Commonwealth Youth Programme

Diploma in Youth Development Work

Module 7

Management Skills
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Commonwealth Secretariat
Marlborough House
London SW1Y 5HX
UNITED KINGDOM

© Commonwealth Secretariat, 2007

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or otherwise without
the permission of the publisher.

The views expressed in this document do not necessarily reflect the opinion or the policy of the Commonwealth
Secretariat.

Wherever possible, the Commonwealth Secretariat uses paper sourced from sustainable forests, or from sources
that minimise the destructive impact on the environment.

Copies of this publication may be obtained from:

Commonwealth Youth Programme
Commonwealth Secretariat
Marlborough House
Pall Mall
London SW1Y 5HX
UNITED KINGDOM
Tel: +44 20 7747 6462/6456
Fax: +44 20 7747 6549
E-mail: cyp@commonwealth.int
Web site: http//www.thecommonwealth.org/cyp

CYP Africa Regional Centre CYP Asia Regional Centre

University of Zambia Sector 12 (PEC Campus)
Great East Road Chandigarh - 160012
P O Box 30190 INDIA
Lusaka Tel: +91 172 2744482/2744463/274182
ZAMBIA Fax: +91 172 2745426/2744902
Tel: +260-1-252733/252153/294102 E-mail: admin@cypasia.org
Fax: +260-1-253698
E-mail: admin@cypafrica.org.zm

CYP Caribbean Regional Centre CYP Pacific Centre

Homestretch Avenue Lower Panatina Campus
D’Urban Park P O Box 1681
P O Box 101063 Honiara
Georgetown SOLOMON ISLANDS
GUYANA Tel: +677-38374/5/6
Tel: +592-2-268565 Fax: +677-38377
Fax: +592-2-268371 E-mail: regionaldirector@cypsp.org.sb
E-mail: cypcc@cypcaribbean.org

2 Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

 Module 7: Management Skills

The Commonwealth Youth Programme’s Mission

CYP works to engage and empower young people (aged 15–29) to enhance their contribution to development.
We do this in partnership with young people, governments and other key stakeholders.

Our mission is grounded within a rights-based approach, guided by the realities facing young people in the
Commonwealth, and anchored in the belief that young people are:
• a force for peace, democracy, equality and good governance,
• a catalyst for global consensus building, and
• an essential resource for poverty eradication and sustainable development.

Acknowledgments
The Module Writers
Module 1 Dr G Gunawardena – Sri Lanka Module 8 R K Mani – India
Module 2 Lincoln Williams – Jamaica Module 9 Teorongonui Keelan – Aotearoa/New Zealand
Module 3 Louise King – Australia Module 10 Dr P Kumar – India
Module 4 Peta-Anne Baker – Jamaica Module 11 Steven Cordeiro – Australia
Module 5 Dr Mable Milimo – Zambia Module 12 Dr M Macwan’gi – Zambia
Module 6 Morag Humble – Canada Module 13 Paulette Bynoe – Guyana
Module 7 Anso Kellerman – South Africa

The CYP Instructional Design Team

Original version 2007revision
Project manager Sid Verber – UK
Senior ID Melanie Guile and Candi Westney – Catherine Atthill – UK
Australia
Module 1 Hilmah Mollomb – Solomon Is Catherine Atthill – UK
Module 2 Ermina Osoba/RMIT – Antigua Catherine Atthill – UK
Module 3 Candi Westney – Australia Rosario Passos – Canada
Module 4 Rosaline Corbin – Barbados Julie Hamilton – Canada
Module 5 Judith Kamau – Botswana Catherine Atthill – UK
Module 6 Dr Turiman Suandi – Malaysia Chris Joynes – UK
Module 7 Evelyn Nonyongo – South Africa Evelyn Nonyongo – South Africa
Module 8 Melanie Guile – Australia Chris Joynes – UK
Module 9 Irene Paulsen – Solomon Is Rosario Passos – Canada
Module 10 Prof Prabha Chawla – India, Rosario Passos – Canada
and Suzi Hewlett – Australia
Module 11 Melanie Guile – Australia Rosario Passos – Canada
Module 12 Dr R Siaciwena – Zambia Dr R Siaciwena – Zambia
Module 13 Lynette Anderson – Guyana Chris Joynes – UK
Tutor manual Martin Notley / Lew Owen / Catherine Atthill – UK
Thomas Abraham / David Maunders
Typesetters Klara Coco – Australia Decent Typesetting – UK
Editors Lew Owen / Paulette Bynoe Lyn Ward – UK
Tina Johnson - USA
Proofreader RMIT Andrew Robertson

The University of Huddersfield for the Curriculum Framework Document and the Editorial work on the
module content – Martin Notley and Lew Owen.
Pan-Commonwealth consultant in development of the CYP Diploma – Martin Notley.
The Commonwealth of Learning for the provision of technical advice and expertise throughout the process.

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work 3

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

The CYP Regional Centres and the following institutions for conducting the Regional Reviews:
• CYP Africa Centre; Adult Learning Distance Education Centre, Seychelles; Makerere University, Uganda;
Management Development Institute, The Gambia; Open University of Tanzania; The Namibian College of
Open Learning; National University of Lesotho; University of Abuja, Nigeria; University of Botswana;
University of Ghana; University of Malawi; University of Nairobi, Kenya; University of Sierra Leone,
Fourah Bay College; University of South Africa; Zambia Insurance Business College Trust.
• CYP Asia Centre; Allama Iqbal Open University, Pakistan; Annamalai University, India; Bangladesh Open
University; Indira Gandhi National Open University, India; Open University of Sri Lanka; SNDT Women’s
University, India; Universiti Putra Malaysia.
• CYP Caribbean Centre; University of Guyana; University of the West Indies.
• CPY Pacific Centre; Papua New Guinea Institute of Public Administration; Royal Melbourne Institute of
Technology, Australia; Solomon Islands College of Higher Education; University of the South Pacific, Fiji
Islands.
Graphic Art – Decent Typesetting.
Final Module review – Magna Aidoo, Lew Owen, Paulette Bynoe.
Guy Forster for the module cover designs.

The CYP Youth Work Education and Training (YWET) Team

PCO Adviser: Youth Development YWET PACIFIC
Cristal de Saldanha Stainbank Jeff Bost
Tony Coghlan
YWET Pan-Commonwealth Office Sharlene Gardiner
Jane Foster Suzi Hewlett
Tina Ho Irene Paulsen
Omowumi Ovie-Afabor
Fatiha Serour Pan-Commonwealth Quality Assurance Team
Andrew Simmons (PCQAT)
Nancy Spence Africa
Eleni Stamiris Joseph Ayee
Ignatius Takawira Linda Cornwell
Clara Fayorsey
YWET AFRICA Ann Harris
Yinka Aganga-Williams Helen Jones
Gilbert Kamanga Fred Mutesa
Richard Mkandawire Asia
Valencia Mogegeh Thomas Chirayil Abraham
James Odit Shamsuddin Ahmed
Vinayak Dalvie
YWET ASIA Bhuddi Weerasinghe
Seela Ebert Caribbean
Raj Mishra Mark Kirton
Bagbhan Prakash Stella Odie-Ali
Saraswathy Rajagopal Carolyn Rolle
Raka Rashid Pacific
Rajan Welukar Robyn Broadbent
Ron Crocombe
YWET CARIBBEAN David Maunders
Armstrong Alexis Sina Va’ai
Heather Anderson
Henry Charles YWET Evaluators and Consultants
Kala Dowlath Chandu Christian
Ivan Henry Dennis Irvine
Glenyss James Oscar Musandu-Nyamayaro
Richard Wah
YWET PACIFIC
Afu Billy
Sushil Ram

4 Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Module contents

Module overview.......................................................... 7
Unit 1: Management – an overview ............................ 21
Unit 2: Managing in the not-for-profit sector ............... 43
Unit 3: Managing work .............................................. 59
Unit 4: Managing youth development work ................ 87
Unit 5: Managing human resources ...........................107
Unit 6: Managing organisational change ....................143
Unit 7: Managing youth development work ...............175
Summary ..................................................................203
Assignments..............................................................211
Readings ...................................................................213
Module overview

Introduction ................................................................. 9
Module learning outcomes ........................................... 9
About this module...................................................... 11
Assessment ................................................................ 13
Learning tips .............................................................. 16
Studying at a distance ................................................. 18
If you need help ......................................................... 19
 Module 7: Management Skills

Introduction

Welcome to Module 7 Management Skills.

This module focuses on the full range of management roles and tasks
that you, as a youth development worker, may need to perform and
about which you will need to know. The module begins by exploring
the concept of management and the theories informing the practices
of management. It then focuses on showing you how you can
manage both the resources and the staff you are responsible for in
order to complete the tasks you need to manage, and it also guides
you through the management of organisational development and
change. Key management processes are covered in detail, including
managing time, managing yourself, managing resources, staff
development, budgeting and monitoring expenditure, and managing
communication and information technology.
Note that you will be asked to keep a learning journal for the
duration of the module. This is an important part of your study
programme and you will use it continually as you work through each
unit. So make sure you have your journal handy – the notes and
comments you record in it will form part of your formal assessment
in this module. Your learning institution will inform you when to
submit the learning journal for assessment.

Module learning outcomes

Learning outcomes are statements that tell you what knowledge and
skills you will have when you have worked successfully through a
module.

Knowledge
When you have worked through this module you should be able to:
z demonstrate awareness and commitment to the management
tasks that are important in the delivery of youth development
work
z identify and discuss the key theories, approaches and styles that
inform the practice of contemporary management, particularly in
the not-for-profit sector
z outline key areas and processes of management, such as
organisational change, staff development, monitoring of
expenditure and budgetary control, project management, critical
path analysis and management of information and
communication technology

Module overview 9
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

z relate theories and approaches of management to the principles

and practice of youth development work, in order to ensure that
your management style is appropriate
z distinguish the roles and organisational characteristics of non-
governmental organisations (NGOs) and non-NGOs.

Skills
When you have worked through this module you should be able to:
z manage a discrete project from inception to completion within an
agreed time-scale
z supervise and support a team of volunteer and/or paid staff
z work within the principles of financial accountability, including
budgeting and financial management
z contribute effectively to job, organisational and personal
development
z work collaboratively with other agencies
z produce basic business written communication products such as
reports, letters of complaint and memoranda.

10 Module overview
 Module 7: Management Skills

About this module

Module 7 Management Skills is divided into seven units:

Unit 1: Management – an overview

This unit examines the key principles of management, some of the
key management theories and different management styles. You will
look at management processes and the various roles that managers
play, and put these in a youth work context. Special emphasis is
placed on ‘participation’.

Unit 2: Managing in the not-for-profit sector

This unit discusses development and the role of the not-for-profit
sector, its characteristics and the concept of voluntarism. The unit
ends by looking at the particular characteristics of NGOs, relating
these to management issues and then exploring issues around the
monitoring and control of NGOs.

Unit 3: Managing work

In Unit 3 you will examine skills-oriented aspects of management.
The unit discusses the nine critical management skills and how you
can manage your time, yourself and your own work.

Unit 4: Managing youth development work

Unit 4 explores the management tasks and roles of a typical youth
development worker and provides guidelines on how to carry out
these tasks and roles in your work. This unit also focuses on the
practical skills you will use in day-to-day management, including
project management systems, critical path analysis and budgeting.

Unit 5: Managing human resources

Unit 5 explores issues related to the management of staff. It also
examines the critical management tools that will help both manager
and staff to work effectively.

Unit 6: Managing organisational change

This unit discusses the need for organisational change and examines
types and dimensions of change, as well as the process. It also
highlights two main approaches to change and explores problems that
youth work organisations experience – both in the developing and the
developed world – and suggests strategies you can use for tackling
those problems, including action learning.

Module overview 11
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Unit 7: Managing communication and ICT

Unit 7 examines the basic principles of good communication and
applies them to the management context. Skills covered include
effective communication guidelines, listening skills and practical
business writing. This unit also provides an overview of information
and communications technology (ICT) as a tool for change within
organisations.

This table shows which units cover the different module learning
outcomes.

Module 7 Learning outcomes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Knowledge

1 Demonstrate awareness and x x x x x x x

commitment to the management
tasks that are important in the
delivery of youth development
work.

2 Identify and discuss the key x x x x x x x

theories, approaches, skills and
styles that inform the practice of
contemporary management,
particularly in the not-for-profit
sector.

3 Outline key areas and processes of x x x x

management such as organisational
change, staff development,
monitoring of expenditure and
budgetary control, project
management, critical path analysis
and management of information and
communication technology.

4 Relate theories and approaches of x x x

management to the principles and
practice of youth development
work, in order to ensure that your
management style is appropriate.

5 Distinguish the roles and x

organisational characteristics of
NGOs and non-NGOs.

12 Module overview
 Module 7: Management Skills

Skills

6 Manage a discrete project from x

inception to completion within an
agreed time-scale.

7 Supervise and support a team of x

volunteer and/or paid staff.

8 Work within the principles of x

financial accountability, including
budgeting and financial
management.

9 Contribute effectively to job, x

organisational and personal
development.

10 Work collaboratively with other x

agencies.

11 Produce basic business written x

communication products such as
reports, letters of complaint and
memoranda.

Assessment

Each module is divided into a number of units. Each unit addresses

some of the learning outcomes. You will be asked to complete
various tasks so that you can demonstrate your competence in the
learning outcomes. This study guide will help you to succeed in your
final assessment tasks.

Methods
Your work in this module will be assessed in the following three
ways:
1 Completion of the unit assessment tasks that you will carry out
throughout this module (30 per cent). There are four assignments
– at the end of Units 2, 4, 6 and 7. All these assignments will add
up to 30 per cent of the unit assessment. Your learning institution
will indicate when and which of these tasks should be submitted
for marking by your tutor.
2 The learning journal that you will keep for recording your
responses to the different learning activities in each of the units
(20 per cent). Your learning institution will inform you when to
submit the learning journal for assessment.

Module overview 13
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

3 A report of about 1,750 words. You will find full details at the
end of the Module Summary (50 per cent).
The institution in which you are enrolled for this Diploma
programme may decide to replace part of these assignments with a
written examination (worth 30 per cent of the final mark.)
Note: We recommend that you discuss the study and assessment
requirements with your tutor before you begin work on the module.
You may want to discuss such topics as:
z the learning activities you will undertake on your own
z the learning activities you will undertake as part of a group
z whether it is practical for you to do all of the activities
z the evidence you will produce to prove that you have met the
learning outcomes for the module – for example, learning journal
entries, or activities that prepare for the final assignment
z relating assignment topics to your own context
z when to submit learning journal entries and assignments and
when you will get feedback.

Learning journal
Educational research has shown that keeping a learning journal is a
valuable strategy to help your learning development. It makes use of
the important faculty of reflecting on your learning, which supports
you in developing a critical understanding of it. The journal is where
you will record your thoughts and feelings as you are learning and
where you will write your responses to the study guide activities. The
journal is worth 20 per cent of the final assessment. Your responses to
the self-help questions can also be recorded here if you wish, though
you may use a separate notebook if that seems more useful.

14 Module overview
 Module 7: Management Skills

Self-test
Take a few minutes to try this self-test. If you think you already have
some of the knowledge or skills covered by this module and answer
‘Yes’ to most of these questions, you may be able to apply for credits
from your learning institution. Talk to your tutor about this.
Note: This is not the full challenge test to be held by your learning
institution for ‘Recognition of Prior Learning’.
Put a tick in the appropriate box in answer to the following questions:

Yes No More
or less

Are you aware of the management

tasks that are important in the
delivery of youth development work,
and are you committed to
performing them?

Do you understand the theory and

practice of management,
particularly in relation to the not-
for-profit sector?

Do you have an understanding of the

following key areas of management:
organisational change, staff
development, monitoring of
expenditure and budgetary control,
project management and critical
path analysis?

Can you relate approaches of

management to the principles and
practice of youth development work,
to ensure that your management
style is appropriate?

Are you aware of the distinct roles

and organisational characteristics of
NGOs and non-NGOs?

Can you manage a project from

inception to completion within an
agreed time-scale?

Can you supervise and support a

team of volunteers and/or paid
staff?

Module overview 15
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Yes No More
or less

Are you able to work within the

principles of financial accountability,
including budgeting and financial
management?

Are you able to contribute

effectively to job, organisational and
personal development?

Can you work collaboratively with

other agencies?

Can you explain the role of

information and communication
technology (ICT) in management?

Learning tips

You may not have studied by distance education before. Here are
some guidelines to help you.

How long will it take?

It will probably take you a minimum of 70 hours to work through this
study guide. The time should be spent on studying the module and
the readings, doing the activities and self-help questions and
completing the assessment tasks.
Note that units are not all the same length, so make sure you plan and
pace your work to give yourself time to complete all of them. For
example, Unit 3 has a heavy reading schedule.

About the study guide

This study guide gives you a unit-by-unit guide to the module you are
studying. Each unit includes information, case studies, activities, self-
help questions and readings for you to complete. These are all
designed to help you achieve the learning outcomes that are stated at
the beginning of the module.

Activities, self-help questions and case studies

The activities, self-help questions and case studies are part of a
planned distance education programme. They will help you make
your learning more active and effective, as you process and apply
what you read. They will help you to engage with ideas and check

16 Module overview
 Module 7: Management Skills

your own understanding. It is vital that you take the time to complete
them in the order that they occur in the study guide. Make sure you
write full answers to the activities, or take notes of any discussions.
We recommend you write your answers in your learning journal and
keep it with your study materials as a record of your work. You can
refer to it whenever you need to remind yourself of what you have
done. The activities may be reflective exercises designed to get you
thinking about aspects of the subject matter, or they may be practical
tasks to undertake on your own or with fellow students. Answers are
not given for activities. A time is suggested for each activity (for
example, ‘about 20 minutes’). This is just a guide. It does not include
the time you will need to spend on any discussions or research
involved.
The self-help questions are usually more specific and require a brief
written response. Answers to them are given at the end of each unit.
If you wish, you may also record your answers to the self-help
questions in your learning journal, or you may use a separate
notebook.
The case studies give examples, often drawn from real life, to apply
the concepts in the study guide. Often the case studies are used as the
basis for an activity or self-help question.

Readings
There is a section of Readings at the end of the study guide. These
provide additional information or other viewpoints, and relate to
topics in the units. You are expected to read them.
There is a list of references at the end of each unit. This gives details
about books that are referred to in the unit. It may give you ideas for
further reading. You are not expected to read all the books on this list.
Please note: In a few cases full details of publications referred to in
the module have not been provided, as we have been unable to
confirm the details with the original authors.
There is a list of Further Reading at the end of each module. This
includes books and articles referred to in the module and are
suggestions for those who wish to explore topics further. You are
encouraged to read as widely as possible during and after the course,
but you are not expected to read all the books on this list.
Although there is no set requirement, you should aim to do some
follow-up reading to get alternative viewpoints and approaches. We
suggest you discuss this with your tutor. What is available to you in
libraries? Are there other books of particular interest to you or your
region? Can you use alternative resources, such as newspapers and
the internet?

Module overview 17
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Unit summary
At the end of each unit there is a list of the main points. Use it to help
you review your learning. Go back if you think you have not covered
something properly.

Icons
In the margins of the Study Guide, you will find these icons that tell
you what to do:

Self-help question
Answer the question. Suggested answers are provided at the end
of each unit.

Activity
Complete the activity. Activities are often used to encourage
reflective learning and may involve a practical task. Answers are
not provided.

Reading
Read as suggested.

Case study
Read these examples and complete any related self-help
question or activity.

Studying at a distance

There are many advantages to studying by distance education – a full

set of learning materials is provided, and you study close to home in
your own community. You can also plan some of your study time to
fit in with other commitments like work or family.
However, there are also challenges. Learning at a distance from your
learning institution requires discipline and motivation. Here are some
tips for studying at a distance.
1 Plan – Give priority to study sessions with your tutor and make
sure you allow enough travel time to your meeting place. Make a
study schedule and try to stick to it. Set specific days and times
each week for study and keep them free of other activities. Make
a note of the dates that your assessment pieces are due and plan
for extra study time around those dates.

