest of India by the Mughals was a direct consequence of the political
reshuffling and dynastic changes which took place on its north-western frontier at
the turn of the 15th century. These in turn led to the formation of two new states
i.e., Turan (Transoxiana in Central Asia) under the Uzbegs and Iran (Persia) under
the Safavi rulers.
A study of the political formations in West and Central Asia in the first decade of
the sixteenth century is important due to the geographical proximity and the ageold
close cultural and commercial contacts existing between these regions and India. The
fugitive Uzbeg princes of Dasht-iqipchaq, led by Shaibani Khan, wrested Central
Asia from the Timurids, exterminating the dynasty founded by Timur. In fact, this
led Babur (om of the very few Timurid survivors) to turn towards India.
The Mughals, having originated from and ruled over Central Asia for over thirteen
decades (1370-1505) naturally brought with them a well-tried administqtive system
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and a bequest in the form of Turco-Mongol terminology, institutions (both political
 h t b 16th Century and economic) and practices (see Block 4) which had a bearing on the Mughal rule
in India. The history of Mughal India can be better understood if we have some idea
of its neighbouring regions rather than studying it in isolation. Such a study,
therefore, assists us in understanding the historical perspective, socioeconomic
background and the ethos of the Mughal rulers in India. 'The twin states of Central
Asia and Persia rose and fell almost simultaneously with that of the Mughals. The
political and cultural relations at all levels increased during the sixteenth antury
between these states. The common cultural heritage through the ages was enriched
further due to a continuous exchange of ideas and movement of men and

,
commodities
It is worth mentioning here that the definition of West and Central Asia is a polemic
1
issue as its frontiers fluctuated more with the interpretations than with its
geographical or territorial extent. It is safer to call the region with which we are
concerned here by a generally accepted term, i.e., 'the inner Asia". The regions
'described as West and Central Asia, therefore, refer in this context to the two !
"stateswknown as Turan and Iran. These two states which developed as separate
political and cultural entities in the sixteenth century had often formed part (as a
province) of a large empire under one central authority (such as the Umayyads,
Abbasids, Mongols and the Timurids). The two states, therefore, carried elements of
common heritage in many of their administrative and organizational features. The
religio-political and socioeconomic transformations arising out of the changing 1
regimes added their own new distinctive features without obliterating their deep-
rooted and age-old similarities, traditions and common heritage. Although both these
states had tribal bases in the 16th century, their cultural and racial distinctions were
retained (and ewn heightened due to sectarian differences) until their disintegration.
This unit takes into account fh'e various aspects related to Turan and Iran.

1.2 GEOGRAPHICAL DELIMITATION OF TURAN

AND IRAN i
The inner Asian region called Turan acquired the name Mawaraunnahr (literally I
I
meaning between the two rivers) from its Arab conquerors as the region was situated
b e t ~ the
n two rivers Syr and Amu. The above region was surrounded by Aral sea,
river Syr and Turkestan in the North; Iran, river Amu and Afghanistan in the South; ,
Tiensban and Hindukush mountains in the East up to the Karokorum deserts, and
the Caspian sea in the West with its diverse geographical features (arid and semi-arid
lands, stepp&, deserts, mountains, valleys and oases). Thus, the region was a
chequer-board of varied patterns of life-style ranging from nomadism, pastoralism to
a settled mode of living. This region is also a land of inland drainage with enclosed
basins away from the sea and is isolated from Atlantic and Pacific circulations.
Apart from agriculture, cattle breeding was a popular profession. The region was
famous for its horses which were exported in large numbers to India. Samarqandi
paper, and fruits (both fresh and dry) were other items of export. The eastern ridges
of Elburz mountains separated Iranian plateau from Turkestan (Iran).'
In terms of physical geography, Iran or Persia consists of extensive mountain ranges
extending from Asia Minor and Cacuasus to the plains of Punjab called Iranian
Plateau. A chain of mountains surrounds the sandy saline deserts of the central
plateau thus converting it into a closed basin..
Iran had four major divisions, namily:
the Zagros system comprising Khuzistan and small outer plains,
the northern highlands of Iran (i.e., Elburz and Talish system) and the Caspian
plain,
eastern and southeastern upland rim, and
the interior region.
In terms of economic life, considerable vahation is noticed such as pastoralism
(mainly in the higher regions), agricultural settlements (in low lying areas) and
nomadism (towards the West among Kurdish shepherds) all existing simultaneously.
The north-#stern section of Zagros connected ancient east-west trade routes, and
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the Iranian wool, leather, carpets and silk found commercial outlets from several PbllUal Farrodom in
places. Cmbd ud W a t Ash