18 Module overview
 Module 7: Management Skills

2 Manage your time – Set aside a reasonable amount of time each

week for your study programme – but don’t be too ambitious or
you won’t be able to keep up the pace. Work in productive blocks
of time and include regular rests.
3 Be organised – Have your study materials organised in one place
and keep your notes clearly labelled and sorted. Work through
the topics in your study guide systematically and seek help for
difficulties straight away. Never leave this until later.
4 Find a good place to study – Most people need order and quiet
to study effectively, so try to find a suitable place to do your work
– preferably somewhere where you can leave your study materials
ready until next time.
5 Ask for help if you need it – This is the most vital part of
studying at a distance. No matter what the difficulty is, seek help
from your tutor or fellow students straight away.
6 Don’t give up – If you miss deadlines for assessment pieces,
speak to your tutor – together you can work out what to do.
Talking to other students can also make a difference to your study
progress. Seeking help when you need it is a key way of making
sure you complete your studies – so don’t give up!

If you need help

If you have any difficulties with your studies, contact your local
learning centre or your tutor, who will be able to help you.
Note: You will find more detailed information about learner support
from your learning institution.
We wish you all the best with your studies.

Module overview 19
Unit 1: Management –
an overview

Unit introduction ....................................................... 23

Unit learning outcomes .............................................. 23
What is management? ................................................ 24
The management process............................................ 31
The manager’s roles.................................................... 35
Management styles ..................................................... 38
Unit summary ............................................................ 40
Answers to self-help questions .................................... 41
References.................................................................. 42
 Module 7: Management Skills

Unit introduction

Welcome to Unit 1 Management – an overview. The role of the youth

development worker is becoming increasingly a managerial one:

Unit 1
managing young people and resources in order to achieve
development objectives. This unit aims to help you better understand
what the managerial aspects of that role are about.
There is now a significant body of theory about and research into the
practice of management, attempting to outline what the elements of
effective management are. First, we look at the concept of
management, its aims and some associated theories and principles.
Then we differentiate the terms ‘management’ and ‘administration’.
The unit then explores the ‘management process’ and ‘management
functions’. In addition, we introduce you to two components of
management – the ‘mechanical’ and ‘dynamic’ components – and ask
you to consider how to apply them in practice. The various roles a
manager plays are discussed and the different management styles are
identified. You will be asked to research and discuss these styles with
colleagues. The unit ends by emphasising the importance of
participation.
The purpose of Unit 1 is to help you, as a youth worker, to analyse
and categorise the nature of your work practices.
In this unit, you will need to begin work on your learning journal, so
make sure you have appropriate writing material on hand (e.g. an
exercise book).

Unit learning outcomes

When you have worked through this unit, you should be able to:
z outline the theory and practice of management
z compare key groups of management theories
z differentiate the terms ‘management’ and ‘administration’
z identify different management styles
z discuss the importance of participation in the management
process.

Unit 1: Management – an overview 23

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

What is management?

You may already have some direct or indirect experience of

management. Before you go on with this unit, reflect on your
personal experience and complete Activity 1.1.

Activity 1.1
(15 minutes)
Answer the following questions:
1 What do you understand by the term ‘management’?
2 What do you think is the difference between management
and administration?
3 Consider for example the management functions in the
role of the mother in a family: what financial, technical
and human resources does she manage? What management
objectives is she likely to have, even if she doesn’t define
them?
4 Compare these with the probable management functions of
the head of a school or university.
Write down your ideas in your learning journal. You will
compare your answers later with other views presented in this
unit.

The term ‘management’, though readily understood, is not easily

defined, partly because it is used to describe behaviour in very diverse
situations. Charles Handy (1985) says this problem is related to the
difficulty of defining a manager’s role. He says that definitions of
management tend to be “so broad that they are meaningless or so
stereotyped that they become part of the background”. Nevertheless, there
are clearly identifiable management functions in an enormous variety
of roles. The important issue is whether analysing and evaluating
these management functions helps those in the roles to perform them
more effectively.
In very simple terms, Armstrong (1999, p. 3) defines management as
a process of deciding what to do and then getting it done through the
effective use of resources, including people. He explains that people
are the most critical resource available to managers, since it is through
this resource that all other resources – knowledge, finance, materials,
equipment, etc. – will be managed.
Therefore management is best described as an interactive and
dynamic people process in which the manager is personally very
active (Armstrong, 1990). Because management is an interactive,
engaged process, while the manager benefits from delegating work,

24 Unit 1: Management – an overview

 Module 7: Management Skills

s/he cannot really delegate core duties and functions away from the
team, and so teamwork becomes extremely important. In sum,
management can be described as more an art than a science since
managers are continually required to use their ongoing judgement
and expertise in a dynamic, interactive, team environment. Clearly
administration has a part to play in this, but how does it fit into this
definition do you think? We will return to this question later in the

Unit 1
unit.

Management for youth

The aims and general objectives of youth work are set by the
contemporary social context. All over the world, governments and
human rights bills emphasise young people and highlight their
importance as the leaders of the future. This means that investing in
managing young people is an investment in managing the future of a
country. Investing in youth work is also an investment in
development, because youth are the decision-makers and potential
work force of the near future.
Unfortunately these aims are so broad they are almost meaningless in
terms of managerial objectives. A mother may well know that this is
the ideological context in which she brings up her family, but it’s not
much help in getting her children into good schools and good jobs if
there are no good schools or she hasn’t the money. And this is the
same for youth workers. You need a clearly specified context for your
work and precise things you can target.

The aim of management

Management aims to get results by making the best use of the
available human, financial and material resources within the
identified context and targets. It is very much concerned with adding
value to these resources, and this added value depends on the
expertise and commitment of yourself and the people who are
responsible for managing your organisation (Armstrong, 1999).
‘Adding value’ is a slippery concept, but, roughly speaking, it means
that the young people you work with have more confidence, increased
skills and can contribute more at the end of a project than was true at
the start of the project. It also means that your resources are better
organised and more useful as a result of the work done on the project.
You will have used up at least some financial resources, but what
you’ve done ought to be good value for the money spent.

Unit 1: Management – an overview 25

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Activity 1.2
(about 5 minutes)
1 Compare your response to question 1 in Activity 1.1 with
the discussion on management presented above.
2 Note any points you may have initially omitted in your
learning journal and improve your definition of
management accordingly.

Management theories
Being a manager of human and other resources is a very practical
role. Nevertheless, you can learn something useful about that practice
from the various attempts to create a satisfactory management theory.
Management theories can be categorised broadly as ‘classical’,
‘behavioural’ and ‘current’.
Turn to the Readings section at the end of this Module and read
Reading 1: ‘Management theories’. As you read, pay attention to the
features of each theory and the similarities and differences among
these.

Now that you have finished your reading, complete Activity 1.3.

Activity 1.3
(about 30 minutes)
In this activity you are going to make notes in the form of a
table on the main features of the three categories of
management theories that you have just studied. Your notes
will cover the main features of the theories and similarities
and differences among them.
In your learning journal:
1 Draw a table with four columns and four rows. Each row
should have enough space for your notes (except for Row
1, which will only cover headings).
2 In the first row, write these headings at the top of each
column: Column 1= Theories; 2 = Features; 3 = Similarities
and 4 = Differences.
3 Under the first column (headed ‘Theories’), write the
names of the three theories in each of the next three
rows, namely Classical theories, Behavioural and human
relations theories and Current theories.

26 Unit 1: Management – an overview

 Module 7: Management Skills

4 Review Reading 1, paying particular attention to the main

features of these theories and the similarities and
differences among them. Write notes on the features,
similarities and differences under the relevant columns of
your table.
You may discuss your summary with your tutor and colleagues.

Unit 1
The completed table will provide a useful reference when
studying other aspects of management in this module. It is,
therefore, important that you revise your table where
necessary after comments from your tutor, so that your final
table captures all the crucial points about the different
theories.

For some guidance on drawing the table, here is how it should look in
your learning journal. This table has only been partially completed.
Our notes will not be same as we each have different ways of
summarising information. You may write full sentences or just key
words. What is important is that your notes should help you
understand the matter you are studying and enable you to explain it
orally and in writing.
Note that it will be easier to complete the similarities and difference
when you have understood the main features of each of the three
theories. Therefore, complete your notes on the features of each
theory first.

Unit 1: Management – an overview 27

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Summary of Management Theories

Theories Features Similarities Differences
Classical Time period: 1900 to
theories 1920.
There are 3 sub-groups:
z bureaucratic
z scientific
z administrative
Bureaucratic (Max
Weber)
– focus on organisational
structures based on
rational guidelines:
rules, procedures and
work hierarchy
– suitable for large
organisations and
organising complex
processes.
Scientific (FW Taylor)
focus on scientific
investigation:
observation and
statistical analysis
managers responsible for
scientific analysis of
work, and workers
expected to carry out
managers’ analysis-
based specifications.
Adminstrative (Henri
Fayol)
focus on flow of activity
throughout the
organisations’ operations
manager plans and
organises activities, then
coordinates and controls
performance
14 principles of
management:
specialisation of labour,
unity of command, etc.
Behavioural
and human
relations
theories
Current
theories

28 Unit 1: Management – an overview

 Module 7: Management Skills

The last part of Reading 1 is the section on principles of

management. The section on administrative management had
mentioned only the ones that Fayol felt were the most important.
Review the fourteen principles before you continue with the rest of
this unit.

Unit 1

Unit 1: Management – an overview 29

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Management and administration

What’s the difference between management and administration?
Management is concerned primarily with results and taking
calculated risks. This means that managers do certain things in order
to get results for themselves and others. We will discuss in the units
that follow a variety of management activities. Managers also
evaluate various things in order to try to minimise risks and improve
output.
On the other hand, administration is concerned with procedures,
accountability and risk avoidance. This means that in proper
administration, actions are carried out according to the correct
procedures. If part of the procedure is not followed, people will be
held accountable.
The key difference is this: management aims at taking calculated
risks, whereas administration aims at avoiding risk completely, in
order to ensure a proper and effective administration process.
To gain a fuller understanding of the difference between management
and administration, turn to the Readings at the end of this module
and read Reading 2: ‘Management and Administration in the Private
and Public Sectors’ by W. David Rees. Pay particular attention to the
introductory paragraph, the section covering the differences between
management and administration and the table at the end of the
article, which summarises the differences between the two terms.

Now that you have read what other people say about the two terms –
management and administration – complete Activity 1.4.

Activity 1.4
(about 10 minutes)
Look back at your answers to Activity 1.1 in your learning
journal. Spend 10 minutes now to:
1 Compare your answers with the views presented in the unit
so far.
2 Write down the differences between these views and your
answers.

In general, it is safe to say that it is part of every person’s job to do

administration, but not a lot of people are managers. So
administration is a process regularly done by those lower than
management in the organisational hierarchy. Management requires
administrative knowledge but also more complex skills and processes.

30 Unit 1: Management – an overview

 Module 7: Management Skills

The management process

Management does not just happen. It is a decision-making process

that can be subdivided into four individual processes, described by
Armstrong (1999) as methods of operation that assist the
achievement of objectives. These are:

Unit 1
z planning
z organising
z influencing
z controlling (Mondy and Premeaux, 1995, pp. 7–11).
These are more or less the methods specified by Fayol, except that the
term ‘influencing’ takes the place of commanding and coordinating
activities. This indicates a shift from an authoritarian to a more
interactive central role, under the influence of human relations
research and theory.
Below you will find a diagram showing this process.

GEMENT PROCESS
MANA
Planning Organising

Decision making

Controlling Influencing

Let’s look at each of these parts of the management process in turn.

Planning
This is the process of deciding on a course of action to achieve a
desired result. Plans should be specific and provide clear guidance to
both managers and workers.
They should indicate:
z the nature and purpose of all activities
z the role-takers and their roles
z lines of accountability: who is responsible to whom
z time frames
z resources
z location
z quantity and quality of activities.

Unit 1: Management – an overview 31

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

For example, if you are planning an AIDS awareness campaign

among young people, you should spell out clearly the level of
awareness you want to create, as well as who does what in preparing
and implementing the campaign. You should also clearly set down
the activities to be done before, during and after the campaign, and
identify which individuals are accountable for specific tasks.
Incremental planning is short-term planning, and normally takes
place in phases within a longer-term plan. Within the longer-term
plan, the situational context might well change suddenly – for
example, some of the role-takers might change. Goals and activities
should therefore be revised and reshaped in order to keep up with the
changing situation. The following case study illustrates this.

Case study 1.1

Incremental planning
Mrs Seka is a volunteer at a programme in an informal housing
district. She is a very good organiser and keen to be involved in an
AIDS awareness campaign for the youth from the local area. Because
she has contacts with the education authority, the youth worker has
appointed her to book venues at schools for the campaign. The
success of this project depends on these venues being available. But
Mrs Seka becomes pregnant and is not able to do the task she has
been allocated. Furthermore, the youth leader responsible for
organising transport for youth to the AIDS awareness sessions moves
away from the district. Fortunately, the youth worker is a good
manager. He is aware of the importance of incremental planning and
has allowed for such unexpected changes. He goes back and draws up
a new plan for these changed aspects of the campaign.

Note that planning is a complex and important part of youth

development work. Here we have given you a very brief overview. In
Module 8 Project Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation we cover this
topic in detail.

Organising
Organising has been defined as “the process of prescribing formal
relationships among people and resources to accomplish goals” (Mondy and
Premeaux, 1995, p. 9).
Organising means knowing the capabilities of your staff and
choosing and persuading the right person with the appropriate skills
for each job – not an easy thing to do. It also means finding and
arranging the right resources to complete the job and achieve your
goals.
Sometimes an organisational chart is necessary to control this
process. It’s always useful to develop one. The chart below is for a

32 Unit 1: Management – an overview

 Module 7: Management Skills

formal and complex organisation. It indicates managers’

responsibilities and degrees of authority and allocates jobs to different
parts of the organisation. It shows the degree of centralisation – who
is in charge of what – and the type of department that will be used.
The organisational chart can also include the processes of
administration and management as discussed above.

Unit 1
Chief
Chief Executive
Executive
Officer
Officer (CEO)
(CEO)

Department
Chief Department
Chief Department
Chief
Head
Executive Head
Executive Head
Executive

Section
Chief Section
Chief Section
Chief Section
Chief Section
Chief Section
Chief
leader
Executive leader
Executive leader
Executive leader
Executive leader
Executive leader
Executive

Team
Chief Team
Chief Team
Chief Team
Chief Team
Chief Team
Chief
members
Executive members
Executive members
Executive members
Executive members
Executive members
Executive

Your own management activities may well not require a chart quite
like this, but nevertheless a chart of this sort can be helpful as soon as
more than a handful of people are involved. It soon becomes easy to
work out such a chart from considering the actual activities that take
place. It is important to keep in mind that the chart should be aimed
at providing information relevant to a specific time and place.
Note that we discuss organising of staff in detail in Unit 3.

Influencing
This is the process of affecting the behaviour of others. Influencing
includes motivating people, providing leadership for them,
establishing good communication, developing their potential, dealing
with conflict, encouraging their creativity, handling group dynamics
skilfully, dealing sensitively with issues of power and managing group
politics and group and corporate culture. It involves the power to
sway people to one’s will or views (Plunkett et al, 2005, p. 725) and
includes empowering people by giving them the things that they need
to grow, change and cope with change (ibid, p. 461). Unit 6 will
discuss managing organisational change and action-learning as a tool
that facilitates organisations and people to effectively manage change.

Controlling
Controlling means ensuring that the performance of the plan is in line
with the plan’s objectives or goals and with the standards of the
organisation. It is the process through which standards for the
performance of people and processes are set, communicated and
applied (Plunkett et al, 2005, p. 722). This involves monitoring the
progress of work in relation to the plan and agreed processes and
taking corrective action whenever necessary. For instance, if a youth
worker sets out to reach four youth groups per week but only reaches

Unit 1: Management – an overview 33

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

four groups per month, corrective measures need to be taken because

the performance of the individual is far below the goal.
These are the four functions in the management process. In the
section that follows, we will explore the different types or components
of management work.

Two sides of management work

Management work can be put into two overall categories: mechanical
and dynamic.
The mechanical component includes:
z formulating objectives
z developing plans of action and projections
z dividing and allocating tasks
z acquiring resources.
The dynamic component involves the human element. This includes:
z having discussions with subordinates and others
z participating in meetings
z communicating
z motivating.

Activity 1.5
(about 10 minutes)
Think about a typical day in your routine. In your learning
journal write a classification of your activities according to
these two components:
1 mechanical
2 dynamic.

In Activity 1.5, you might have found that you primarily work within
the mechanical component – for instance, if in your youth work you
are mainly involved in developing goals and planning activities. On
the other hand, you might be primarily involved in the dynamic
component – for example doing lots of fieldwork with young people.
Each of these components has its own set of skills. It’s important to
realise that, even though you might not work primarily in one of the
fields, you will find knowledge about both components useful.

34 Unit 1: Management – an overview

 Module 7: Management Skills

The manager’s roles

As part of their formal authority and status ‘as the boss’, managers
play various roles simultaneously. These roles can be broadly
classified under the following categories:

Unit 1
z interpersonal roles
z informational roles
z decisional (decision-making) roles.
The following diagram explains this in a nutshell (Blunt and Jones,
1992, p. 23).

FORMAL
AUTHORITY
AND STATUS

INTERPERSONAL INFORMATIONAL DECISIONAL

SKILLS ROLES ROLES

Figure head Monitor Entrepreneur

Leader Disseminator Disturbance
Liaison Spokesman allocator
Resource
allocator
Negotiator

Let’s take these managerial roles one by one and examine them.

Interpersonal roles
The interpersonal roles a manager takes on may include the
following:

Figurehead
A figurehead is a person who stands as a symbol of authority or
power. This role usually includes activities associated with the
manager’s position as head of a unit or organisation (Blunt and Jones,
1992, p. 22).

Unit 1: Management – an overview 35

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

The role of figurehead might include:

z networking outside the organisation
z hosting guests and clients
z inducting clients into the local social and business environment.

Leader or motivator
One of the best-known authors on management, Mintzberg (1973),
originally termed this role as the ‘leader’. Recent authors (Bennis,
1989; Kotter, 1990; Krantz, 1990) prefer the term ‘motivator’. We will
use the term motivator here because it emphasises the manager’s
responsibility for the performance of others in addition to him/
herself. (The two issues of motivation and leadership will be
discussed further in Units 2 and 3.) This role may include personnel
issues such as:
z hiring and firing
z goal setting
z performance appraisal and reward.
In these processes, the manager plays a key role in balancing the
interests of the individual and the organisation. You will be learning
about these processes in detail in later units.

Liaison
Managers spend a lot of time with their peers and people outside
their units as well as their subordinates. In this role, the manager is a
source of information, and this is linked to the informational roles
s/he performs. You can see this by the arrow in the diagram above
that links interpersonal skills with the informational role.

Informational roles
A manager carries out the following informational roles (adapted
from Blunt and Jones, 1992: pp. 23–25):
Monitor – scanning the environment for information, including
formal and informal networks.
Disseminator – sharing and distributing information.
Spokesperson – supplying information to people outside the
manager’s unit.

Decisional roles
Decision-making is one of the key roles of managers. The decisional
roles managers carry out include the following:
Entrepreneur – the manager takes the initiative to improve the
effectiveness and competitiveness of her or his own unit.

36 Unit 1: Management – an overview

 Module 7: Management Skills

Disturbance handler – this is self-explanatory; it involves dealing

with disturbances and conflicts that impact on the performance of the
manager’s work or that of his/her unit.
Resource allocator – allocating resources, including time, finance and
people.
Negotiator – the most time-consuming of all the activities; it reflects

Unit 1
the manager’s role as a peace-keeper or problem solver.
You have been introduced to a number of definitions. The following
self-help question is designed to help you revise your understanding
of some of these terms.