1 3 THE ANTECEDENTS OF UZBEGS AND THE

SAFAVIS
The Uzbegs of Turan or Transoxiana were the descendants of Chingiz's eldest son,
Juji. They derived their name from Uzbeg Khan (131240) of the Golden Horde and
hailed from Jiji's appanage-the Dasht-i-Qipchaq. The Uzbegs spoke Chaghatai
Turkish and followed Turco-Mongol traditions. They were orthodox Sunni and
followed the Hanafite Law. Numerous Turco-Mongol tribes such as the Naiman,
Qushji, Durman, Qunghrat and others supported the Uzbeg state. The hostile tribes
which eroded their power through constant invasions were the Mongols, Qazaqs and
Qirghiz.

The Safavis
The Safavis were of the native Iranian stock (from Kurdistan), professed Shii'sm and
followed Perso-Islamic traditions of the land they were called upon t o govern. They
spoke Azari Turkish and also Persian. Being of a humble sufi origin, they later
constructed an impressive genealogy. The mainstay of the Safavi power was the
constellation of the Turcoman tribes though the Iranian element was equally strong
in the administrative bureaucracy. To the two groups were added the Georgians and
Circassians later on. The four elements (particularly the Turcoman groups) were as
much a source of strength in external political relations as they were a cause of
perpetual intrigues internally.

Check Your ~robress1

1) Describe the significance of the study o'f Central Asian history in relation to the
Mughals.

2) Discuss the antecedents of the Uzbegs and the Safavis.

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3) Give a geographical description of Turan and Iran.

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 1.4 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE EVE OF
THE POLITICAL FORMATIONS IN CENTRAL
ASIA
During the civil wars (which were a common occurrence in the Timurid
Transoxiana), the Timurid princes of Transoxiana (like Abu Said, Muhammad Jugi,
Sultan Husain Baiqra and Manuchihr Mirza) often approached the Uzbeg ruler Abul
Khair of Dast-i-Qipchaq for assistance against their respective rivals. The latter
successfully intervened in T' nurid politics and assisted Abu Said (1451), Muhammad
Jugi (1455) and others to -gain the throne. After the disintegration of the Empire of
Abulkhair (142848) in the Dasht, his grandson Shibani took shelter with the
Timurids of Central Asia. At this juncture, there were five states in Transoxiana.
The three sons of Sultan Abu Said (145149) namely, Sultan Mahmud Mirza, Sultan
Ahmad Mirza (1469-94) and Umar Shaikh M i m ruled over the three states
comprising Samarqand and Bukhara, Timiz, Hisar, Qunduz and Badakhshan, and
Farghana and its vicinity respectively. The fourth Timurid state of Balkh and
Khufasan was held by Sultan Husain Baiqra. Again, there was the mongol Khanate
of Tashkand and Moghulistan where the mongol rulers Yunus Khan (1462-87) and
his two sons, Mahmud Khan and Ahmad Khan, reigned. Yunus Khan's three
daughters were mamed to the three above mentioned sons of Abu Said. The mutual
rivalries and jealousies existing among the five states often resulted in bitter wan. In
one such conflict when Sultan Ahmad was involved in the battle of Syr against his
rival Sultan ahm mud, the fomer hired Shaibani along with his retinue hoping that
he could be a good match to the Mongols in the art of fighting. Although Shaibani
a p p e a ~ din this battle as an ally of Sultan Ahmad Mirza, he served the cause of
Mahmud Khan as secret negotiations had already taken place. This led to an
unexpected victory for Mahmud Khan. For this timely assistance, Shaibani received
the reward in the form of governorship of Otrar-a town in Khwarazmia-which
provided him with the long awaited and much desired base in Transoxiana.
Themafter, Shaibani took full advantage of the prevailing anarchy in the various
remaining Khanates, and gradually eliminated them with his political acumen and
stratagem.