Self-help question 1.1

(about 10 minutes)
Answer the following questions in your learning journal:
1 Name the four main functions of the management process:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
2 What are the two components of the management process?
(a)
(b)
3 Name the interpersonal roles of a manager:
(a)
(b)
(c)
4 List the three categories of management theories discussed
in this unit. Include the sub-groups found in some of these
theories.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Compare your answers with those provided at the end of the
unit.

So far in this unit we have examined the concept of management and

explored the various roles and responsibilities of the manager.

Unit 1: Management – an overview 37

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

In your job as a youth worker, your management activities are related

largely to development and often to voluntarism as well. So it’s
important to understand the meaning of these two concepts.

Management styles

The style of management can be described as the typical pattern of

behaviour of managers in performing their functions and in their
dealings with employees. A manager’s style reflects a typical response
to a number of variables in the external and internal environments.
Contingency theories of management would suggest that the
management style should be varied to meet the requirements of each
situation precisely, for example:
z manager’s personality and value system: e.g. education,
experience
z nature of the workforce: e.g. skills, needs, attitudes
z nature of the internal environment: e.g. structure, stability,
physical site
z immediate situation: e.g. nature of problem, time and cost
constraints.
Management styles range from fully authoritative to fully
participatory and can be classified as:
z autocratic
z democratic
z collegial
z laissez-faire.

Activity 1.6
(about 15 minutes)
1 Research the four styles of management mentioned above
and make short notes in your learning journal.
2 Make a note on the relevance of each style of management
within given situations. You may want to review the notes
on leadership in Modules 3 and 5.
Write your responses in your learning journal and discuss them
with your colleagues.

38 Unit 1: Management – an overview

 Module 7: Management Skills

The importance of participation

As you would have discovered from your research on management
styles, maximising participation and involving group members are
key elements of democratic management. Participation is a cross
cutting theme in the Diploma in Youth Development Work and its
importance cannot be over-emphasised. It follows that as a manager

Unit 1
you should create opportunities for your staff or members of your
group to
(i) make an input in decision-making regarding the functioning of
your organisation or project
(ii) carry out specific functions to achieve the goals and objectives of
your organisation / project; and
(iii) participate in the review and modification of the functions, goals
and objectives carried out in (ii).
The Commonwealth Secretariat papers presented at the 5th
Commonwealth Youth Ministers Meeting, Gaborone 2003, include a
paper on youth participation by Steve Mokwena. Mokwena argues,
inter alia, that despite strong arguments made in support of young
people’s participation, there is still considerable resistance. He
mentions eight impediments to youth participation:
z adults fear of losing power or diluting control
z absence of democratic / participatory models and practices
within an organisation and/or society
z perceptions about young people as being incapable of
participating
z perceptions about young people as being deficient
z professional resistance to intrusion, and a belief in the merit of
doing things in traditional ways among programme
administrators
z lack of experience with involving youth in leadership
z youth participation is costly and time consuming
z disingenuous use of youth participation rhetoric to secure donor
funds.
This publication is available from the Commonwealth Secretariat,
and your learning institutions may have copies. We recommend it as
further reading if possible.

Unit 1: Management – an overview 39

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Unit summary

In this unit you have covered the following main points:

z definitions of the terms ‘management’ and ‘administration’
z three categories of management theories including management
principles
z the management process and its functions
z the two components of management
z various managerial roles and styles.
The aim has been to develop a common understanding of these
concepts and management theories and to emphasise the crucial role
of participation in management.
But how does this unit help you? The practical benefit is that you will
be able to understand the nature of your work better and identify your
administration and management duties. We hope you will also
understand the roles you have to play, including the processes and
procedures related to these roles.
To check how you have got on, look back at the learning outcomes
for this unit and see if you can now do them. When you have done
this, look through your learning journal to remind yourself of what
you have learned and the ideas you have generated.
As management activities take place within a certain context, Unit 2
will look at not-for-profit organisations / non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) and voluntarism, where we address the issues
facing organisations in which many of you are located as youth
workers.

40 Unit 1: Management – an overview

 Module 7: Management Skills

Answers to self-help questions

Self-help question 1.1

1 (a) planning

Unit 1
(b) organising
(c) controlling
(d) influencing.
2 (a) mechanical
(b) dynamic.
3 (a) figurehead
(b) leader / motivator
(c) liaison.
4 (a) Classical theories
– bureaucratic management
– scientific management
– administrative management
(b) Behavioural and human relations theories
(c) Current theories
– systems theory
– contingency theory
– chaos theory.

Unit 1: Management – an overview 41

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

References

Armstrong, M. (1999) How to be an Even Better Manager: A complete A-Z

of Proven Techniques and Essential Skills, Kogan Page Limited, London.
Armstrong, M. (1990) Management Processes and Functions, Institute of
Personnel Management, London.
Bennis, W. (1989) Why Leaders Can’t Lead: The Unconscious Conspiracy
Continues, Jossey-Bass.
Blunt, P. and Jones, M.I. (1992) Managing Organisations in Africa,
Walter de Gruyter, Berlin.
Commonwealth Secretariat (2004) Strategy Papers Presented at 5th
Commonwealth Youth Ministers Meeting, Gaborone, Botswana, 26–30
May 2003, Commonwealth Secretariat, London.
Handy, C.B. (1985) Understanding Organisations, Penguin Books Ltd,
London.
Kotter, J.P (1990) A Force for Change: How Leadership Differs from
Management, The Free Press, New York.
Krantz, J. (1990) ‘Lessons from the Field: An Essay on the Crisis of
Leadership in Contemporary Organisations’, Journal of Applied
Behavioral Science, 26: 49–64
Mintzberg, H. (1973) The Nature of Managerial Work, Harper & Row,
New York.
Mondy, R.W. and Premeaux, S.R. (1995) Management Concepts,
Practices and Skills, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs.
Plunkett, W.R, Attner, R.F. and Allen, G.S. (2005) Management:
Meeting and exceeding customer expectations, 8th Edition. Thomson
Corporation, South Western, USA.
Taylor, F.W. (1911) The Principles of Scientific Management, Harper,
New York.

42 Unit 1: Management – an overview

Unit 2: Managing in
the not-for-profit
sector

Unit introduction ....................................................... 45

Unit learning outcomes .............................................. 45
Development.............................................................. 46
Role of the not-for-profit sector................................... 48
Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) ................... 49
Unit summary ............................................................ 55
Answers to self-help questions .................................... 56
References.................................................................. 57
Assignment ................................................................ 58
 Module 7: Management Skills

Unit introduction

Welcome to Unit 2 Managing in the not-for-profit sector. Because most of

the activities carried out by youth development workers are related to
the process of ‘development’ and because of the place of
‘voluntarism’ in development, these two issues are explored first. In
the final part of this unit, we examine the roles, organisational
characteristics and management activities of non-governmental
organisations (NGOs), because these organisations provide good

Unit 2
examples of management practices in this area.
At the end, you will find your first written assignment, which will
cover the work done in the first two units of this module.

Unit learning outcomes

When you have worked through this unit, you should be able to:
z relate the theory and practice of management to the not-for-profit
sector, particularly the work of NGOs
z explain the distinct roles and organisational characteristics of
NGOs and how they work collaboratively with other agencies.

Unit 2: Managing in the not-for-profit sector 45

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Development

In Module 3 Principles and Practice of Youth Development Work you were

introduced to the conceptual basis of the term ‘development’. In this
unit we are going to concentrate on the place of management-related
issues in development. But before we begin this discussion, it will help
if you refresh your memory of what was said in Module 3 by doing
Activity 2.1.

Activity 2.1
(about 10 minutes)
1 In your learning journal write down your understanding of
what development means. If you wish, refer to Module 3
Principles and Practice of Youth Development Work to
consolidate your answer.
2 Ask people around you – your colleagues or peers – how
they view the relationship between development and
management. To what extent do they see themselves as
involved in the process of development? Write your and
your colleagues’ ideas in your learning journal.
You will have an opportunity to review your answers after
reading the next section of the unit.

Development – past and present

In the past, development was regarded mainly as a problem of
transforming the economic structures of poor countries, so that
agriculture’s share in production and employment declined relative to
that of industry. It was believed that this would lead to rapid gains in
overall and per capita gross national product (GNP), so that wealth
would grow faster than the population would increase (Todaro, 1997).
The ‘stages of growth’ theory of development assumed that
developing countries needed to go though the same stages of
development that rich countries had gone through in their histories,
and that this process could be accelerated through the transfer of
resources in the form of capital, technical and management expertise
and knowledge. The role of expert local individuals in this process
was not given much importance. Young people in particular were
often sidelined in activities, and decisions were taken on their behalf.
While a number of less developed countries did manage to achieve
these development targets, they did so without improving levels of
poverty, equality or employment, and disastrous inequalities arose as
a result of uneven development. This, and the financial and energy
crises of the 1980s and 1990s, have led to a new economic view of the
purpose and nature of development, one in which three goals stand
out. These are:

46 Unit 2: Managing in the not-for-profit sector

 Module 7: Management Skills

1 Sustenance – which means increasing the availability and

widening the distribution of basic, life-sustaining goods, such as
food, shelter, health and protection.
2 Self-esteem – which involves raising levels of living including
higher incomes, more jobs, better education and greater attention
to cultural and humanistic values.
3 The ability to choose – which is made possible through
expanding the range of choices available to people by freeing
them from dependence on other countries and on ignorance and
ignominy. (Todaro, 1997, pp. 16–18)

Unit 2
This view of development entails a great deal of local participation,
especially the participation of young people, who need to take control
of their own situations and futures. This influences managerial styles
– the key aim being to nurture local leadership and popular
organisations in order to make them self-sufficient and self-
developing. The main activities in development should be:
z identifying and matching needs and opportunities
z assessing the comparative advantage of producing key
commodities locally or buying them cheaply from elsewhere (to
facilitate the optimal use of resources)
z learning and adapting through action
z having a wider impact.
An important thing to remember about development is that it varies
from one setting to another, so it is difficult to define in precise,
general terms.
In the above section of the unit, we have presented our views on
development. Activity 2.2 enables you to compare our views and
those that you wrote in your learning journal for Activity 2.1.

Activity 2.2
(about 5 minute)
1 Compare our views on development with those you wrote
in your learning journal for Activity 2.1.
2 If necessary, improve your original ideas accordingly and
explain in your learning journal why you feel these changes
are necessary.

Benefits of development
As we have seen earlier, youth development work now plays an
important role in official national development efforts. It has helped
young people to understand various aspects of society, the economy
and politics, and in many instances has encouraged young people to

Unit 2: Managing in the not-for-profit sector 47

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

play an active role in their societies. Examples are the work done by
National Youth Leagues and Youth Advocacy Groups.
In many cases, youth development work rests on the principle of
voluntarism. In the next section, we discuss first the role of the not-
for-profit sector and then what voluntarism is.

Role of the not-for-profit sector

The ‘not-for-profit’ sector is also referred to as ‘non-profit’ or ‘non-

governmental’. These names distinguish this sector from both
government and the business / private sector.
The not-for-profit sector contains religious organisations, trade
unions, agricultural cooperatives, political parties, and other
organisations with specialised roles and purposes. It plays a crucial
role in the development of young people throughout the developed as
well as less developed world: not only do these organisations provide
social and humanitarian services and welfare, but they also address
critical issues affecting young people. These include education,
health, democracy, human rights, problems of self-esteem and
respect, participation, sustainable development and poverty (in
particular, unemployment). The principal mode of operation of the
not-for-profit sector is through voluntarism.
A voluntary action is one “performed or done of one’s own free will,
impulse or choice; not constrained, prompted or suggested by another” (the
Shorter Oxford English Dictionary). So voluntarism means the
principle of committing yourself to functions and activities that you
are interested in, in order to achieve goals identified by people who
have a shared vision with you.
Volunteers play a vital role in youth development work. You may well
find yourself working for a voluntary organisation either in your main
post or in work sub-contracted by the voluntary organisation to you
and/or your employer. In that case the decision-making power lies
primarily with the voluntary organisation rather than with you or
your employers. The members of the voluntary organisation usually
choose their own activities and work together as a team to achieve the
goals they have agreed together. Because the volunteers control the
voluntary organisation, they have the right to close down their
activities at almost any time. If you work for them as a manager, all
your managerial activities have to be constrained by their decisions.
Within the framework of development and voluntarism, non-
governmental organisations (NGOs) play a vital role in delivering
services to the community. They primarily perform development
activities, and in some instances provide guidance and structure to
many voluntary organisations. We will explore NGOs further in the
next section because many youth workers are either employed by or
are volunteers in NGOs.

48 Unit 2: Managing in the not-for-profit sector

 Module 7: Management Skills

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs)

NGOs are organisations mainly doing development-related activities.

They are funded primarily by donors, who may be state or private
sector agencies or private individuals. In most instances, they have
direct links with grassroots organisations, which gives them excellent
insight into the types of programmes needed and requested by target
groups. Examples of NGOs are BRAC – Bangladesh Rural
Advancement Committee, set up after the war of independence with
Pakistan but now a highly sophisticated organisation with

Unit 2
international links, and CRY – Child Relief and You.
Liebenberg has defined NGOs as “autonomous, privately set up, non-
profit-making institutions that support, manage or facilitate development
action”.
As their name suggests, NGOs are not government organisations; nor
are they businesses in the conventional sense, in that they are not
profit-making, though they may have significant business interests to
support their development work. Their focus is generally aid for
development, and their activities are geared to improving the quality
of life in various aspects of civil society. NGOs tend mainly to
promote development through active participation by the poor and
related sectors of society (what Liebenberg describes as the popular
sector). In this way, the work of NGOs can aid governments
significantly, though often governments try to limit their work –
especially in instances where their work is seen as anti-government –
because large NGOs can accrue a lot of social power.
This view will become clearer when you read the article on South
African NGOs by Allwood in Reading 4 at the end of this unit. This
shows how an NGO’s associations with government can be
problematic.
Besides active engagement with the popular sector, NGOs also work
closely with other institutions and agents of change in developing and
implementing programmes / projects. From the resources they
receive from donors and other sources, NGOs develop programmes
to aid particular target groups with whom they work in close
cooperation. Because of this close relationship, NGOs are dependent
on and become part of the societies where they operate. They thus
have to be accepted by the communities they serve, but at the same
time they should not lose their independence. Liebenberg argues that,
as catalysts of development, each NGO should “maintain substantial
independence in defining and interpreting its own mission so that it does not
fall captive to power holders and their agenda” (cited in Brown and
Korten, 1989, p. 12). He also notes that the catalyst function of
NGOs should be temporary, because an NGO should aim primarily
to facilitate active participation in problem-solving by its target group,
in order eventually to empower its members to develop and sustain
their own strategies for addressing their needs and problems.

Unit 2: Managing in the not-for-profit sector 49

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Turn to the Readings section at the end of this Module and read
Reading 3: ‘Non-governmental organisations as agents of
development’ by Sybert Liebenberg.

When you have finished reading, complete the following activity.

Activity 2.3
(about 10 minutes)
In your learning journal, write answers on the following
aspects of NGOs as described in the Liebenberg article.
1 What makes it difficult to define an NGO?
2 Name the three criteria used to define NGOs.
3 List the strengths and weaknesses of NGOs – according to
Liebenberg. How far do you agree with his analysis?

The answers to these questions are adequately provided in Reading 3.

You should also compare your answer to question 3 in the above
activity with the section that follows on strengths and weaknesses of
NGOs.

Strengths and weaknesses of NGOs

The strengths of NGOs come from the special nature of their role
and function in society – as we have already seen. These strengths
include:
z community participation
z functioning at community level
z having advanced, non-bureaucratic structures
z capacity to utilise management principles from post-modern
systems such as contingency theory, therefore very flexible and
adaptable to local conditions. For this reason, they are able to
respond to community needs much faster than governments.
The weaknesses of NGOs present major challenges for their
management. You may have noticed when you read the article that
these weaknesses are related to the functions of management that we
discussed earlier in this module: planning, controlling, organising and
influencing.
Other weaknesses include the difficulty for their management of
building leadership capacity, as well as that of developing other staff
capacity in all aspects of programme development and
implementation.

50 Unit 2: Managing in the not-for-profit sector

 Module 7: Management Skills

NGOs also find it difficult – because there is a degree of rivalry with

the other institutions and agents of change they associate with,
including governments – to ensure collectively that their programmes
will be sustained. Working cooperatively together they could achieve
more than they sometimes do. This cooperative approach would
ensure larger scale delivery of programmes, a capacity that NGOs
alone, because of their small size, generally do not have.
Turn to the Readings section and read Reading 4: ‘The development
role of non-governmental organisations: the South African paradigm’
by John E. Allwood.

Unit 2
When you have finished reading, complete the following self-help
question.

Self-help question 2.1

(about 10 minutes)
Review the article by Allwood and then write answers to the
following questions in your learning journal. You may find it
useful to discuss the article and your responses with colleagues
or fellow-students – or use them as the basis of a tutorial
discussion.
1 In what kind of environment were South African NGOs
functioning?
2 Why did the old South African Government place
restrictions on the registration and activities of NGOs?
3 How did the apartheid-dominated political climate of
South Africa affect the nature and functioning of NGOs?
4 Does the author foresee immediate change in the lives of
the poor people now?
Compare your answers with those provided at the end of the
unit.

The single most important feature of NGOs is that they promote

development through active participation by the poor. They can
achieve this because they are allowed a degree of freedom to create
their own vision of what a development programme should look like
and they can take decisions in order to achieve this vision. Some of
the key development and management issues in NGOs are:
z resources
z effectiveness / evaluation
z research
z networking

Unit 2: Managing in the not-for-profit sector 51

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

z development education and advocacy. (Adapted from Drabek.

1987)
The ethical principle by which NGOs are guided is that all those
involved in the development process should be partners: no
organisation should dictate a country’s development agenda. This
enables them to have a degree of freedom because they work at the
process of partnership and creates a change in attitude by the other
agents involved.

NGO management trends and processes

Trends
Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia available on the internet, identifies
two management trends that are particularly relevant to NGOs:
diversity and participatory management. You can read more about
this, including NGO monitoring and controlling, at
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-governmental_organisation.
Diversity management recognises the different cultures of people
working within organisations. It seeks to minimise cultural problems
and aims to harness diversity for the benefit of the organisation and
its stakeholders.
Participatory management allows individuals to contribute to
decision-making. It is said to be typical of NGO management. You
have already seen in the section on strengths of NGOs above that
participation and non-bureaucratic structures are some of the
strengths of NGOs, hence the view that it is typical management style
of NGOs. Participation, as we have already argued in Unit 1, is very
important and is a cross-cutting theme of this diploma.

Processes
NGOs require a specific type of management process and strategy. In
their article, ‘The Strategic Management Process in Non-profit
Organisations with Dynamic Environments’, Hoffman et al (1991, p.
359) cover the various issues involved. The most important issue they
raise is the “identification of important outside stakeholders and their role
during the management process”. Proper communication and feedback
processes between managers of the non-profit organisation and the
outside stakeholders are important building blocks in the
management process.
The following diagram gives you a visual idea of the interactions
between the NGO or not-for-profit organisation and outside
stakeholders.

52 Unit 2: Managing in the not-for-profit sector

 Module 7: Management Skills

Clients

Board of Financial
Directors Contributors
Not-For-Profit
Organisation

Paid Staff /

Unit 2
Administrators Volunteers General Public

You should keep the following three important issues in mind in

terms of management processes in NGOs:
z Greater emphasis is placed on the important role that principal
stakeholders play in the strategic management process. The
stakeholders that influence the process directly should be the
main focus of management.
z There should be a strong emphasis on ‘implementation’ and
‘control’.
z The environment in which the non-profit organisation operates
influences the management process. This is again related to
authority and control.