1.5 ESTABLISHMENT OF UZBEG POWER IN

TRANSOXIANA
After the death of Umar Shaikh and Sultan Ahmad Mirza, Sultan Mahmud Mirza
was also assassinated. His two sons, Sultan Ali and Baisundhur Mirza, now became
rivals for the throne of Samarqand and Hisar. During the anarchy which prevailed
in the Timurid empire, the Tarkhan nobles became powerful. They not only usurped
the entire revenue but made opportunistic alliances and used one prince as a
counterpoise against the other. Taking advantage, Shibani wrested Bukhara from its
Timurid governor Baqar Tarkhan in 1499, and then besieged Samarqand. Since the
queen mother Zuhra Begi was an Uzbeg lady, she promised to surrender Samarqand
if Shaibani gave the governorship of the choicest province to her son, Sultan Ali.
Thus, Shaibani occupied Samarqand in 1500 without a war though Sultan Ali passed
away soon after. The Uzbegs, were, however, soon overthrown as the Samarqandis
led by Khwaja Abul Mukarram invited Babur. In the battle of Saripul(1501), Babur
was defeated and, since no assistance was forthcoming, he left Samarqand and went
to his uncle Mahmud Khan. In early 1503 Shaibani inflicted a crushing defeatsupon
the joint forces of Babur and his maternal uncles Mahmud and Ahmad Khan, both
I
of whom were made captives. Baburs noble Tambal invited Shaibani to occupy
Farghana. Shaibani conquered Farghana and Qunduz (1504) and overran Balkh,

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b
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Memna and Faryab in 1505. Although Shaibani released the Mongol Khans,
Mahmud and Ahmad (the latter died shortly afterwards) due to their paw kindness,
he ultimately put Mahmud Khan and his five children to death (1508) as their
existence would have been a danger to his Empire.
A galaxy of Timurid princes including Babur, Badiuzzaman and Muzaffar Hussain
led by Sultan Hussain Baiqra planned to face the Uzbegs unitedly. Before the joint Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
 lndh b the 16th CcntPrj venture could materiaiice, Sultan Hussain died .in 1506. Herat was plunged into a
war of surcession. The chaos persisted even after the dual rule of Badiuzzaman and
Muvlffar HUWIn %as established. The conquest of the last Timurid principality was,
therefore. a foregone conclusion. Soon after, Shaibani undertook a campaign against
the Qazaqs of Moghulistan in 1508. Now the entire Transoxiana lay at the feet of
Shaibani. The dynasty which was established by Shaibani came to be knowp as the
Shaibanid. The immediate reasons for this transfer of power from the Timurids to
the Uzbegs were:
the personal incompetence of the later Timurid Rulers;
. theirmutual rivalry;
the absence of any settled rule for succession, and
the lack of strong administration.

15.1 The Tripartite Conflict of the Uzbegs, Persians and Timurids

The conquest of Khurasan had brought the border of Shaibanid empire closer to the
Safavi one. Since, Shaibani wqs ambitious, he demanded allegiance from the Shah
which eventually led to a war in 1510, in which Shaibani was defeated and killed.
Shah Ismail not only occupied Khurasan but a l ~ assisted
o Babur thereafter to
reoccupy Transoxiana from the Uzbegs. Babur received a very warm welcome from
the Samarqandis, but the latter disapproved his association with 'heretic' Shia' Shah
Ismail. T.he subsequent reprisal perpetrated upon the subjects by Babur's greedy
followers further provoked the Central Asians to long for the Uzbeg rule.

1.5.2 Recovery and Resurgence of the Uzbeg Power

After their expulsion from Central Asia (1510-1 I), the Uzbegs had clustered in
Turkestan having no courage to face the combined forces of Babur and the Shah.
f i e only aspiring Uzbeg prince was Ubaidullah, a nephew of Shaibani. Though his
resources were limited, he conquered Transoxiana after defeating Babur. Thereafter,
the Uzbegs gradually recCiveRd Bukhara, Samarqand and other territories in 1512-
1513.
In 1514, the Ottoman Sultan Salim (1512-20) invited Lbaidullah to join him against
Ismail. Although Ubaidullah failed to oblige Salim, the latter managed to inflict a
crushing defeat upon the Shah through strategic manoeuvres which were later on
applied by Babur in his battle of Panipat in 1526. The most important rulers of t!ie
Shaibanid Empire were Ubaidullah and Abdullah Khan-the latter being a
contemporary of Akbar. Both Ubaidullah and Abdullah Khan (whose span of
rulership was from 1513-1540 and 1565-1598 respectively) waged several wars against
Persia. (See Unit 7)
The Astrakhanids: After the death of Abdullah Khan (1598) and the assassination of
his only son and successor ~ d u Momin
l six months later, the dynasty came to be
known as Astarakhanids. The Uzbeg Empire lasted until the Russian conquest. The
Empire disintegrated almost a t the same time when other Asian states collapsed in
the face of colonialism.

1.53 The Uzbeg Empire

The revenue collections of the Uzbeg Transoxiana depended mainly upon booty, city
taxes and commercial resources. With artificial irrigation and limited agriculture,
even a high tax on land (amounting to more than a half) fetched a negligible
ainount. S k a t e d OR the crossroads of caravans (en route the Silk Road),
rransoxiana continued to be in a flourishing state in early middle ages. Due to
diversion of trade routes under certain Mongol Khans and after the discovery of the
sea-route to Asia from Europe in 1498. a decline in trade is noticed by the travellers
and chroniclers: The administrative structure of the Timurids unde-nt a slight
change under the Uzbegs as the Turco-Mongol traditions were further strengthened.
The socio-religious atmosphere was now characterised by a wave of fanaticism and
sectarian bigotry. At the same time, the domination of the Naqshbandi saints over
the political arena was a new phenomenon introduced under the Uzbegs.

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Cheek Your Progress 2
I) Briefly describe the main stages in the conquest of Transoxiana by the Uzbegs.

2) Discuss the reasons for the downfall of the Timurids.

3) Give a short account of the tripartite relations of the Uzbegs, Persians and the
Timurids.

1.6 ORIGIN OF THE SAFAVIS :HISTORICAL

PERSPECTIVE
The Safavi Empire sprang up almost in the same geographical area where the
Ilkhanid state had once flourished. Hulaku's Empire reemerged in a diminutive form
(the Jalayrid Empirekextending over Mesopotamia, Azerbaijan and lwter on
covering the rkgion of Shirvan also. The remaining portions of the Ilkhimid territory
were lost to the two Turcoman confederations, namely Aq Quyunlu (the white sheep)
and Qara Quyunlu (the black sheep). Aq ~ u y u n l uextended their sway over Diyar-i
Bakr with their centre at Amid. Qara Quyunlus had their centre at Aj b h (on the
eastern shore of lake Van) spreading in the north to Erze Rum and in the south to
Mosul. The heterogenous population of the two regions comprised the Arabs,
Armenians, Kurds and others.