Activity 2.4
(about 15 minutes)
Reflect on the feedback and communication processes
between your agency and others. In your learning journal
answer the following questions:
1 How effective are the management processes in your
organisation in taking into account outside stakeholders?
2 Describe one project or cooperative activity that your
organisation has successfully undertaken with another
agency.
3 What do you believe were the key elements in the success
of this collaboration?
4 Identify any barriers to effective collaboration between
agencies.
Discuss your answers with colleagues.

Unit 2: Managing in the not-for-profit sector 53

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Monitoring and controlling NGOs

Monitoring and control of NGOs are sensitive national and
international issues. Governments in some countries – for example, in
South Africa during the apartheid years, as you have read in Reading
4 – have introduced legislation to restrict, monitor and control the
activities and funding of NGOs. The extract below from Wikipedia
gives examples of NGO monitoring organisations and some of the
issues relating to monitoring and control of NGOs.

Examples from Wikipedia on monitoring and controlling

NGOs:
NGO Monitor is a conservative pro-Israel site that aims to promote
“critical debate and accountability of human rights in NGOs in the
Arab-Israeli conflict”. The organisation has successfully conducted
campaigns against Oxfam and the Ford Foundation – leading to
formal apologies and changes in practice – on the grounds that the
organisations are too anti-Israeli.
NGOWatch (http://www.ngowatch.org) is a project of the American
Enterprise Institute that monitors NGOs. The project is primarily a
negative analysis of NGOs that are generally considered to be on the
progressive side of the political spectrum.
Indian NGOs (http://www.indianngos.com/about.ht) is a portal of
over 20,000 NGOs that work with the corporate sector in India. This
portal offers insights into how the corporate sector is using NGOs to
benefit their programs.
In recent years many large corporations have beefed up their
corporate social responsibility (http://www.csrwire.com/)
departments in an attempt to pre-empt NGO campaigns against
certain corporate practices. The logic behind this is that if
corporations work with NGOs, NGOs will not work against
corporations.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-governmental_organisation

Activity 2.5
(about 5 minutes)
In your learning journal answer the following questions:
1 Do you think monitoring and control of NGO should be
encouraged? Provide reasons for your answer.
2 What are your views on each of the four examples in the
above extract?
Discuss your answers with your colleagues.

54 Unit 2: Managing in the not-for-profit sector

 Module 7: Management Skills

Unit summary

In this unit, you have covered the following main points:

z the role of the not-for-profit sector
z the concepts of ‘development’ and ‘voluntarism’
z the roles and organisational characteristics of NGOs
z NGO management trends and processes and attempts to control
and monitor NGOs.

Unit 2
To check how you have got on, look back at the learning outcomes
for this unit and see if you can now do them. When you have done
this, look through your learning journal to remind yourself of what
you have learned and the ideas you have generated.
Management always takes place within a certain context, so we have
focused this unit on NGOs and have addressed the issues facing
organisations in which many of you as youth workers are located.
Now you know what NGOs are, how they function, attempts to
monitor and control them and how their management processes vary
from non-NGOs – so you are aware of the organisational framework
within which management takes place.
The other units of this module will explore some of these issues
further, but will also cover the crucial skills necessary for effective
management in NGOs. In Unit 3 we will introduce you to nine
critical management skills and see how you can apply them in
practice. We will also explore what managerial skills a typical youth
development worker should have.

Unit 2: Managing in the not-for-profit sector 55

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Answers to self-help questions

Self-help question 2.1

1 They were functioning in an environment dominated by the
injustices of apartheid.
2 Because the Government found the political activities of NGOs
threatening and wanted to stop their advocacy activities.
3 The South African NGOs became very politicised and tended to
attack the causes of poverty rather than providing band-aid
assistance for the symptoms of poverty.
4 No – he says that the rise in poverty will continue and there will
be “little real change in the short and intermediate terms in the lives of
the poorest people of our land”.

56 Unit 2: Managing in the not-for-profit sector

 Module 7: Management Skills

References

Brown, L.D. and Korten, D.C. (1989) Understanding voluntary

organisations: guidelines for donors, World Bank, Washington.
Drabek, A. G. (1987) ‘Development Alternatives: The Challenge for
NGOs–An Overview of the Issues’, World Development, Vol. 15,
Supplement, pp. ix-xv. Pergamon Journals Ltd, Great Britain.
Hoffman, J.J., Digman I.A. and Crittenden W.F. (1991) ‘The Strategic
Management Process in Non-profit Organisations with Dynamic

Unit 2
Environments’, Journal of Managerial Issues, Vol. III, No.3, pp. 357–
371.
Todaro, M.P. (1997) Economic Development, 6th ed., Addison Wesley
Longman Ltd., Harlow, UK.

Unit 2: Managing in the not-for-profit sector 57

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Assignment

First, a reminder that your work in this module will be assessed in the
following ways:
1 Completion of the unit assessment tasks that you will carry out
throughout this module (30 per cent). There are four assignments
– at the end of Units 2 (i.e., the one below), 4, 6 and 7. All these
assignments will add up to 30 per cent of the unit assessment.
Your learning institution will indicate when and which of these
tasks should be submitted for marking by your tutor.
2 The learning journal that you will keep for recording your
responses to the different learning activities in each of the units
(20 per cent). Your learning institution will inform you when to
submit the learning journal for assessment.
3 A report of about 1,750 words. You will find full details at the
end of the Module Summary (50 per cent).
Note: make sure you discuss the assessment requirements with your
tutor so that you are clear about what you are expected to do and
when, and any particular requirements in your institution.

Assignment 1
This task counts towards your final assessment on this module. This
task and those at the end of Units 4, 6 and 7 together add up to 30 per
cent of your final mark.
Length: 500 words maximum.
Write answers to the following questions:
1 What distinct roles and organisational characteristics distinguish
NGOs?
2 What particular management processes lend themselves to these
characteristics?
3 In your view, what approaches to management best facilitate
collaboration between stakeholders in a development project?

58 Unit 2: Managing in the not-for-profit sector

Unit 3: Managing
work

Unit introduction ....................................................... 61

Unit learning outcomes .............................................. 61
Nine critical management skills .................................. 62
Effective management ................................................ 74
Unit summary ............................................................ 83
Answers to self-help questions .................................... 84
References.................................................................. 85
 Module 7: Management Skills

Unit introduction

Welcome to Unit 3 Managing work. In Unit 1 you were introduced to

a brief overview of the nature of management. Now you should be in
a position to move on to the skills-oriented aspects of management.
We begin this unit with a discussion of the nine critical management
skills: what they consist of and how to apply them in practice. To be
an effective manager, you also need to be able to manage yourself and
your time, so in this unit we give you some practical guidelines on
time management and self-management. We end the unit by asking
you to identify the key self-management skills that you need to
develop further and then brainstorm strategies for self-development.

Unit 3
Unit learning outcomes

When you have worked through this unit, you should be able to:
z describe and demonstrate commitment to the management tasks
that are important in the delivery of youth development work
z identify and explain the nine critical skills for effective
management
z evaluate your management skills and seek ways of addressing
identified weaknesses.

Unit 3: Managing work 61

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Nine critical management skills

Whether we know it or not, we all manage constantly – even if it is

just our own lives or those of family members. So learning the skills
of management can improve the quality of our private lives as well as
our professional ones.
The following nine skills have been identified as those most critical to
successful management (Whetten and Cameron, 1984, p. 6):
1 developing self-awareness
2 managing personal stress
3 solving problems creatively
4 establishing supportive communication
5 gaining power and influence
6 improving employee performance through enhancing motivation
7 delegating and making decisions
8 managing conflict
9 conducting effective group meetings.
As a manager, your job is to:
z manage your own work
and
z manage other people.
Both of these dimensions of your role are equally important, so in
this unit we will discuss the nine critical skills needed by managers
from both of these perspectives. Let’s begin with the first – the skill of
gaining self-awareness.

Skill 1: Developing self-awareness

Developing self-awareness means knowing yourself – being aware of
your typical responses to people and situations and managing these
skilfully. You need this skill simply because of the manager’s need to
interact continually with other people in challenging situations.
Productive personal and interpersonal functioning, which is the basis
of professional ability in a manager, requires knowledge of the self,
including:
z self-awareness
z self-insight – requires a degree of analysis of what drives you
z self-understanding.
Self-awareness is important because it forms the basis of how you
behave. It also forms the building block for personal adjustment,

62 Unit 3: Managing work

 Module 7: Management Skills

interpersonal relationships and life success. It could be regarded as

the starting point of professional insight.
Maslow’s theory
Maslow, the best-known author in this field, was an expert on child
and adolescent development. You have already met his ideas in earlier
modules, so this is just to remind you of someone whose insights
have influenced management theory and practice considerably. He
developed various theories on how the individual views him/herself
at different stages of life, and how this impacts on his/her behaviour.
Maslow viewed the development of the individual in the context of
needs. He asked the question: what essential needs must be met for an
individual to grow and develop? He devised a hierarchy of needs –
from the most basic upwards. For the purpose of this unit, it’s not
necessary to cover these ideas in detail again (if you want to review
this, refer to Unit 2 of Module 4 Principles and Practice of Youth

Unit 3
Development Work, which discusses both Maslow’s and Max-Neef ’s
contribution to the discussion on self-awareness.). We will simply give
you the following brief overview.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is based on three assumptions:
1 People’s needs influence their behaviour. Needs that have not
been satisfied act as motivators. An example is the need for food.
If this need is not fulfilled, it dominates the individual’s interests,
and energy is directed towards satisfying the unfulfilled need.
2 Needs have a hierarchy of importance from the most basic ones
(food and shelter) to more complex psychological needs (the need
for self-esteem and the need to fulfil creative potential).
3 Only when lower level needs have been satisfied (at least
minimally) are upper level needs activated. In comparison with
basic needs like food and shelter, self-awareness falls within the
higher levels of the hierarchy.
To begin to develop self-awareness it’s important to focus on the
following three areas:
z personal values
z cognitive style
z interpersonal orientation.
Let’s examine these one by one.

Personal values
Every person operates from her/his own context or framework,
which is made up of values. This influences all other attitudes,
orientations and behaviours. Indicators of these are the standards that
you use to evaluate experiences as ‘good’ and ‘bad’, ‘worthwhile’ and
‘worthless’, ‘desirable’ and ‘undesirable’, ‘true’ and ‘false’, ‘moral’
and ‘immoral’.

Unit 3: Managing work 63

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Activity 3.1
(about 15 minutes)
Take a few minutes to reflect on what your personal values
are.
Now think about an incident in your home, community or
workplace that challenged your personal values. For example,
it could be a secret you discovered about someone you
trusted, or behaviour you could not accept in someone you
were close to – or perhaps a new experience that made you
challenge and alter some aspects of your personal values.
Write brief notes in your learning journal on how the incident
affected your personal values and how this has influenced your
attitudes and behaviour.
If possible, use these notes as the basis of a discussion with
family members, peers or colleagues – or you could discuss
them in a tutorial with a group of fellow students.

Cognitive style
Cognitive style refers to the particular way in which each person
processes information. It’s closely linked to individual learning style,
which you studied in Module 1 Learning Processes. It’s important to
realise that two or more people are likely to process the same
information somewhat differently – and sometimes very differently.
Different ways in which people receive and process information may
include, for example:
z audial – primarily by listening. Such people process information
best if they hear it, e.g. lectures, meetings, discussions,
audiotapes.
z visual – primarily by seeing. Such people respond best to visual
inputs, e.g., charts, diagrams, graphs, pictures.
z tactile / kinesthetic – primarily by physical awareness, for
example, touching (we sometimes talk about ‘touchy-feely’
people) or experiencing something first hand.
People also have different preferred patterns of thinking that affect the
way they react to and deal with information. The two main general
categories are:
z analytical thinkers – those who take a rational, logical approach.
They like to analyse and synthesise information in an objective
way. They take a systematic approach and tend to focus on the
detail, not the wider implications. In Module 1, the Structure of
Intellect (SI) theory of intelligence calls this ‘convergent
production of ideas’.

64 Unit 3: Managing work

 Module 7: Management Skills

z imaginative thinkers – often associated with lateral thinking.

These people take a flexible and inventive approach to
information. They can be innovative and radical in their thinking
and tend to relate ideas to their own experiences. Unlike linear,
analytical thinking, the imaginative style of thinking tends to take
a global or holistic view. The SI model of intelligence calls this
‘divergent production of ideas’.
As you can see, cognitive style determines individual thought
processes and perceptions. It determines both what kind of
information you receive and how you interpret, judge and respond to
it. You should keep this in mind because your cognitive style
determines how you manage your own work and the people you are
responsible for. Their cognitive styles in turn will strongly influence
how they respond to the information they get from the work
situation.

Unit 3
It’s important to remember that such categories of cognitive style are
just rough guidelines. All people use a combination of styles at
different times and in different circumstances. If you have time and
opportunity, please refresh your knowledge of this material in
Module 1.

Interpersonal orientation
Interpersonal orientation is the tendency to interact in certain ways
with people. It determines the behaviour patterns that are most likely
to occur in interaction with others. Indicators of these are the extent
to which a person is ‘open’ or ‘closed’, ‘assertive’ or ‘retiring’,
‘controlling’ or ‘dependent’, ‘affectionate’ or ‘aloof ’. This reflects on
managerial behaviour and therefore directly on the way in which you
manage your own work.
The following case study illustrates what we mean by the differences
in personal orientation and how they impact on management.

Case Study 3.1

Differences in personal orientation
Manager A is strict but fair. She likes to know exactly what every
member of her staff is doing and tends to monitor their work closely.
She is quick to correct any faults but also very ready to reward good
work. Her staff know that they must consult her before taking any
unscheduled action. She expects them to work hard, as she does. She
will always take full responsibility for anything that goes wrong –
even if she was not actually involved in the error – and will try to
correct the problem straight away.
Manager B has a different interpersonal orientation. He is a team
player and likes to discuss issues and problems with his staff.
Personally, he prefers to be regarded by his staff as a facilitator and
motivator, and allows the people under him a great deal of freedom

Unit 3: Managing work 65

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

and autonomy. When things go wrong, he calls in the person

responsible and discusses solutions with her or him – then offers
advice on what to do. He monitors the corrective action but does not
interfere.

Activity 3.2
(about 5 minutes)
Look again at the explanation of interpersonal orientation and
take special note of the indicators.
In your learning journal, write down a description of your own
interpersonal orientation. (Are you open or closed, assertive or
retiring, etc.?)
Write a brief explanation of how your interpersonal orientation
might impact on your management style.
Consider the two managers in case study 3.1. Which of them
would you most like to work with? Why? Write your answers in
your learning journal.

Understanding and managing these three areas of self-awareness –

personal values, cognitive style and interpersonal orientation – are the
keys to developing successful management. Finally, it’s important to
keep in mind that these three core aspects interact constantly and
dynamically with one another.
Now let’s go on to the second of the nine critical management skills.

Skill 2: Managing personal stress

To manage stress, you have to understand it.
The interactive environment of your work and the broader social
context will result in personal stress. As we said earlier, people
experience the same things differently. In the dynamic of the work
situation, no other person is likely to understand what you are feeling
and why you feel it, so it’s important that you learn how to take
action to manage your stress yourself.
Personal stress management is related to time management and its
key processes. These are aspects that we will discuss later in this unit,
but it’s important to realise that if you use your time more
productively, you will do your job more effectively. You will be less
stressed as a result of not having heaps of work and no time to do it
in.
It’s also important to identify the major stressors in your daily life. We
are human beings, not robots. We go to work with our own set of
personal problems that impact on the way we manage our work.

66 Unit 3: Managing work

 Module 7: Management Skills

Everyday examples are when one of your children becomes sick, or

there is a death in the family or marital conflict. Even having a small
confrontation in traffic on the way to work can cause great stress.
Unfortunately, there are hundreds of examples like these, and all of
them tend to impact negatively on the way we manage our own work.
We all need a certain amount of stress to get us going, and often
impose this on ourselves by, for example, delaying starting on an
important piece of work until almost the last minute. That can focus
our attention usefully, but it’s a potentially dangerous game to play
unless you have good control over it – so be careful. Here are some
ideas for reducing stress at work:
z Identify and tackle problems as they arise. Deal with them
promptly and don’t allow them to escalate.
z Practise conflict resolution strategies effectively at work.
Discuss problems with trusted colleagues, friends or family

Unit 3
z
members – don’t bottle things up. Having someone you can
telephone, who knows how to listen, is valuable.
z Plan well to allow time to resolve crisis situations.
z Devise relaxation techniques. Practise them regularly at home.
z Recognise your limitations – have realistic expectations of
yourself.
z Nurture interests and activities outside work. These can help keep
work stress in perspective.
Some of these ideas are aimed at avoiding stressful situations and
others are aimed at developing effective coping mechanisms for stress.
Remember that we all come from different environments and work
cultures, so you may find some of these tips more useful than others.

Activity 3.3
(about 5 minutes)
Review the list on how to cope with stress.
Identify the main sources of stress at your work.
What other tips would you add to the list to solve stress
problems at work?
Write the answers in your learning journal.

This activity has given you the opportunity to look at things that
cause stress in your work environment and find ways to avoid it.
Remember that for lasting results you need to constantly review your
solutions to stress problems – and make sure you apply them.

Unit 3: Managing work 67

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Skill 3: Solving problems creatively

The job of a manager involves a lot of problem solving. In fact, if
there were no problems, we would not need managers. Solving
problems creatively is not always easy. In brief, it involves:
z taking time to reflect on the problem
z defining the problem clearly
z generating a number of possible solutions
z evaluating these solutions
z selecting the best one
z implementing the chosen solution
z following up on its success.
If you can do this, you should be able to solve problems occurring in
every aspect of your life.
These problem-solving steps are set out and expanded in the
following table (Whetten and Cameron, 1984, p.145).

Step Characteristics
Define the z Differentiate fact from opinion.
problem z Identify underlying causes.
z Ask all involved individuals for information.
z State the problem clearly.
z Identify what standards have been violated.
z Determine whose problem it is.
z Don’t think about solutions yet.
Generate z Don’t evaluate alternatives yet.
alternative z Be sure all involved individuals generate alternatives.
solutions z Specify alternatives that are consistent with goals.
z Specify both short-term and long-term alternatives.
z Build on previous ideas.
z Identify alternatives that solve the problem.
Evaluate z Evaluate systematically.
and select z Set high standards when you evaluate – expect the best
an solutions.
alternative z Evaluate the alternatives in relation to goals.
z Evaluate the main effects and side-effects.
z State the selected alternative clearly.
Implement z Establish the solution at the proper time and in the right
and follow sequence.
up on the z Provide opportunities for feedback.
solution z Gain the acceptance of others who are affected.
z Establish an ongoing monitoring system.
z Evaluate the implementation – check whether the problem
is solved.

68 Unit 3: Managing work

 Module 7: Management Skills

You will have noticed from the above table that implementation and
follow-up are important steps in the problem-solving process.
Monitoring and evaluation are included in this last part of the process
to ensure that the solution is in fact the right one. If it’s not, you will
need to make adjustments. This suggests a spiral process for problem
solving, where the quality of the solution is constantly reviewed and
improved as new situations arise.

Skill 4: Establishing supportive communication

Establishing supportive communication means that you should
become an active listener, develop empathy and use the appropriate
responses. This has even been developed in UK prisons as a way of
relieving the intense stress that prisoners feel. Fellow prisoners with
insight and education and of an appropriate temperament are trained
to be ‘listeners’. We will not spend time on communication right now,
because it’s discussed in detail in Unit 7 of this module.

Unit 3
Skill 5: Gaining power and influence
This involves three things:
z establishing a strong power base
z converting power into influence
and (most importantly)
z avoiding abuses of power.
Managing your own work is primarily linked to the way in which you
‘rule’. In the first place, you should rule your own work conduct very
firmly, to ensure that you are an example to others. Leading by
example is always a good idea.
Personal qualities can also foster power. Here are some examples:
Expertise – received both from formal training and education and on-
the-job experience – indicates that the manager is skilful and
knowledgeable.
Personal attraction (charismatic power) – the way in which other
people view you – can be another source of power. The two main
qualities here are agreeable behaviour and attractive physical
appearance. We often hear expressions such as ‘dynamic speaker’,
‘magnetic personality’ and ‘the look of a strong leader’.
Effort – should also be part of power. If you commit yourself to
focused effort, you can rely more on the efforts of others.

Unit 3: Managing work 69

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Self-help question 3.1

(about 5 minutes)
Of the five critical management skills covered so far, which are
the most relevant to management in youth work?
Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the
unit.

Skill 6: Improving employee performance through

motivation
Motivating your team is a key management skill because it improves
the members’ performance. It helps if you can distinguish clearly
between problems of ability and of motivation. For example, if a
member of the team is not performing well, you need to know
whether they can do the job and just lack motivation, or whether they
are not capable of doing it.
Techniques for motivating staff include:
z know your staff
z give frequent constructive feedback to them – individually as well
as in meetings
z be honest and clear in the feedback you give
z be even more ready to praise good work than you are to criticise
z tackle problems with staff straight away – don’t let them fester
z support your staff – and offer help to individuals in difficulties
z share information, goals and aspirations with staff – keep them
informed
z make your staff feel they are an important part of the
organisation.
You also need to be self-motivated in order to be able to continue
energetically and enthusiastically with your job. Motivation represents
desire and commitment to achieve goals and is usually shown by the
quality of the effort you put in. If you motivate yourself properly, you
can complete tasks without being distracted and discouraged.

Skill 7: Delegating responsibility and making

decisions
This is an essential part of managing your own work. By delegating
aspects of your managerial role to others in your team, you improve
your own performance by freeing yourself up for tasks that only you

70 Unit 3: Managing work

 Module 7: Management Skills

can do. You also build the competence of others by assigning tasks to
them that develop their skills and experience.
For example, if you are working with a youth group and you are
discussing reading skills, you could assign members of the group the
task of finding a suitable textbook to use. This will enable them to
participate in the decision-making process and make them feel that
they are doing something worthwhile. Meanwhile you have more
time to manage your own work more effectively. If the group selects a
suitable book, you will have fostered the skill of completing this task
in others.
Part of managing your own work is also determining when to involve
others in decision-making. If you don’t do it enough, your staff might
feel neglected and ignored. If you do it too often, the people you
work with might feel that you are not doing your job and you could
be made to feel redundant.

Unit 3
Skill 8: Managing conflict
This topic is discussed in detail in Module 10 Conflict Resolution
Strategies and Skills. We will deal with it only briefly here.
In terms of managing conflict you should balance assertiveness and
sensitivity. Personal criticisms, when they occur, should be handled
and dealt with in a professional and mature manner. Complaints
should be dealt with promptly and effectively. To save a lot of further
problems, you should make sure that all complaints are handled
according to the agreed procedures. Sometimes you need to mediate
conflicts among members of a youth group or among your staff. This
is a vital part of management because neither you nor your
subordinates or clients can work effectively if there is unresolved
conflict. This aspect also impacts on the management of your own
work because conflict resolution takes a lot of time and energy.

Skill 9: Conducting effective group meetings

Conducting effective meetings involves good preparation. This takes
time. Sometimes, you will need to make presentations, which will
again involve proper work management beforehand. You also need to
be in control of both the task and process aspects of meetings.

Evaluating your management skills

Now that you have learned about the nine critical management skills,
here is an activity to help you reflect on them in relation to your own
performance and skill needs.

Unit 3: Managing work 71

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Activity 3.4
(about 15 minutes)
Use the following table to evaluate the nine critical
management skills in relation to your own work performance.
Show which skills you use and don’t use, and which ones you
would like to improve and which don’t need improvement.
Give reasons for your answers.
Draw up the completed table and write your comments in your
learning journal.
If you can, discuss your findings with work colleagues, friends,
peers or fellow students.

No
Improvement
Skill Use Don’t use improvement
needed
needed
1 Developing
self-awareness

2 Managing
personal stress

3 Solving
problems
creatively
4 Establishing
supportive
communicatio
n
5 Gaining power
and influence

6 Improving
employee
performance
7 Delegating and
making
decisions
8 Managing
conflict

9 Conducting
effective
meetings

72 Unit 3: Managing work

 Module 7: Management Skills

This activity has given you the opportunity to apply the skills
practically by relating them to your own job. You should find the time
to work on the skills that you feel need improvement. Remember that
improvement means following the steps that we discussed in creative
problem solving above.
All of the nine critical management skills can be classified into one of
three categories (Mondy and Premeaux, 1995, pp.14–15):
z conceptual skills – abstract or general ideas that need to be
properly understood and then applied in specific situations
z technical skills – appropriate techniques that require specific
trained knowledge and methods for performing particular tasks
z human skills – the ability to understand, motivate and work with
other people.

Unit 3
Self-help question 3.2
(about 5 minutes)
Use the table below to classify the nine management skills
according to the three groups (some of them will fall into more
than one category).
Technical skills Conceptual skills Human skills

Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the

unit.

As you saw from this classification activity, some of the skills fall into
more than one category. For example, although conducting effective
group meetings can be said to fall mainly within the human skills
category, the procedures for conducting meetings are technical. You
need to know, for instance, how to open meetings, how to ensure that
everyone is given a fair hearing and how and when to conclude the
proceedings. Documents that are presented at meetings also require
good conceptual skills. So it’s not always possible in real life to put
things in neat compartments.
Notice how many management skills are ‘people (human) skills’. This
aspect of management is often overlooked and its importance under-

Unit 3: Managing work 73

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

estimated. You would do well to reflect on these skills throughout

your study and consider how you can improve them to enhance your
work as a youth practitioner. Later on in this module, we will also
examine the specific communication skills you need for effective
management.
Now that you understand what the nine critical management skills
are, and have reflected on them and applied them to your own
experience, you are ready to look at the more specific and practical
skills involved in management. In the section that follows we explore
the twin issues of time management and self-management, and offer
you practical guidelines to help you manage more effectively.

Effective management

As an effective manager you should be able to manage both your time

and yourself. The sections that follow provide some principles and
guidelines. We trust that you will use them to improve the quality of
your own work and that of your staff.

Time management
“Dost thou love life? Then do not squander time, for that’s the
stuff life is made of ”
Benjamin Franklin

Time is the most important resource you have. In order to achieve

your goals you need to plan activities and use your time effectively.
On a daily basis you should try to eliminate the most common time-
wasting activities and spend adequate time – but not too much – on
the key areas of your job.
Time management involves rules and systems.
Hannaway and Hunt (1992, p. 9) identity the following six rules for
effective time management.
1 Use – and stick to – a time management system. (We will discuss
time management systems shortly.)
2 Distinguish between effectiveness – doing the right thing – and
efficiency – doing things the right way. You should be both
effective and efficient.
3 Distinguish between urgent and important tasks. An urgent task
is not necessarily important, but it should be done to get it out of
the way so that you can give the important tasks the attention
they deserve.
4 Spend half your time on tasks that you have planned for
(proactive tasks). This will ensure that you spend less time

74 Unit 3: Managing work

 Module 7: Management Skills

reacting to situations. You should not be too busy to plan and

prioritise – if you are, you have fallen into the ‘activity trap’.
5 Develop plans for getting rid of time-wasters.
6 Review progress regularly.

Time management systems

The first rule of effective time management mentioned above is to
develop a system for managing your time. There are many ways to do
this. Ideally a time management system should involve a combination
of annual, twice-yearly, monthly, weekly and daily planning activities.
The following table summarises the kinds of activities that could be
included in various types of time management systems (adapted from
Hannaway and Hunt, 1992, pp. 10–13).

Activities

Unit 3
z Agree performance requirements with your boss
z Complete a project activities calendar
Annually

z Complete a job analysis exercise at least once a year

z Agree job requirements with your subordinates
z Schedule dates when progress against job requirements can
be reviewed

z Review progress with boss and subordinates

Twice-
yearly

z Revise key result areas and goals as necessary

z Update project activities calendar

z Decide on key result areas for the month

Monthly

z Set goals for that month

z Schedule activities to achieve goals

z Carry forward items not completed during the previous week

z Review tasks list to prioritise activities
Weekly

z Schedule activities, placing the ones for that week early in

the week
z Leave enough time unscheduled

z Check diary for appointments

z Prepare a To Do list
z Prioritise tasks in order to ensure immediate attention to
Daily

the most important ones

z Schedule a small amount of time to attend to urgent, but
less important, tasks
z Schedule informal activities like ‘walkabout’ management

Unit 3: Managing work 75

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Activity 3.5
(about 45 minutes)
In this activity, we ask you to develop a simple time
management system for your own work.
Think about your commitments in the next month, including
appointments, tasks to be completed, etc. Make a list of them.
Don’t forget to include your study of this module.
1 Now, drawing on the suggestions in the table above,
develop a time management system, including a monthly, a
weekly and a daily plan of activities.
2 Make use of your time management system in the month to
come and monitor its effectiveness. If you can, discuss it
with your co-workers, fellow students or peers. Make a
diary date to review it in a month’s time.

Remember that there is no instant recipe for a time management

system – you should develop one according to your own needs.
Here are some practical guidelines to help in planning your time:

Time planning guidelines

z Keep a task list within your time management system. When a
new task comes up, write it and the proposed finish date down on
the time management sheet.
z Routine is a way of making life easier. A task like opening the
mail could be handled first thing in the morning – this could be
part of your daily routine.
z Develop routines for your daily and weekly planning. For
example, you could do the next day’s planning in the last fifteen
minutes before you go home, or the next week’s planning last
thing on a Friday.
z Include unscheduled time as part of time management. This will
allow time to cope with emergencies, attend to colleagues – and
also give you some opportunity to think.
Adapted from Hannaway and Hunt (1992, p. 10).

Everyone wastes time to some extent. Your aim should be to

minimise time-wasting – both for yourself and your staff. Here is a list
of common time-wasters and suggestions on how to solve some time-
wasting problems.

76 Unit 3: Managing work

 Module 7: Management Skills

Time-wasters Possible solutions

Not devoting the greatest amount of Use an effective time management
your time to your key result areas. system to eliminate this problem.
You can waste a lot of time on
activities that are not productive or
efficient.
Telephone calls during your most Tell the secretary (if you have one)
productive time. These break your when you do not want to take calls,
concentration and train of thought. and delegate routine enquiries. Or
use your answering machine.
The uninvited visitor Be polite, respond to questions that
require a short answer, but do not
offer a seat or sit down yourself.
Suggest a more suitable time for a
meeting.

Unit 3
Disorganised paperwork Handle each piece of paper only
once and file regularly.
Over-commitment Do not take on too many tasks. Learn
to say ‘No’.
Travel and waiting time Use the time for reading and
catching up with paperwork.
Meetings Attend only essential meetings, be
well-prepared for them, conduct
them in a business-like way and end
them politely.
Poor communication Make sure you know the When,
Where, What and How of the task.
Bad timekeeping Late starts, early finishes and
prolonged breaks should be strictly
controlled.
Lack of energy You should determine the time of
day or week when your energy levels
(and those of staff) are high, and
schedule demanding tasks for this
time.
Poor health and lack of fitness Do physically and mentally
stimulating exercises to keep in
shape. Include sufficient time for
family, friends and other interests.
Adapted from Hannaway and Hunt (1992, pp. 16–17).

Finally, here are some further imaginative suggestions for managing

time better. They are from Whetten and Cameron (1984, p. 107). You
might like to give them a try.

Unit 3: Managing work 77

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Time management tips

z Hold routine meetings at the end of the day.
z Hold all short meetings standing up.
z Set a time limit at the outset of each meeting.
z Cancel meetings once in a while.
z Have a written agenda for every meeting.
z Stick to the agenda.
z Assign someone to take minutes and watch the time in every
meeting.
z Start all meetings on time.
z Prepare minutes promptly, and follow up promptly.
z Insist that subordinates suggest solutions for every problem they
raise.
z Meet visitors to your office outside or in the doorway.
z Go to the subordinate’s office when possible.
z Come early rather than staying late.
z If you have a secretary, have him or her answer all calls.
z Have one place where, if necessary, you can work uninterrupted.
z Do something permanent with every piece of paper you handle.
z Make a worry list.
As you can see, there are many practical ways for managing your
time more effectively. Don’t forget to try them out in your work and
study. The next section looks at a related issue – self-management –
and takes you through the whole self-management process.

Managing yourself
In order to manage other people, you must first be able to manage
yourself. This is why self-management is so important. This aspect of
management involves self-development and undertaking activities to
improve your skills as a manager.
The complete process of self-management involves the following key
areas:
1 self-development
2 managing your time
3 managing information
4 effective writing
5 effective reading

78 Unit 3: Managing work

 Module 7: Management Skills

6 effective public speaking

7 managing your health and coping with stress
8 career planning.
Let’s examine these one by one.

1 Self-development
Self-development is concerned with you, the manager, as a person. It
includes (Stewart, 1992, p. 5):
z your growth as a person
z your development for future promotion or transfer
z improving your current performance or increasing your
contribution as a manager

Unit 3
z helping you make the transition from specialist to managerial role
z developing your skills in specific areas.

2 Managing your time

Managing your time is an essential component of self-management.
We have already discussed this in detail.

3 Managing information
Managing the information that crosses your desk and goes out of
your office is another component of self-management. Your office
should be managed as a well organised ‘factory’, the input into which
is information, which is processed, absorbed and ‘manufactured’ into
a ‘product’ that is output to several ‘markets’. These ‘markets’ are
both within and outside the organisation you work for.

4 Effective writing
Good writing skills are an essential part of managing your own work.
We will cover these in detail in Unit 7, in the section on
communication skills.

5 Effective reading
As a manager, you spend a lot of time reading documents. It is
important that you use this time effectively. Below are some tips for
reading effectively – useful for studying on this diploma too
(Hannaway and Hunt, 1992, pp. 21–22):
z Distinguish between two objectives: reading for total
understanding and reading merely to obtain an overall impression
of what you read. Learn to judge when each is appropriate.
z Decide on the time you need and want to spend reading. Learn
how to stop when that time is up in order to put a boundary on
your reading. Learn how to be in control of the reading process.

Unit 3: Managing work 79

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

z Review what you already know about a topic before starting to

read on that topic.
z Read with a purpose by asking yourself: ‘Why am I reading this
material?’
z Skim through the contents list, the index, headings, illustrations,
italics, underlines, lists and the opening of paragraphs in order to
get an overall picture of what’s in the reading material, and learn
where you can locate particular information fast.
z Read summaries if available and, when reading articles, read the
beginning and the end first.
z Read critically.
z Make notes in the margin (or use the ‘mind map’ or visual
diagram method of taking notes).
z Read sitting straight up, in good light, and relax your eyes
occasionally.

6 Effective public speaking

Speaking to groups is one of your key tasks as a manager. To be able
to communicate clearly and confidently is an important management
skill. Hannaway and Hunt (1992, p. 218) have the following
suggestions:
z To ease tension before you begin, breathe slowly and deeply.
z Don’t be in a hurry to begin – this indicates nervousness.
z Stand upright and relaxed, with your body weight balanced on
both feet.
z Maintain full eye contact with the audience while delivering the
introduction and conclusion.
z Let your hands naturally express themselves.
z Avoid a monotonous delivery. Pause occasionally, stress key
words and vary your rate of speaking and tone of voice.
z Don’t bury your head in your notes: maintain maximum eye
contact with the audience.
z Look at individual members of the audience.
It’s important in public speaking of any kind that you address the
audience as if you are in a kind of conversation with them, otherwise
you may not get through to them. Use notes if you need to but make
them brief – headings rather than sentences. Have just a few key ideas
in your speech and have them very clear in your mind, as ideas rather
than as strings of words, and concentrate on getting those ideas
across. Be relaxed if you can. A very famous public speaker said that
he always made just two points, and used three jokes to sandwich and
slice the points.

80 Unit 3: Managing work

 Module 7: Management Skills

7 Managing your health and coping with stress

In order to ensure that you stay healthy and cope with stress, you
should develop an action plan suited to your personality. Hannaway
and Hunt (1992, pp. 27–28) have the following suggestions:
z take work breaks every two hours
z practise relaxation techniques daily
z undergo a full medical check-up annually
z get enough sleep
z watch your diet
z exercise regularly
z discuss priorities for your life with your partner or family
z develop out-of-work hobbies

Unit 3
z pace yourself and manage time effectively in order to avoid
pressure
z seek job feedback from your boss, and have a formal review
annually.
A great deal of stress occurs because we tend to identify our self-
esteem with our social roles. This is dangerous for those of us in a
managerial position because the manager is always open to criticism
as her/his work is transparent and vulnerable. You have to be able to
see your social role as something like an actor’s costume that you can
put on and take off but that can always be improved. Like an actor in
rehearsal, you should seek criticism from other actors or directors in
order to make the role more effective. That way you will never feel
damaged by criticism.

8 Career planning
The following tips may assist you in managing your career and
helping others (Hannaway and Hunt 1992, pp. 33–34):
z Know what you want to achieve and choose what you are
prepared to sacrifice to achieve it.
z If you have a spouse or partner, plan together.
z Find a good mentor who will guide you through your choices.
z Be an outstanding performer at every stage of your career.
z Only leave a job if this forms part of your career path, not
because of dissatisfaction.
z Develop a relationship with your own manager that allows you to
discuss career options together. Ensure that your manager does
not see this as criticism of her/him but rather as a compliment.

Unit 3: Managing work 81

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

z Avoid dead-end positions that may have only immediate benefits;

leave a job in good order and with your human relationships
intact.
z Let your superiors know of your interests in job positions – use
self-nomination to accomplish this.
z Prepare in advance for your next career move. For example,
undertake a relevant course, such as learning a new language.
z Make sure that others know anything successful you have done,
but without boasting.
z Keep an up-to-date, high quality curriculum vitae with full
qualifications, experience and achievements, but always adapt it
to the specific requirements of any new job.
z Continually develop and expand the scope of your job at each
level.
z Don’t stay in one job too long.
z Avoid being promoted to a level for which you are not competent
(the Peter Principle).

Activity 3.6
(about 15 minutes)
Read over the key areas to be developed in the process of self-
management. In which areas do you feel you need to develop
further?
Which area needs the most attention?
Brainstorm ideas and strategies for self-development in the
area you identified as the most important for you, and write
them down in your learning journal.

82 Unit 3: Managing work

 Module 7: Management Skills

Unit summary

In this unit, you have covered the following ideas:

z the nine critical management skills and how to apply them,
including
o the management skill of self-awareness
o means of reducing work stress
o the steps involved in the process of creative problem solving
o how to evaluate your own job within the framework of the
nine critical management skills
o to what extent you use the nine management skills and which
ones need improvement

Unit 3
z classifying these skills into three categories
z the issue of time management
z the key areas of development involved in self-management.
You have had time to evaluate your management skills and
brainstorm strategies for addressing identified weaknesses. You
should discuss these strategies with colleagues and your tutor. We
trust that these theoretical aspects of management skills will guide
your practice and help to improve the quality of your youth
development work.
To check how you have got on, look back at the learning outcomes
for this unit and see if you can now do them. When you have done
this, look through your learning journal to remind yourself of what
you have learned and the ideas you have generated.
In the next unit we will put these management skills and issues of
time management and self-management in context as we discuss the
roles and tasks of youth development workers. This will orientate you
towards managing your own job within the broad field of
management.

Unit 3: Managing work 83

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Answers to self-help questions

Self-help question 3.1

All of the five critical management skills covered so far – developing
self-awareness, managing personal stress, solving problems creatively,
establishing supportive communication and gaining power and
influence – are equally important to management in youth work.