1.6.1 The Aq Quyunlus and Qara Quyunlus

Under the enterprising Jahanshah, Qara Quyunlu dynasty expanded from Van to the
deserts between Persia and Khurasan and from the Caspian sea to the Persian Gulf.
They had become independent of the Timurids. Jahanshah was widely known as a
progenitor of the Shias while the Aq Ququnlus were Sunni's. The most famous Aq
Quyunlu ruler was Uzan HasaniI1453-78) who defeated Jahalnshah and established
his suzerainty almost over the entire Persia. Hence, the borders of his Empire came
closer to that of the Timurids. The Ottoman ruler Muhammad I1 always looked
upon him as a mighty princeling enjoying the resources of Anatolia, Mesopotamia,
Azerbaijan and Perm. However, Uzun Hasan waS defeated by the Ottomans (in
1473) whose artillery was superior to the,former's army. At the time of Uzun Hasan's
death (in 1478), his Turcoman Empire extended from upper reaches of Euphrates tc
the Great Salt Desert and the province of Kirman in South Persia, and from
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 ~ b t L , .I* L t L ~ Transcaucasia to Mesopatamia and, the Persian Gulf.
'
Uzun Hasan's sister Khadija Begam was mamed to a very enterprising and
influential shaikh, named Junaid (1447-60). He was the leader of the most popular
dl order called the Safaviya with its Centre at Aradabil. Shaikh Junaid was a
successor of Shaikh Safiuddin lshaq (1252-1334). a disciple and son-in-law of Shaikh
Zahid (1218-1301). Safiuddin Ishaq (from whom the Safavi dynasty derived its name)
not only inherited the sufi order of Shaikh Zahid but also founded his own order as
Safaviya in Ardabil in 1301. Due to their popularity, Shaikh Safiuddin and his
successors always aroused the jealousy of the Qara Quyunlu Sultans.
Shaikh Junaid was the first spiritual guide of the Safaviya order. He collected an
army of 10,000 to fight the Qara Quyunlu ruler. He imparted militancy to the order
replacing the sufis by the ghrds (wamors of faith). After his death in 1455, his son
and successor Haider married the daughter of his maternal uncle Amir Masan Beg
who put Jahanshah to death and became the ruler of Azerbaijan and the two Iraqs.
Out of this union, three sons were born, namely, Sultan Ali, Ibrahim and Isrnail.
The youngest Ismail (b. 1487) became founder of the Safavi Empire. Sultan Haider
had prepared a scarlet cap of twelve gores (with reference to the twelve Imams), and
ordered all his followers to make their headgear after this fashion, hence came the
title Qizilbash (redheahs).
Haider marched against the tirbal elements of Cherkes and Daghistan. On the way,,
he lost his life in a battle with the forces of the Shirvan ruler Farrukh Yassar, the
son-in-law of Yaqub Mirza in 1488. Although Yaqub spared the life of the three sons
of Haider for the sake of his own sister Halima Begi Agha, he imprisoned them in
the fort of Istakhara. When a civil war broke out between the deceased Yaqub
Mirza's sons Baisunghar and Rustam Mirza, the latter sought help from Sultan Ali.
As soon as Rustam Mirza achieved success, he put Sultan Ali to death out of
jealousy. Sultan Ali had already sensed the imminent danger and had nominated
Ismail as his successor (1494). Ismail had to face much difficulty until the death of
Rustam Mirza in July 1497 after which Aradabil was engulfed in a civil war. Ismail
seized this opportunity and sent his men to collect his scattered followers. Reinforced
by the military assistance received from Qaracha Illiyas and strengthened by 7000 of
his followers from Turcoman tirbes, he subdued Georgia and acquired much booty
in 1500. At the age of fourteen, he had an encounter with Farrukh Yassar of Shirvan
at Gulistan fort and having killed the ruler invaded Baku. It was in the year 1501
that Ismail won a victory over Aq Quyunlu, entered the Turcoman capital at Tabriz
and ascended the throne with the title Shah.

1.63 The Turcomans and the Safavis

The power of Safavis (the new dynasty which lasted in Persia till 1736), was based
on the support given by the Turcoman tiibes, namely Shamlu, Rumlu, Takkalu,
Zulqadar, Afshar, Qachar, Ustajlu and Warsaq. The Turcoman adherents of
Aradabil order were the basis of this new ruling class though the Safavids themselves
were not pure Turcomans. The Turcomans were attracted towards the Persian Shah
owing to religious affinity and also for social and political reasons. The Turcoman
tirbes of Asia Minor or Central Asia could not integrate themselves with the
Ottomans or the Uzbeg Empire due to their racial and religious differences. On the
other hand the Ottoman or the Uzbeg rule also had no better prospects to offer
them. The Turcomans enjoyed an extraordinary position in the Persian Empire.
Initially, almost all the important civil, military and administrative posts were held
by them. The traditions of governance and admiiistration were borrowed by the
Safavis from the rulers of ~ a b n zThe
. tribal loyalties of these Turcomans sustained
Shah Ismail well. The Shah not only carried the traditions of the god-king
(combining in himself the spiritual and temporal powers) but also legitimised his rule
in the name of his relationship with his grandfather Uzun Hasan. Shah Ismail's
kinship with Aq Quyunlu was important for him. Undoubtedly, the Qara Quyunlu
an8dAq Quyunlu had pn:viously created certain pA-conditions for the establishment
of a new dynasty with older political and cultural traditions of Persia.

1,.63 Shiiism and the Safavis

The new dynasty had created a somewhat'changed military and political structure
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU :t"th the Shia creed as state religion and Iranicisation of Persian Islam - sprouting
 into a new cultural eqtity, i.e., the evolution of a Persian People'. The Safavi state
originated from a religious-cumpolitical nucleus.,Thus, the intertwinning of religion
and politics which is noticed at the outset, seems to match the sectarian attitude of
the Sunni Ottoman and the Uzbeg states. Shah Ismail received full support from,
Ka'shan and Qum which were mainly inhabited by the Shias. Elsewhere (as-in the
Sunni Baghdad or Herat), the population resisted his advance and he faced reprisals.

1.7 THE SAFAVIS AND THE UZBEG-OTTOMAN.' '

CONFRONT"I"T1ON
'The rising power of the Shia 'Safavis' (new contenders of supremacy in the Muslim
world) checked the Ottomans from incorporatingPersia into their domain. In fact,
the Perso-Uzbeg and Perso-Ottoman wars were a continuous feature of the sixteenth
century:
~ l t h o u Shah
~ h Ismail (1502-1524) did not fight any war.after his debacle at . ,

Cbldiran in 1514 at the hands of the Ottoman ruler Salim ( 1512-1520), his son and
successor Shah Tahmasp (1524-76) had to face both the Uzbegs'and the Ottomans
almost incessantly. The five major invasions of the Uzbegs om Khurasan (1524-38)
and four full-scale Ottoman invasions on Azerbaijan (1534-35, 1548, 1553) failed to
overwhelm Shah Tahmisp, though he signed a peace at Amasya (29 May 1555) with
the Ottomans. Besides these external dangers there also emerged some internal '
problems. For example. the two different racial and linguistic groups of the
~urcomansand Iranians (each of whom had different origins, cultu1-6, and customs)
were joined by new constituents-the Georgians and the Circassians. Thii led to
increased court intrigues.
While the Safavis had pragmatic relations with the Mughals of India (see Unit 7).
they also maintainedgood relations, though occasionally, with the Russians and the
Portuguese.
. Apart from Shah Tahmasp, Shah Abbas 1 (1588-1629, whose reign is said to'be the
zenith of the Safavi power) Shah Abbas 11 (164246) and Shah Safi were other
.important Safavi rulers. With Shah Abbas I, the Safavi state gradually developed
from its theocratic base and military structure into a full-bloomed Empire of the
Orient. He introduced rnany.administrative and milihry reforms. A new group of
loyalists (the Ghulems) was created who occupied many new posts. The army was
organised on the pattern suggested by Robert Sherley who was appointed as 'Master
General against the Turks'. A centrally paid strong army was organised, and a
regiment of artillery with 500 guns was established.
Check Your Progress 3
I) Briefly discuss the achievements of Shah AbbasJ.
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'. 2) ' Write a few lines on the Qara Quyunlu'and Aq Quyunlu.

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 1adL in tbe 16th Century 3) Discuss the early history of the Safavis.

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4) Highlight the importance of the Turcomans in the Safavi Empire.

1.8 LET US S U M UP
In this unit we have tried to trace the antecedants and origin of the Mughals. A
geographical sketch of the two powerful neighburing states'of India-namely-
Transoxiana and Iran in Central Asia-has been provided. The ethnic and political
antecedants of the Uzbeg and Safavi empires of Transoxiana and Iran respectively
have been dealt with. A study of the two empires in its historical perspective' is also
given. The Mughals originated from Central Asia and ruled over this region for three
decades. Therefore the historical perskctive, Socioeconomic-political background
and ethos of Mughal rule in India can'only be understood against the backdrop of
Central Asian history.