Self-help question 3.2

Technical skills Conceptual skills Human skills
z Solving problems z Solving problems z Developing self-
creatively creatively awareness
z Delegating and z Delegating and z Managing personal
decision-making decision-making stress
z Conducting effective z Conducting effective z Establishing
group meetings group meetings supportive
z Establishing z Establishing communication
supportive supportive z Gaining power and
communication communication influence
z Improving employee
performance
through motivation
z Delegating and
decision-making
z Managing conflict
z Conducting effective
group meetings

84 Unit 3: Managing work

 Module 7: Management Skills

References

Hannaway, C. and Hunt, G. (1992) The Management Skills Book,

Billing and Sons Limited, Worcester.
Mondy, R.W. and Premeaux, S.R. (1995) Management Concepts,
Practices and Skills, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Stewart, D.M. (ed.) (1992) Handbook of Management Skills, Billing and
Sons Limited, Worcester.
Whetten, D.A. and Cameron, K.S. (1984) Developing Management
Skills, Scott, Foresman and Company, Glenview, IL.

Unit 3

Unit 3: Managing work 85

Unit 4: Managing
youth development
work

Unit introduction ....................................................... 89

Unit learning outcomes .............................................. 89
Tasks and roles ........................................................... 90
Project management ................................................... 94
Critical path analysis .................................................. 96
Budgeting and monitoring expenditure ......................100
Unit summary ...........................................................103
Answers to self-help questions ...................................104
References.................................................................105
Assignment ...............................................................106
 Module 7: Management Skills

Unit introduction

Welcome to Unit 4 Managing youth development work.

In this unit we will explore the typical tasks and roles of managing
youth development work, provide some guidelines on how to carry
out these roles, and give you a chance to apply management skills
through a practical case study. Project management takes up a
considerable portion of youth development work. We therefore use
the second half of the unit to describe what project management is,
explain what proper project management systems look like, discuss
the meaning and use of critical path analysis, and set out the stages
involved in preparing a budget. We also give you guidelines on
reducing budgeting problems and monitoring expenditure.
At the end of this unit, you will find your second written assignment.

Unit learning outcomes

Unit 4
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
z improve your personal development and contribute effectively to
your job and organisation
z explain key areas for management, such as monitoring of
expenditure, budgetary control, project management and critical
path analysis
z manage a discrete project from inception to completion within an
agreed time-scale
z work within the principles of financial accountability, including
budgeting and financial management.

Unit 4: Managing youth development work 89

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Tasks and roles

Before you begin to work through this section, complete the following
activity. It will help you focus on your own management tasks and
roles.

Activity 4.1
(about 5 minutes)
In your learning journal make a list of the management
activities you do in your daily job.
Keep the list handy, because we will use it again at the end of
this section.

Here are some of the most important management tasks of youth

development workers. You:
z mobilise scarce human, physical and financial resources
z co-ordinate activities
z take part in various operations
z seek to generate change.
These activities all have a management component to them. You also
have to make sure that you:
z constantly reassess your purpose and direction
z review available resources
z monitor your efficiency and effectiveness.
A youth development worker has many roles. In many organisations
there is only one youth development worker. Sometimes youth
workers are volunteers or part-time staff. In all these cases, the youth
development worker plays the role of both management and support
staff – that is, s/he is both the manager and implementer of
programmes.
Youth development workers include (Cattermole et al, 1987):
z those who work directly with young people
z those who work in communities
z those who work with other staff
z those involved in administration and finance
z those who are concerned with policy implementation and
resources.

90 Unit 4: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

In small organisations all the work related to these sub-sections falls

squarely on the shoulders of one person.
The critical management skills that we discussed in Unit 3 are
essential for carrying out all the tasks and roles of youth development
workers. The guidelines that follow are additional practical
suggestions for improving the quality of your managerial youth
development work.

Guidelines
This section (adapted from Cattermole et al, 1987) provides some
useful guidelines on how to perform your management role as a
youth development worker. They should be useful to you whether you
work in a small or big organisation.
z Clearly define the tasks that you have to do. You should devise
your activities and goals by using objective criteria, not merely a
feeling of what should be done.
z You must carefully identity the parameters of your own agency –
that is, its area of operations. You should know which activities
should be done by the agency you operate in and which are best

Unit 4
done by other agencies. You need to be honest about this. It is
also necessary for staying on track with the activities and goals at
hand. In some organisations the parameters are already clearly
defined. In others – especially new organisations – it’s important
to do this so that duplication of activities is avoided.
Once the tasks appropriate to the organisation have been identified,
they should be examined against the background of:
z the agency’s overall strategy
z its aims and purpose
z resource constraints
z potential threats to efficiency and effectiveness.
This will help you prioritise and organise these tasks.
Once you are clear about priorities, you have the task of convincing
your colleagues (on the same, higher and lower levels) of the overall
strategy and its component activities. Clarity of priorities will
enhance your critical management skill of gaining power and
influence among your colleagues.
The next step is to quantify the resources needed for your
programme. Resources are scarce. One of your most important tasks
as a manager in development work is to use resources to achieve the
best possible results with the lowest cost and human resource input.
Budgeting and expenditure monitoring will be discussed later in this
unit.
You need to be satisfied that the project is progressing well, and this
goes hand in hand with appropriate training, support and supervision

Unit 4: Managing youth development work 91

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

of staff. You will have noticed from Unit 3 that the skill of solving
problems creatively includes the steps of evaluation and
implementation of solutions collectively with staff, and that these also
provide opportunities for feedback and gaining acceptance of the
project and its activities by all stakeholders.
As the manager, you are also responsible for monitoring and
evaluating the programme. You should make sure that policy makers
and staff are aware of the importance of project evaluation. It’s also
your job to ensure that the evaluation is carried out effectively and the
results implemented in order to improve the quality of the
programme. This will enable you to make informed decisions on the
future of the project, because the evaluation helps to answer the
following questions about the programme:
z Should it be maintained without change?
z Should it be maintained with adjustments?
z Should it be transferred to another agency?
z Should it be terminated?
Note that the conclusions of the evaluation may not be accepted by
everyone, but it is your role as the manager to negotiate the
implementation of the results of the evaluation and to constantly
review and improve the situation as emphasised in the spiral problem-
solving model we discussed earlier.
These tasks are not easy. This is one of the reasons why effective
communication skills and time management and critical path analysis
(which is discussed later in this unit) are so important. In thinking
about and discussing these issues, you should always keep in mind
that the question of skills is just one of several major issues in youth
development work. According to Smith (1988, p. 78) the issues of
‘identity’ and ‘orientation’ need to receive attention as well. This boils
down to the extent to which you, as a youth development worker,
identify yourself as a manager and orientate yourself in that
direction. Usually the face-to-face workers know that they have a
responsibility to manage their own interventions with youth so some
of the questions they will ask will be about ‘purpose’ and ‘process’.
The person managing the administration is also a youth development
worker, but someone with those responsibilities will be more
interested in ‘procedures’ than ‘process’. For this reason, depending
on your precise location, some of the units of this module will be
more interesting and relevant to you than others. However, since you
may change managerial roles, all units need to be available to you.
The following case study and the activity based on it give you the
opportunity to apply the theory of management skills in a practical
example.

92 Unit 4: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

Case Study 4.1

Applying management theory
Monica Modiga was excited and also a bit frightened. She worked at
the NGO Youth is Our Future and had just become the supervisor of
the youth development workers. Monica had ten years experience in
youth facilitation, five of them at another NGO. She had no
experience as a supervisor, but she had recently completed a
supervision course at the Open University and was eager to use the
skills she had learned.
Monica came to work early that morning. Sitting alone in the
tearoom, she thought about her new job. Many special cases often
arise that require the supervisor’s attention. For example, facilitators
change projects and these records must be updated. She was worried
that the facilitators might change details on project files and the
auditors might ask questions as a result.
When she was a facilitator, she kept the information on her own
projects up to date, but now she would be responsible for what others
did.

Unit 4
Monica also knew that she had been promoted over Roshan Reddy,
who had worked in the NGO office for ten years. Roshan was
disappointed, Monica knew, because he felt he deserved the
promotion. She also knew it would be hard for her to gain the
acceptance of the other workers. Before, she had been just one of the
gang, but now she was the boss. It was a thrilling feeling, but a little
scary.
As Monica was finishing her tea, Roshan came in. ‘Mind if I sit
down?’ he asked. ‘Of course not. Nice to see you, Roshan,’ said
Monica.
Roshan placed his tea on the table. Smiling, he said: ‘Monica, I want
to congratulate you on the promotion. You sure deserve it. If you
hadn’t been here, I think I would have got the job. But management
apparently felt you would make a better supervisor. I certainly can’t
question your knowledge of the job, and you seem to have a lot of
patience. Anyway, what’s done is done, and I’m going to try to do the
best job I can.’
‘Thank you, Roshan,’ Monica said. ‘I was worried about how you
would feel. I should have known we could work together.’

Unit 4: Managing youth development work 93

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Activity 4.2
(about 10 minutes)
Answer the following questions in your learning journal.
1 If you were Monica, how do you think the anxiety about
Roshan would impact on your ability to manage your own
work? Explain. What steps could Monica take to control this
stress?
2 Do you think the anxiety she was experiencing is typical of
many who enter management? Explain.
3 What management skills is Monica likely to have already?
What new skills is she going to need in her supervisory
position? Explain.
4 Discuss how Monica could utilise Roshan’s commitment to
working effectively with her – e.g. in terms of allowing
herself space for better management of her own work and
the work of her staff.
Discuss your answers with work colleagues, fellow students,
friends or peers.
Save your answers to these questions to use in the assessment
task that follows at the end of this unit.

Project management

Managing projects can take up a significant proportion of your time,

so the skills involved are very important. In Module 8 Project Planning,
Monitoring and Evaluation you will study project planning in detail, so
we’ll discuss this area of management only briefly here.
Firstly, let’s briefly define project management. “Project management
has evolved in order to plan, coordinate and control the complex and diverse
activities of modern industrial and commercial projects” (Lock, 1996, p. 3).
You can view project management as creating the recipe (the project
plan) for the project of baking a cake (e.g. building a youth hall).
Development projects mainly involve local people taking the
responsibility for their own improvement: these projects also need to
be managed.
Project management has two purposes:
1 to see in advance (predict) as many potential problems or dangers
as possible

94 Unit 4: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

2 to ‘plan’, then to ‘organise’ and ‘control’ activities in such a way

as to complete a project as successfully as possible despite all the
problems, dangers and risks.

Project management in developing countries

Blackburn and Holland (1998, pp. 129–130) contend that project
management in developing countries requires careful consideration of
the issues specific to the particular development situation. This
concern is shared by many development agencies. For example,
according to the UK Department for International Development
(DFID) (2004), Zambia has become one of the poorest and most
unequal countries in the world due in part to public sector
management problems. These problems have resulted in
inappropriate spending decisions, and this has hindered progress on
the reforms needed to improve the environment or context for
economic growth.
One of the overarching public sector management issues is: Whose
project is it? Who ‘owns’ it? Donors and/or development agents
usually want full control of projects, but this doesn’t allow the
supposed beneficiaries (the local people who benefit from the project)

Unit 4
to grow in understanding, skills and ownership. ‘Targets’ and
‘accountability’ are usually determined by donors and development
managers. But in fact, “development is an ongoing process with uncertain
outcomes…, which has to be owned and controlled locally” (Blackburn and
Holland, 1998, p. 130).
So, although the management process should assist in setting the
project up, resourcing it and monitoring its progress and effects,
nevertheless the fluid nature of evolving, community-led situations
like development projects means you can’t control them fully. Nor
should you try. These are key issues and raise important questions
about project outcomes and long-term effects, which we’ll explore in
depth in Module 8.

Project management systems

Proper project management systems should (Stewart, 1992, p. 447):
z ensure that the organisation of the project reacts to
environmental / contextual pressures and changes in a rational
manner
z accurately estimate the resources required to complete the project
successfully and ensure that no resource needs are hidden or
forgotten
z make a cost-benefit analysis in advance of the project; in other
words fully assess the likely total expenditure of resources (the
costs) in terms of the proposed economic and organisational
benefits to be brought about by the project

Unit 4: Managing youth development work 95

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

z develop a coordinated plan to implement the project: ensure the

time scale allows for the availability of resources and the likely
organisational needs
z develop the organisation’s current systems and resources to be
able to cope with the changes that the project will bring.

Self-help question 4.1

(about 2 minutes)
Answer the following questions:
1 What are the two purposes of project management?

2 Why are you advised not to try and fully control

community-led development projects located in developing
countries?

Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the

unit.

Critical path analysis

Project management systems require tools to help you plan and

monitor the desired outcomes. One tool commonly used is critical
path analysis. This is a systematic, diagrammatic way of setting out
all the tasks and activities that must be done in a project.
The main aim of critical path analysis is to show what route (‘critical
path’) the project should follow in order to achieve success and what
the possibility is of taking alternative routes where necessary. The
diagram shows all the tasks in their logical sequence and the
interdependence among different tasks. It includes various activities
and resources. Tasks can be ranked according to their level of
importance and the critical tasks can be attended to first. Critical path
analysis is not the same as resource scheduling, but it can help you
plan what resources you need, and when.
There are a number of different ways of indicating the activities and
tasks on the diagram and each method has its own terms and jargon.
We will not go into the details of each method of notation here, but

96 Unit 4: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

we will give you some of the more frequently-used terms so you can
follow them up if they become relevant to you in your project
management work.

Using the arrow diagram method (ADM)

Arrow diagrams give a visual representation of the direction of work
related to the tasks in a project so that you can see them at a glance.
The diagrams are set out in a specific way. Here are the details
(adapted from Lock, 1996, pp. 143–150).
The diagrams are not drawn to scale, but they are carefully
constructed to show accurately the logical relationship and
interdependence of each activity. This is the reason why they are
sometimes called logic diagrams.
An arrow represents each of the activities in a project, which are
named under each one. The tail is the start and the point is the end of
the activity.
By connecting the arrows in order of the activities to be done, a
network is formed. Circles are inserted in the diagram to indicate the
start or finish of the activities. Time taken for each activity is

Unit 4
indicated on the arrow.
Here is an arrow diagram showing a simple project: planting a tree.
0 20 21 26

20 1 5
1 Dig hole
2 Position tree
3 Fill in hole
4

The numbers written above the arrows in the diagram (or network)
show the estimated duration of the task – in this case in minutes. Of
course, for larger projects, these numbers would represent days or
weeks because those projects are more difficult and complex. The
numbers (reflecting the minutes) placed above the event circles are
calculated by adding all the estimated minutes from left to right.
For example, it takes 20 minutes to dig the hole, 1 minute to position
the tree and 5 minutes to fill in the hole – so the total time estimated
to plant the tree is 26 minutes. You’ll see this figure on top of the last
activity circle. It represents the shortest total time the activities are
likely to take (the estimated minimum duration of the project).
Here it is in table form:

Activity Description Estimated duration

1–2 Dig hole 20 minutes
2–3 Position tree 1 minute
3–4 Fill in hole 5 minutes

The tree planting project is the simplest example we could find to

help you grasp the concepts in the diagram. But if you are planning a

Unit 4: Managing youth development work 97

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

much more complex project than tree planting, your critical path
analysis will also be much more complex. You will need a diagram
like the following:
C
E
B D I
A
F

G H

A diagram of this kind can be used to plan any project. For example:
z a more complex tree planting operation involving composting
and monitoring
z a computer project
z or even just cooking a meal where some tasks must be completed
before others.

Practical hints
Here are some practical tips to guide you in developing a critical path
analysis (adapted from Hannaway and Hunt, 1992, pp. 66–67).
z Draw up a table listing all the activities with their earliest start
dates and their expected duration.
z Show the type of activities – whether they can be done in parallel
(i.e., at the same time) or if they must be sequential (i.e., done
one after another).
z Show the activity that each other activity depends on (for
example, if activity 3 must happen before activity 4).
z Use the following headings for your table of activities:
Activity Possible start Time taken Type (parallel Dependent on
(days or or sequential)
hours)

z Mark the hours / days / weeks through to the completion of the

project.
z The critical path is the series of activities that require the longest
time for completion.
z These are the activities that must be completed on schedule for
the project to finish on time.

98 Unit 4: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

z Schedule parallel activities in a way that gives the critical path

activities more scope.
z Identify who has lead responsibility for each activity
z Allow time for unforeseen hold-ups.
z Circulate the critical path analysis documents to everyone
involved so that they understand the importance of completing
activities on time.
z Monitor progress against the schedule in order to control the
process. If critical activities are neglected, take immediate action
to speed up another activity on the critical path, otherwise the
plan will not be implemented on time.

Activity 4.3
(about 20 minutes)
Identify a small project that you are chiefly responsible for. It
can be a new project, a current one or a project you have
recently completed. For the purposes of this activity, choose a

Unit 4
project that is not too complicated.
In your learning journal, draw up the table of activities / tasks
involved using the suggested headings: Activity, Possible start,
Time taken, Type, Dependent on.
Using an arrow diagram and the techniques of critical path
analysis, draw in your learning journal a logic diagram showing
the key activities or tasks and their sequence and
interrelationships. Estimate the expected duration of each task
and put it on the diagram.
Save your notes from this activity – you may want to use them
again for the assessment task at the end of this unit.

It is important that you understand critical path analysis. In this unit

we have only provided a simple introduction, but if you are planning
a complex project you may need more guidance. There are a number
of useful websites (for example, see
http://www.mindtools.com/critpath.html for a detailed example of
planning a custom-written computer project) or ask your tutor for
advice.

Unit 4: Managing youth development work 99

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Budgeting and monitoring expenditure

As the discussions on project management and critical path analysis

indicate, planning properly is vital to the success of a project. A key
part of this process is managing the money to be spent – that is,
budgeting.
Budgets are aimed at showing the cost implications of plans. They set
out what types and amounts of resources are needed. Budgets also
provide a yardstick to allow you to monitor, control and evaluate the
results against what you originally set out to achieve in your plan.
You can see what you planned to spend in terms of time, money and
human resources and compare it with what you actually spent.
All not-for-profit organisations are functioning on tight budgets and
all aim at improving standards at the lowest cost, so it’s important
that you budget wisely.
A budget is defined by Anderson and Nix (1994, pp. 119–122) as:
z a formal plan of business objectives
z a systematic yardstick for measuring performance
z a quantitative statement, usually expressed in financial terms
z an organisation’s structure represented as a map, with financial
budgets for each sub-unit and also for the organisation as a
whole.
Why budget? You need to budget and monitor expenditure for
projects for the following reasons:
z planning – the organisation is forced to budget in order to plan
ahead
z control – the organisation’s performance is measured against the
objectives you set out to achieve
z coordination – ensuring that the parts of the organisation work
together to maximise productivity and efficiency
z communication – budgeting ensures that managers and staff
communicate in order to air their needs and decide where money
should be spent
z motivation – it gives you financial targets to aim at
z performance evaluation – performance can easily be seen if you
compare a department’s or organisation’s results against its
budget.

Elements in a budget
In preparing a budget for an organisation or a project, you must
calculate the income you expect to require over a period of time,
against the expenditure you anticipate.

100 Unit 4: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

Income: Expenditure:
Sources of income might be: Items of expenditure might include:
z government grants z salaries
z donations z purchase of materials for
z interest on bank accounts managing the project
z surplus money brought forward z purchase of consumables – e.g.
from previous work. paper, pens
z equipment costs – e.g. tools,
office equipment, furniture
z maintenance
z all running costs – including
rates, rent, water, power, travel
costs
z interest on loans
z deficits brought forward.

Sample budget
Here is a sample form for a projected budget suitable for very small-
scale projects or organisations.

Unit 4
Projected Budget
Income
Items: $

Total income: $
Expenditure
Items: $

Total expenditure: $
Balance: $
Note that for a projected budget, the balance should be in surplus or
at least break even.

Unit 4: Managing youth development work 101

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Activity 4.4
(about 15 minutes)
Use the blank form above to prepare a proposed budget for
either a project or a small organisation (you can use your own
if it’s appropriate and not too large).
Refer to the list of elements in a budget to help you calculate
the income and anticipated expenditure.
Write up your proposed budget in your learning journal.
If possible you should discuss your budget with your tutor so
that s/he can guide on all the items to include.