1.9 KEY WORDS

something that is derived as a matter of right on account of
one's lineage, position, etc.
Dyarchy dual government.
Gore triangular or wedge-shaped pieces of cloth.
Khanate it denotes the office and jurisdiction of the Khan who was the
political and administrative head over a particular territory. .
Nomadism a mode of living practised by tribes who do not lkad a settled
life and wander from place to place in search of livelihood.
this is an anglicised corruption of the Arabic Usman. The
Ottomans were Turks whose power was rising rapidly in the
15th century. They completed the conquest of Asia Minor after
taking Constantinople in 1453.
Pastoralism a mode of living practised by tribes in which animal rearing
was an important aspect. This pattern led to nomadism.
Shis a sect of Muslims which upholds the rights of the members of
Prophet Muhammad's direct descendants to the religious and
political leadership of the Muslim community. The name is
derived from Shiat Ali, the Arabic term for the party of
Haztat Ali who was the cousin of Prophet Muhammad and
husband of Prophet's daughter Fatima.
a sect of Muslims disagking with the claims of the Shias.
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU Sunni is from the Arabic sumat, that is, the sayings and deeds
 Political Formations h
of Prophet ~ u n a m m a das exemplified in the hadis, a source
Central and West Ada
for shariat (a set of rules) next to the Quran.
Turcornan Groups : tribes of.Asia Minor and Central Asia.

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1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES

Check Your Progress 1

1) See Section I. I . Your answer should include the following points:
i) the Mughal conquerors originated from and ruled over Central Asia;
ii) this had an important bearing on Mughal rule in India;
iii) thetefore, it is relevant to study the Central Asian relations, etc.
2) See Section 1.3. Your answer should include the following points:
i) the Uzbegs of Turan were the descendants of Chingiz's eldest son;
ii) they derived their names from Uzbeg Khan, etc.
3) See Section 1.2. Your answer should include the foilowing points:
i) the inner Asian region called Turan acquired the name Transoxiana from
its Arab consequerors as the region was situated between the two rivers,
namely, Syr and Amu;
ii) Iran consists of extensive mountain ranges extending from Asia and
. Caucasus to the plains of Punjab called Iranian plateau, etc.

Check Your Progress 2

1) Your answer should include the following points:
Anarchy in the Timurid empire enabled Uzbegs to wrest Bukhara and
Samarqand from Timurids; joint forces of Babur and his maternal uncles
defeated by Uzbegs and Farghana, Qunduz, Balkh, Memna and Faryab were
taken; Herat occupied by the Uzbegs due to chaos prevailing there, etc (see
Section 1.4 and 1.5).
2) Your answer should include the following points:
Personal incompetence of the later Timurid rulers; mutual rivalry, etc. (see
Section 1.5).
3) Your answer should include the following points:
Conquest of Khurasan brought the borders of the Uzbegs close to the Safavi
Persia; the Uzbegs tried to assert themselves as the supreme power in the
region but were subdued by the Persians, etc. (see Sub-section 1.5.1).

Check Your Progress 3

1) Your answer should including the following points:
Aq Quyunlu (the white sheep) and Qara Quyunlu (the black sheep) were
Turcornan confederations; Aq Quyunlu had their centre a t Amid while Qara
Quyunlu had their Centre at Arjish, etc. (see Sub-section 1.6.1).
2) Your answer should include the following points:
The famous Aq Quyunlu leader Uzun Hassan's sister was married to a Shaikh
namely Junaid, the leader of a sufi order called Safaviya with its centre at
Aradabil; his son and successor Haider put the Qara Quyunlu ruler to death
and became the ruler of Azerbaijan; his youngest son Ismail founded the Safavi
empire, etc. (see Section 1.6 and Sub-section 1.6.1).
3) Your answer should include the following points:
The Turcoman tribes were the mainstay of the Safavi empire; they formed the
basis of the new ruling class, etc. (see Sub-section 1.6.2).
4) Your answer should include the foliowing points:
In Shah Abdas 1's time the Safavi state developed into an empire; he Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
introduced man] administrative and military reforms. etc. (see Section I .7).