Reducing budgeting problems and monitoring

expenditure
How do you reduce problems in budgeting? You need to prepare the
budget carefully and then monitor the expenditure closely. Here are
some guidelines (Armstrong, 1990, p. 31):
z Budget guidelines should set out policies on direction (where you
want to go) as well as actions (how you want to get there).
z Seek expert advice to encourage personnel to prepare and
understand budgets. In the end the organisation will benefit from
it because personnel will understand where the money goes.
z Personnel should be forced to think long and hard about where
they want money to be spent. They should make sure that they
prioritise so that maximum benefit will be drawn from what they
spend and where they spend it. Because we don’t have unlimited
resources, almost all of us know as adults how to budget with our
salaries in order to prioritise our needs. The same applies in
principle to organisations.
z Increases and decreases in budget from the previous year / month
/ project should be justified in order to ensure financial
accountability.
z Budgets should be realistic. Don’t over- or under-budget for items
or services.
z Budgets should be updated regularly in order to ensure that you
keep track of where money is spent – and on what.
You will learn more about monitoring projects, including making
project bids and monitoring expenditure, in Module 8 Project Planning,
Monitoring and Evaluation.
Money is a scarce resource, particularly in youth work. You need to
know where it is spent and why, and what the outcomes are.

102 Unit 4: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

Unit summary

In this unit you have covered the following main points:

z the tasks and roles of managing youth development work
z project management, its purpose and systems and overarching
public sector management issues
z critical path analysis as a tool for planning and monitoring
projects
z budgets and what is involved in preparing them, with an exercise
to complete a budget for a project or small organisation.
You have explored the tasks and roles of managing youth
development work within the framework of the critical skills required
for management. Some practical ways of applying the knowledge you
have gained have also been provided. We hope you continue to build
on these skills and find ways of practising them in your daily routine.
The key management tasks covered in this unit represent a significant
aspect of your job.

Unit 4
To check how you have got on, look back at the learning outcomes
for this unit and see if you can now do them. When you have done
this, look through your learning journal to remind yourself of what
you have learned and the ideas you have generated.
Now you need to put these skills into practice. The assignment at the
end of this unit gives you an opportunity to demonstrate your
managing abilities in a practical context.
In the next unit, we will look at what is involved in managing human
resources / staff.

Unit 4: Managing youth development work 103

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Answers to self-help questions

Self-help question 4.1

1 The two purposes of project management are:
z To predict potential problems or dangers
z To successfully plan, organise and control project activities.
2 The advice is based on the fact that situations in community-led
development projects are fluid, and donors and beneficiaries also
demand some control of these projects.

104 Unit 4: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

References

Anderson, A.H. and Nix, E. (1994) Effective Accounting Management: A

skills and activity-based approach, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.
Armstrong, M. (1990) How to be an Even Better Manager, Kogan Page
Limited, London.
Blackburn, J. and Holland, J. (1998) Who Changes? Institutionalizing
participation in development, Intermediate Technology Publications,
London.
Cattermole, F., Airs, M. and Grisbrook, D. (1987) Managing Youth
Services, Longman Group UK Limited, Essex.
DFID (2004) Zambia Country Assistance Plan.
Hannaway, C. and Hunt, G. (1992) The Management Skills Book,
Billing and Sons Limited, Worcester.
Lock, D. (1996) Project Management, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
Smith, M. (1988) Developing Youth Work, Open University Press,

Unit 4
Philadelphia, PA.
Stewart, D.M., (ed.) (1992) Handbook of Management Skills, Billing and
Sons Limited, Worcester.

Unit 4: Managing youth development work 105

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Assignment

First, a reminder that your work in this module will be assessed in the
following ways:
1 Completion of the unit assessment tasks that you will carry out
throughout this module (30 per cent). There are four assignments
– at the end of Units 2, 4 (i.e., the one below), 6 and 7. All these
assignments will add up to 30 per cent of the unit assessment.
Your learning institution will indicate when and which of these
tasks should be submitted for marking by your tutor.
2 The learning journal that you will keep for recording your
responses to the different learning activities in each of the units
(20 per cent). Your learning institution will inform you when to
submit the learning journal for assessment.
3 A report of about 1,750 words. You will find full details at the
end of the Module Summary (50 per cent).
Note: make sure you discuss the assessment requirements with your
tutor so that you are clear about what you are expected to do and
when, and any particular requirements in your institution.

Assignment 2
This task counts towards your final assessment on this module. This
and the tasks at the end of Units 2, 6 and 7 together add up to 30 per
cent of your final mark.
Length: About 750 words.
This is a practical task that you will complete then produce a report
on.
Identify a project for which you are mainly responsible. The project
should be discrete, small scale and short term.
Develop a project management system and draw up a logic diagram
for the key activities to be achieved. (You can draw on the work you
did for Activity 4.3 for this part of your assessment piece.)
Include a budget for the project.
Use the system you have devised to manage the project. Note its
successes and failures.
Write up a detailed report on your management strategies and tasks –
those that were effective and those that needed improvement.
Evaluate your own success at applying the skills of project
management, including planning (critical path analysis) and
budgeting.

106 Unit 4: Managing youth development work

Unit 5: Managing
human resources

Unit introduction ......................................................109

Unit learning outcomes .............................................109
The key functions ......................................................110
What managers do for others .....................................121
Managerial qualities ..................................................124
Teamwork .................................................................127
How best to work in a team .......................................130
Job satisfaction ..........................................................130
Performance management .........................................136
Unit summary ...........................................................138
Answers to self-help questions ...................................139
References.................................................................141
 Module 7: Management Skills

Unit introduction

Welcome to Unit 5 Managing human resources.

In this unit, you will learn about human resources management –
what it is and its main functions. Next, you will explore what
managers do for others, including guiding, directing and enabling
others to do their work effectively. We end the unit by examining
aspects of teamwork and job satisfaction, and we discuss your role as
a manager in promoting these aspects.

Unit learning outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

z outline several key areas of managing human resources,
including staff development and performance management
z explain the tasks that managers perform for other people and the
managerial qualities required to perform these tasks
z supervise and support a team of volunteers and/or paid staff.

Unit 5

Unit 5: Managing human resources 109

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

The key functions

Human resources are the people you work with. Human resource
management means helping to guide, support and organise these
people.
You may be involved in formal human resource management (i.e.,
managing your staff), or informal human resource management (e.g.,
managing youth groups), or both. Managing staff is regarded as
formal because it is usually a part of the formal study of human
resource management theory. But whether formal or informal, the
basic functions are the same.
Before you begin to work through this section, complete the following
self-help question. It will help you to determine how much you know
about human resource management.

Self-help question 5.1

(about 2 minutes)
Write down what you think are the main functions of human
resource management:

Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the

unit.

The key functions of human resource management (Mondy and

Primeaux, 1995, pp. 269–273) are:
z staffing
z training and development
z salaries and other benefits
z health and safety
z employee and labour relations
z human resource research.

Staffing
This is the formal process of ensuring that your organisation has
qualified and capable workers at all levels. Staffing can be broken up
into a number of separate areas:
z job analysis

110 Unit 5: Managing human resources

 Module 7: Management Skills

z human resource planning

z recruitment and selection
z internal staffing administration.
Let’s examine each of these in turn.

Job analysis
Job analysis is the process of determining what skills and knowledge
are required to do a specific job in an organisation. Job analysis leads
to the development of job descriptions.

Job descriptions
A job description should include the following details:
z major duties
z the percentage of time to be devoted to each duty
z performance standards
z working conditions
z possible hazards
z number of people working on each job
z relationships with other jobs
z machines and equipment used.

Unit 5
A job description should include everything you expect your
employee to do. Here is an example of the things that should be
included in a job description for a youth worker.

Duties of a youth worker

z providing appropriate information, advice and counselling
z enabling and encouraging young people to be involved in the
community
z assisting young people to make the transition from school to
work
z meeting the needs of young people who belong to minority
groups or communities
z meeting the needs of young people who have special needs
z promoting international visits and understanding.
It is always necessary to ensure that the specific skills required for the
job are mentioned. If the person is to be responsible for liaising
between voluntary organisations and local authorities, for example,
you should include that in the job description.

Unit 5: Managing human resources 111

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Activity 5.1
(about 15 minutes)
Study the above list of the duties of a youth worker.
Are there any duties you do that have been left out? Add them
to the list.
Now use your list as the basis of a simple job description for
the work you do. Write it in your learning journal.
If possible, discuss it with your work colleagues and your
supervisor.
Write up your job description in your learning journal.

Clarifying responsibility
It is part of a job analysis to determine who is responsible for what.
However, this is not always as clear as it should be.
In youth development work, the management function is sometimes
divided by the professional line manager among a group of voluntary
workers. This can lead to management difficulties, including
confusion over who has responsibility for what management areas
and tasks. The solution is to draw lines of responsibility and
accountability to define clearly the roles of those involved in
management (Cattermole et al, 1987, p. 69).
However, this is easier said than done. If you were asked to address
management problems like this, how would you go about it? Let’s
explore this question by reading the following case study and tackling
Activity 5.2.

Case Study 5.1

Clarifying responsibilities
A youth club has recently asked you to assist in a team-building
exercise. The club has a full-time leader, five paid part-time staff and a
dozen volunteers.
Part of the exercise involves asking each person what s/he thinks the
others do in the club and what s/he expects of them. The underlying
tensions soon become apparent.
Through a series of staff meetings, small group work and sessions
with the club leader, the process of clarifying roles begins. While the
term ‘job description’ is never mentioned, each of the voluntary and
paid staff begins to define and negotiate her/his role and recognise
how each individual’s role fits with the others.

112 Unit 5: Managing human resources

 Module 7: Management Skills

The people involved are able to say what they like and/or don’t like
about their roles, what they would like to be doing and what they
would like others to do. From this information, they are able to
negotiate mutually agreed roles and responsibilities and to identify
how the various roles interlink and differ.
This apparently simple exercise allows the club to begin to discuss
what its goals really are, what resources its staff embody, and their
different responsibilities. The process of staff and organisation
development has begun to occur.

Activity 5.2
(about 10 minutes)
Choose either section A or section B according to your
experience and write answers to the questions in your learning
journal. You should also use the answers as the basis of a
discussion with your work colleagues or fellow students.

Section A – for those with some experience of team building:

1 Describe briefly your experience of a team-building
activity and indicate what your role was – for example,
team leader or ordinary member of the group.

Unit 5
2 Do you think it worked successfully in determining what
people’s job descriptions should be? Why or why not?
3 What lessons did you learn from the team-building
exercise?

Section B – for those without any experience of a team-

building exercise:
1 Think about your current job and evaluate whether this
type of exercise could be used to determine people’s job
descriptions. In your opinion, would it be a worthwhile
exercise?
2 What might you hope to achieve from such an exercise in
your workplace?
3 What lessons do you think can be learned from this
exercise on how the varied skills and knowledge of a team
can be accommodated?
Whether you completed Section A or B, we hope that this
activity has helped you to reflect on how a team-building
exercise like this one could be used in your current job and the
benefits it could bring.

Unit 5: Managing human resources 113

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

We have spent some time on the topic of job analysis as one part of
the staffing function of human resources management. We will look
more briefly at the other aspects of staffing – human resource
planning, recruitment, selection and internal staffing administration –
because they are generally well understood.

Human resource planning

The area of human resource planning comes under the heading of
staffing. This is the process by which you work out how many people
you need with the correct skills and qualifications to make sure the
job is done.

Recruitment and selection

Recruiting is the process of attracting qualified and skilled individuals
to apply for a specific job.
Selection, on the other hand, is the process of choosing from a group
of applicants the one best suited for a specific job. This is explained
by the next diagram (Mondy and Premeaux, 1995, p. 283), which
shows some of the steps involved in recruiting.
RECRUITED
INDIVIDUALS

f
Preliminary
interview
f
Evaluation of
application
f
Testing

f
Interviewing

f
Reference check
and background
investigation
f
Management
approval
f
Physical
examination
f
PLACEMENT ON
THE JOB

You will notice in the diagram that preliminary interviewing comes

before evaluation of the application. This might seem unusual, but in

114 Unit 5: Managing human resources

 Module 7: Management Skills

many organisations now the tendency is for the human resource

manager to interview applicants on the basis of assumed general
competence in order to see whether the heads of departments or
sections should take time to interview the applicants for specific jobs.
In this initial interview, the human resource manager usually tries to
determine the psychological and human attributes of the applicants.

Internal staffing administration

This is the process of looking after the employees after they have been
appointed. It includes the following areas (Mondy and Premeaux,
1995, pp. 290–291):

Employee orientation or induction

This is a formal process of helping new staff to adjust to the
organisation. It has three main purposes:
z to provide specific, job-related information for recruits
z to ease the adjustment process in order to avoid recruit loneliness
and anxiety (usually handled by a sympathetic and
knowledgeable senior staff member)
z to enhance new employees’ impressions of the organisation by
continuing the process of ‘selling the job’ that started with
recruitment, when applicants were introduced to the
organisation.

Unit 5
Employee assistance programmes
These are aimed at dealing with special problems and needs of staff
members. Programmes may include health and disease prevention
and allow for treatment of problems that could influence productivity.
Examples are severe stress leading to ‘burnout’, alcohol and drug
abuse, depression and HIV/AIDS.

Performance appraisal
This is the formal evaluation of someone’s job performance.
Performance appraisal helps to create work environments in which
managers and staff set objectives, monitor results and measure
success against predetermined and mutually agreed standards.

Employee status changes

These include promotions, transfers, demotions, resignations,
discharges, out-placements, layoffs and retirements.
These are the elements of internal staffing administration. As you can
see, staffing is a very large area of human resources management. It
takes a great deal of an organisation’s time and effort to ensure it has
the right people with the right skills for the job, and that those staff
know exactly what is expected of them and are looked after properly.

Unit 5: Managing human resources 115

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Next, we look at staff training and development – another key

element of human resources management.

Training and development

What is staff development? It’s a process that enhances the
operational capacity of individual staff members and of the staff
team. It does this through selecting from among a range of training
and educational programmes, including personal development
training, job skills training and organisational development. It
includes programmes to strengthen staff relationships and to build
motivation and commitment to the organisation. It usually attempts
to harmonise individual, group and organisational goals (adapted
from Cattermole et al, 1987, p. 7).
Training and development aim to help staff:
z learn new skills
z improve existing skills
z improve their performance within the organisation.
Staff development is important because organisations and their
operational contexts are constantly changing, so people’s tasks change
and they need new or improved skills. To determine what these needs
are, a training needs analysis has to be done. This whole process is an
essential part of organisational development and change, which we
will discuss in the next unit.
The management task is dynamic and continually changing. As you
go about your day-to-day management tasks, you are also busy with
staff development – so the boundaries between the different fields are
never clear. Staff development occurs continually because as each
stage of the management process develops, new opportunities are
created that require improved skills.
Look at the diagram below. It shows the dynamic nature of
management activities and the various stages in the management
cycle. You can see how opportunities for staff development and
training may arise at any stage in the continuing cycle.
Identify need

Set targets
Evaluate

Identify
resources
Monitor
and
adjust
Plan
Organise
and
develop

116 Unit 5: Managing human resources

 Module 7: Management Skills

In summary: it is important to continually develop the potential of

staff in youth development work in order to ensure continual
improvement of their performance. This is essential in an under-
funded service that cannot afford to recruit people with the requisite
new skills very often. Therefore, training and development should be
an essential feature of the management strategy. Without it, youth
development work simply cannot be delivered effectively.
So far, in this unit we have discussed two of the main functions of
resource management – staffing and staff development. The four
remaining functions to explore are salaries, health and safety, labour
relations and human resource research.

Salaries and other benefits

Compensation is the reward people receive for doing a job. It
includes:
pay – the money a person receives for performing a job
benefits – economic rewards other than pay, including paid holidays,
medical insurance and pension funds
non-financial rewards – these are not economic in nature and
include job satisfaction and a pleasant working environment.
Staff should receive a combination of pay, benefits and non-financial
rewards to keep them motivated and performance oriented. For
example, if a youth development worker’s salary is not increased over

Unit 5
a number of years, even if s/he receives a lot of benefits and has the
best working environment possible, it is likely that s/he will either
compromise job performance or look for another job, given the fact
that we all work in a market system that psychologically depends on
judging one’s compensation for work in terms of what is happening
elsewhere in the market. Moreover, capitalist systems work by
expansion, and that entails ever-increasing costs of living. A free
market system also entails the individual’s personal, deeply felt
responsibility to support her or his family and maintain a reasonably
good standard of living.

Health and safety

Health relates to the physical and emotional wellbeing of people,
which enables them to do their jobs properly. Safety is about working
in a situation that is free from danger to one’s physical and emotional
wellbeing.
Each country’s Health and Safety At Work Act is concerned with
reducing accidents and improving health and safety arrangements at
work for the benefit of all employees and clients.
Here is a health and safety checklist. It’s the sort of checklist that you
will find in most highly organised and developed work environments,
though clearly it may not apply to environments where there is
specialised chemical or structural dangers, for example. You may

Unit 5: Managing human resources 117

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

yourself be working in very informal and undeveloped environments,

but it’s crucial that you keep on top of health and safety issues. You
can analyse the way the writers of the checklist have worked out what
to include and can adapt their approach to your own situation.

Health and safety checklist Yes No

(adapted from Cattermole et al, 1987, pp. 95–96.)

Have the workers received and understood the

policies, arrangements and requirements in
regard to health and safety at work? † †
Have the workers been given appropriate training? † †
Are fire precautions in place? † †
z adequate and operational fire extinguishers † †
z clear access through escape routes and exits † †
z staff familiarity with the location of escape
routes and fire extinguishers † †
z a maintenance and inspection contract † †
z a secondary lighting system † †
z clear notices stating action to be taken in the
event of fire † †
z fire drills † †
z insulation properties in material used for
furniture, curtains and other furnishings † †
z the use of fire retardant materials on
staircases. † †
Are safety guards provided on machinery in
workshop and craft areas? † †
Are first-aid boxes kept replenished, and do they
include a list of contents? † †
Have any building alterations been inspected and
approved by expert personnel? † †
Have any unauthorised alterations to electrical
wiring been undertaken? † †
Are there any trailing cables, damaged switches
or faulty connections? † †
Are there any hazards as a result of slippery
floors, badly lit passages, uneven or broken
surfaces? † †
Are there any fire or health hazards likely as a
result of storing inflammable materials or other
substances? † †

118 Unit 5: Managing human resources

 Module 7: Management Skills

Health and safety checklist Yes No

(adapted from Cattermole et al, 1987, pp. 95–96.)

Are there any potential dangers like glass

surfaces, projections or sharp edges in the
workplace? † †
Are handrails, banisters, cooking appliances safe? † †

Not all of these will apply in your workplace, but the list may be a
useful guide to health and safety standards in your working
environment. The following activity invites you to find out how your
workplace measures up on health and safety issues.

Activity 5.3
(about 15 minutes)
Use the health and safety checklist to evaluate the safety or
otherwise of your work environment.
Add any health and safety risk factors you discover to the list.
Identify areas for improvement.
Devise ways to increase the health and safety standards in your
workplace and make notes on them in your learning journal.
If possible, raise the issue with your superiors.

Unit 5
Discuss your findings with your colleagues, peers or fellow
students.

Employee and labour relations

In general, this refers to trade unions and the bargaining power they
have, but on a smaller scale it could include the resolution of conflict
between two of your own employees. It refers to the employer /
employee relationship and the legal protection that each enjoys.
Employment protection legislation sets out rules and regulations
governing employment (Cattermole et al, 1987, p. 89). Such
legislation will vary in different countries, but it is generally accepted
that the following basic procedures should be followed.
When a person first joins an organisation, that employee should be
given a written statement that:
z identifies the parties to the employment contract (the employer
and the employee) and the date the person commences work
z states the rate of pay, times of payment, title of the job and terms
and conditions relating to hours, holidays, sickness, pensions and
period of notice
z specifies disciplinary procedures and any appeal arrangements.

Unit 5: Managing human resources 119

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Youth development work relies heavily on part-time paid and also

voluntary staff. In most cases, these staff do not have agreed
conditions of work and salary scales. It is important for youth
development workers to correct this situation and make sure that all
staff – including part-time and voluntary workers – have written
conditions of service.

Human resource research

Research provides useful information on various aspects of human
resource management and helps to identify what needs to be
improved. Examples of human resource research are studies of
‘recruitment’, ‘job analyses’ or ‘training needs analyses’. Aspects of
these have already been discussed in the section on training and
development.

To sum up
The different functions of human resource management are distinct,
but also interrelated – and they influence one another. For example, if
an organisation spends effort and money on recruitment but does not
pay employees well, this will undermine the recruitment effort,
because a good candidate may not accept the job or may not stay long
in it. In order to ensure that employees are motivated and perform
well, managers need to constantly assess and update what they do –
and ensure continual development in themselves, their staff and the
organisation.
In Unit 3, you spent some time considering the important issue of
self-management. As we pointed out there, managing yourself and
your workload effectively is a vital prerequisite for being able to
manage other people. In the next section we switch the focus onto
your staff and examine in detail the tasks that you, as a manager, do
for other people.

120 Unit 5: Managing human resources

 Module 7: Management Skills

What managers do for others

As a manager, you perform key tasks for other people. These are
(Dale, 1993, pp. 231–237):
z guiding
z directing
z enabling.

Self-help question 5.2

(about 5 minutes)
Before you go on, spend five minutes now reflecting on these
aspects of your management role.
In the space provided, write down the duties and tasks you do
under each of these three headings:
Guiding

Directing

Unit 5
Enabling

Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the

unit.

Let’s examine each of the three management roles in more detail.

Guiding
Guiding may involve:
z Keeping people on track. Here you guide processes by reminding
people of the organisation’s direction. You should indicate the
cause of ineffective working and help the staff members work
more effectively towards the organisation’s goals.
z Developing and sharing goals and ideas. This fosters a sense of
common ground among the staff. Sharing and participation are
known to be prerequisites for commitment.

Unit 5: Managing human resources 121

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

z Monitoring progress. You need to find out how well individuals

and the group are progressing towards the goals and ideas you
have set out to achieve.
z Taking responsibility. Some tasks and decisions can only be
executed by the manager. You should be firm and decisive in
order to avoid people losing trust in you.
z Setting an example. Leading by example is difficult, but
necessary.
z Mentoring. This involves a professional but friendly relationship
with individuals that work with you. You should ‘guide’ the
performance, commitment and productivity of the individuals in
the organisation.
z Collaborating. You should collaborate with co-workers and
ensure that they collaborate with one another.
Guiding means helping, monitoring, managing the flow of staff and
their work. Directing is different – it requires you to take a strong
leadership role.

Directing
Directing may include:
z Motivating staff. In brief this means encouraging them,
responding by giving them feedback and rewarding them where
appropriate.
z Leading staff. When you do community work and ‘project
facilitation’, leading may well mean leading from behind!
Sometimes people need ‘pushing’ allied with ‘guidance’ – just as
sheep need a sheep dog to keep them on track.
z Instructing, training and coaching. This involves showing staff
tasks, procedures and processes and making sure that they
become expert. People also need to be informed about the vision
and goals of the organisation so that they can focus on the main
purpose of the work.
z Delegating. When you delegate tasks and responsibilities, you
give your staff an opportunity to get involved in new activities
and to challenge themselves.
z Providing discipline. This is aimed at maintaining high
standards and is not meant as punishment. Sometimes people
need help to discipline themselves to keep on track. If you do not
discipline the defaulting individual, s/he and the organisation
may suffer.
z Giving feedback. As we will discuss during the communication
section (in Unit 7), feedback is a vital part of managing. Among
other purposes, it forms part of discipline and positively guides
the disciplined person to remedial action.

122 Unit 5: Managing human resources

 Module 7: Management Skills

z Managing conflict. Conflict should be managed and resolved as

soon as possible to ensure cooperation. Conflict resolution is
discussed in detail in Module 10 Conflict Resolution Strategies and
Skills.
z Initiating change. One of the best ways to initiate change is by
enabling and encouraging staff, perhaps in focus groups, to air
their ideas about possible changes that could improve individual
and organisational performance.
Directing requires leadership strength, but enabling requires a more
subtle way of managing other people: it entails supporting your staff
in a broad, responsive and holistic way.

Enabling
Enabling may include:
z Trusting. If you don’t trust staff to make decisions and carry
them out on their own, you are not allowing them to learn.
z Recognising and developing potential. Helping your staff
develop more of their potential is good sense – both for the
person’s professional growth and for your organisation.
z Setting challenging tasks. This allows people to grow in skills
and management potential, but it is still your duty to ensure that
a task is not too challenging for an individual. If it is, the staff
member will become discouraged.

Unit 5
z Facilitating learning. The process of learning should be made as
effective and accessible as possible. You should focus on clear
content to be learned and offer encouragement and motivation.
Make use of what is known about how adults learn best (see
Module 1 Learning Processes).
z Counselling. The aim of counselling is that the process guides
people to recognise and solve their own problems. You need to
decide when counselling is needed and what the most appropriate
intervention might be.
z Giving positive encouragement. This involves most of the tasks
we have discussed – for example, monitoring, feedback, praise
and rewards.
z Nurturing. This is linked to compassion and empathy. Staff need
to be fully supported in order to help them to develop their
potential.
In many ways, enabling is the most challenging area of managing
other people. It involves personal qualities and skills that you may
have to develop.
In fact, in all the activities we have examined, your personality and
experience are vital elements for success. It is important that you are
aware of this, and make informed use of these to improve your

Unit 5: Managing human resources 123

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

management capacity. Before we leave this topic of managing others,

let’s examine the roles that experience and personality play in
management.

Managerial qualities

Pedlar, Burgoyne and Boydell in Armstrong (1990, p. 18) say that,

according to their extensive research, a successful manager possesses
eleven qualities or attributes.
These qualities of a good manager are:
z command of basic facts
z relevant professional knowledge
z continuing sensitivity to events
z analytical, problem-solving and decision-making / judgement
skills
z social skills and abilities
z emotional resilience
z proactivity
z creativity
z mental agility
z balanced learning habits and skills
z self-knowledge.
It is possible that you could acquire all these qualities through
experience, but that’s very costly and time-consuming. It’s better to
use all the available methods to acquire them – including talking to
other effective managers, asking their advice, reading books, learning
from others’ experience and undergoing management training.

124 Unit 5: Managing human resources

 Module 7: Management Skills

Activity 5.4
(about 15 minutes)
Check your managerial qualities:
Use the list of managerial qualities as a checklist to measure
your own skills and qualities in this area. Add any qualities you
think are relevant to you and your work.
Which are your strengths? Which areas need improvement?
Suggest strategies for developing your least developed
qualities. Write up your findings and strategies in your learning
journal.
This activity will be of most benefit if you complete and
discuss it with friends, colleagues or fellow students – or use it
as the basis of a tutorial session.

Personal characteristics
Personality affects management as well. It determines the way you
manage and your effectiveness. Common characteristics of an
effective manager are (Stewart in Armstrong 1990, p. 19):
z a willingness to work hard

Unit 5
z perseverance and determination
z a willingness to take risks
z an ability to inspire enthusiasm
z toughness.

Unit 5: Managing human resources 125

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Activity 5.5
(about 10 minutes)
Answer number 1 or 2 – or both, depending on your
experience.
1 Reflect on the managers you have known and worked
under.
z Which of these characteristics did s/he display?
z How important were they in her/his effectiveness as a
manager?
z What other personal characteristics would you add to
the list?
z Which of these personal characteristics do you think
are most important for a manager to have?
2 Reflect on your own management style.
z Which of the above characteristics are you strong in?
z Which need further improvement?
z Add any you think are missing, based on your
experience.
Write your reflection in your learning journal.
Discuss this activity with colleagues or fellow students and
share your views on the personal characteristics of effective
managers.

We have raised these issues to foster awareness of what is needed in

an effective manager. We hope you nurture these talents and strive
towards acquiring them.
So far, we have spent some time examining your responsibilities as a
manager and the skills, qualities and attributes you need for the job.
The test of your skills in this area is how effective your team is in the
organisation, and how well you meet their needs for job satisfaction.
We’ll examine these interrelated aspects of management – teamwork
and job satisfaction – in the final part of this unit.

126 Unit 5: Managing human resources

 Module 7: Management Skills

Teamwork

At the beginning of this unit, we looked at how to manage the most

important resource: the human resource. However, to be effective,
human resources must be managed as working teams, with shared
goals and a shared focus. Staff members must pull together, and it’s
your job as a manager to make sure that they do so, by promoting
teamwork.
We’ll discuss three main issues here (Armstrong, 1990, pp. 312–315):
z what effective teams look like
z team-building methods
z how best to work in a team.

Activity 5.6
(about 5 minutes)
Think about a team you have been part of that was particularly
effective. Reflect on what made the team work so well.
List the characteristics that, in your view, made the team
effective.
Write notes on your reflections in your learning journal. Save

Unit 5
these notes to use in the next activity in this unit.

Unit 5: Managing human resources 127

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

What do effective teams look like? How are they different from
others? Here is a list of their characteristics.

Characteristics of effective teams

z The atmosphere tends to be informal, comfortable, relaxed.
z There is a lot of discussion in which everyone participates – but
all remain focused on the group task.
z The task of the team is well understood and accepted by the
members. The team is instrumental in defining the nature of the
task and is committed to it – i.e., the team has ownership of it.
z The members listen to each other. Every idea is given a hearing.
Team members are not afraid of looking foolish by putting
forward a creative or unusual thought.
z There is disagreement. Disagreements are not suppressed or
overridden by premature group action. The reasons are carefully
examined, and the group seeks to resolve them rather than to
dominate the dissenter.
z Most decisions are reached by consensus in which it is clear that
everybody is in general agreement.
z Criticism is frequent, frank and relatively comfortable. There is
little evidence of personal attack – either open or hidden.
z People are free in expressing their feelings as well as their ideas
both on problems and on the team’s operation.
z When action is taken, clear commitments are made and
accepted.
z The leader of the team does not dominate it, nor do team
members defer too much to him or her.

Activity 5.7
(about 15 minutes)
Look again at the characteristics of effective teams that you
identified in Activity 5.6.
Did you include any that are on the checklist above? Add any to
this checklist that you think are missing.
Which characteristics do you think are the most important for
effective teamwork? Which does your team have at the
moment? Which do they need to develop?
Make notes on this issue in your learning journal. If possible,
discuss them with your work colleagues or fellow students.

128 Unit 5: Managing human resources

 Module 7: Management Skills

So these are the characteristics to aim for in your team. But how can
you make them happen?

Team-building methods
To build an effective team you must exercise your leadership skills.
Building the basics is particularly important. It’s important for you to
show your team that:
z you know where you want them to go
z you know how they are going to get there
z you know what you expect each member of the team to achieve
z you know what you are doing.
If you are confident of the team’s direction and how it is going to
achieve its objectives, the team will have a clear focus. This approach
to leadership provides a firm base on which the team can build.
Here are some strategies that you can use to make your team function
at its best:
z encourage everyone in the team to participate in setting objectives
and targets
z cluster related tasks together, to encourage team members to
cooperate with others

Unit 5
z rotate jobs in the team so that group members identify with the
team as a whole rather than with their own jobs
z ensure that communications flow freely within and between
groups.

Activity 5.8
(about 15 minutes)
Read over the list of strategies for team building.
In your learning journal:
z Add any others you can think of.
Use the list as a checklist for your own team.
z Identify which strategies are in place.
z Identify any other strategies that would be useful in
building your own team.
z How might you go about implementing them?
It would be very beneficial to discuss these issues with work
colleagues and other members of your team – or use your notes
as the basis of a tutorial discussion with your fellow students.

Unit 5: Managing human resources 129

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

How best to work in a team

To work effectively in a team you need to:

z understand the purpose of the team
z know what you are expected to contribute
z be sure of each team member’s role – especially that of the leader
z analyse your own skills and competences to establish how you
might best contribute to the team (do this by matching your skills
to the roles you have identified)
z understand and analyse the team (observe the behaviour of the
team to identity group norms so that you can conform or
consciously deviate from them if necessary)
z prepare yourself well before meetings – have the facts and
arguments at your fingertips
z stop yourself from talking too much: the art of being a good team
member is to know when and how to intervene
z assess your own performance as a team member: ask yourself
what you are good at and what you are not so good at, and take
appropriate action.
As a manager, you are both a member of a team and a team leader.
You have a key role to play in making sure the members of your team
work together effectively. This will give the group a strong sense of
identification with each other and the organisation. Another element
that will achieve this is job satisfaction for the group members – and
we take a look at that in the next section.

Job satisfaction

It’s part of a manager’s role to assess and respond to the needs of

staff. Ivancevich, Szilagyi and Wallace in Blunt and Jones (1992, p.
283) have built on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (discussed in Unit 2)
to develop a tool for analysing both individual and organisational
needs. You may like to refresh your memory of the basics of
Maslow’s theory before you go on.

Needs
In order to understand the needs of people in your organisation
better, you can use the following table. It explains the different kinds
of needs people have and how they might apply in a person’s job. If
these various needs are met, the staff member will achieve job
satisfaction.

130 Unit 5: Managing human resources

 Module 7: Management Skills

The table is designed to be read from the bottom up. In the middle
column you’ll see Maslow’s famous hierarchy of needs, and in the
left-hand column, examples of these needs – from the most basic
physical ones at the bottom (physiological – the need for air, food,
shelter, sex) through the next level of needs (safety and security –
competence and stability in the job) and so on up the ladder.
The right-hand column explains the aspects of a person’s job that
relate to having their needs satisfied at each level. For example, at the
most basic level, a staff member’s physical needs (for food and
shelter) centre around things at work like the heating / cooling in the
building, the food in the canteen and the general condition of the
office or workplace. The right-hand column shows what the employee
needs and wants from the organisation in order to stay happy and
committed to his/her job. Now take some time to study the table.
Remember to read it from the bottom.

Need hierarchy based on Maslow

General factors Maslow’s levels in the Organisational factors

associated with need hierarchy associated with each level of
each level of need needs
1 Growth Self-actualisation 1 Challenging job
2 Achievement 2 Creative opportunities
3 Advancement 3 Advancement in the

Unit 5
organisation
1 Recognition Ego, status and 1 Job title
2 Status esteem 2 Pay increases based on
3 Self-esteem merit
4 Self-respect 3 Peer / supervisory
recognition
4 Work itself
5 Responsibility
6 Interaction with supervisors
and peers
1 Companionship Social 1 Quality of supervision
2 Affection 2 Compatible work group
3 Friendship 3 Professional friendships
1 Safety Safety and security 1 General salary
2 Security 2 Job security
3 Competence 3 Fringe benefits
4 Stability 4 Safe working conditions
1 Air Physiological 1 Base salary
2 Food 2 Heat and cold
3 Shelter 3 Canteen facilities
4 Sex 4 Working conditions

Unit 5: Managing human resources 131

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Activity 5.9
(about 10 minutes)
Answer the following questions in your learning journal:
Which level of the hierarchy do you operate on at work?
Look at the factors associated with job satisfaction in the
right-hand column. Note those that are generally present in
your organisation and contribute to general job satisfaction.
Identify factors that are not present but should be present to
promote job satisfaction among staff. List those factors that
you can do something about.
Suggest strategies for bringing about those changes.

Managers’ needs
A similar model for identifying needs was used in a study of
managers’ needs in Malawi, according to Jones in Blunt and Jones
(1992, p. 289). The following table shows what aspects of their jobs
(at the different levels of need) the managers felt were good and bad.
Responses are indicated by the numbers in the ‘Good and bad aspects
of job’ column.
Aspects of managerial jobs in Malawi

Needs Good (+) and bad (-) aspects of job

Self- z Feeling of achievement (16+)
actualisation z Opportunities for self-expression and
fulfilment (12+)
Autonomy z Power and authority (20+)
z Making decisions (11+)
z Making unpleasant decisions (4-)
z Being in a position to have broad
understanding (2+)
Esteem z Respect from others (13+)
z Privileged position (4+)
Social z Unpopularity (4-)
z Disciplining subordinates (2-)
Security z Financial rewards (3+)
z Accepting blame for others’ failures (27-)
z Accepting responsibility for decisions (14-) +
z Insecurity and risk (6-)
z Public scrutiny of actions (2-)

132 Unit 5: Managing human resources

 Module 7: Management Skills

Self-help question 5.3

(about 5 minutes)
To check your understanding of the above table,
answer the following questions by marking them
as true or false.
1 Power and authority are the sources of
greatest satisfaction for the managers in the
study.
2 Financial rewards are at the top of the
needs hierarchy and lead to self-
actualisation.
3 The majority of managers in the study feel
that being publicly accountable for their
actions is a bad aspect of their jobs.
4 The worst aspect of a manager’s job in this
study is to accept blame for other people’s
mistakes.
5 The privilege associated with a manager’s
job is very important in meeting Maslow’s
need for self-esteem.
Compare your answers with those suggested at

Unit 5
the end of the unit.

Motivation
Staff may be reliable and contented, but without motivation they will
not perform at their best. Your role as manager is to promote and
maintain motivation. This is not always easy, particularly in the
dynamic and challenging environment of most youth work
organisations. Understanding the factors that motivate staff – and
those that do not – will help you get the best from your team.
Herzberg is an author who writes about needs. He has developed a
‘two factor theory’ (Blunt and Jones, 1992, p. 294) that explains
which aspects of a job lead to motivation in staff and which do not.
Here is his model.

Unit 5: Managing human resources 133

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Herzberg’s ‘two factor theory’

Factor 1: motivation (the satisfiers)
Individuals are motivated at work by the following factors; he calls
them ‘satisfiers’:
z achievement of goals
z being accorded recognition
z the nature of the work itself
z having responsibility
z advancement
z personal development.
Factor 2: preventing dissatisfaction
The following are examples of factors that can prevent dissatisfaction
but they do not motivate:
z having a satisfactory salary
z job security
z good working conditions
z having time for one’s personal life
z good relationship with supervisor(s)
z good relationships with fellow workmates and subordinates
z company policies
z fringe benefits.

Zambian study of motivation

According to a study done amongst Zambian workers, the following
are motivating and demotivating factors (Machungwa and Schmitt in
Blunt and Jones 1992, p. 295):

134 Unit 5: Managing human resources

 Module 7: Management Skills

Demotivating and motivating factors of Zambian workers

Demotivating factors or bad aspects Motivating factors or good aspects of

of working working
z Tribalism, favouritism, racialism, z A lot of work available
discrimination z Interesting work
z Bad interpersonal relations with z Work that has an urgent deadline
supervisors, co-workers, z Recognition for work done
subordinates z Chances to learn more about the
z Low pay, lack of bonuses or merit job and/or further training
raises z Chance for promotion
z Supervisors who do not care to z Achievement (work that allows
listen to problems of employees achievement and proving oneself)
z Death / sickness in family z Responsibility
z Lack of fringe benefits z Good interpersonal relations with
(transportation, housing) co-workers
z Poorly defined work duties z Trust and confidence shown by
z Domestic quarrels superiors and co-workers
z Too much work
z Lack of chance to learn more
about job and/or further training

You might find it interesting here to return to the various accounts of

management theory in Unit 1, and check the results of the Zambian
study against the different models in those theories. Also, to what

Unit 5
extent do you think that the Zambian study echoes Herzberg’s
theories of ‘work satisfiers’ and ‘dissatisfiers’?

Activity 5.10
(about 1 hour)
Look over the factors that lead to job motivation in the section
you have just studied. Use them as a checklist to evaluate the
levels of need and satisfaction in your team.
Survey your staff as to their needs and how far they are being
met at work. (You could use the information in this section of
this study guide as the basis of a questionnaire for them to fill
in.)
Identify areas for improvement.
Together with your staff, devise strategies for improving job
satisfaction and motivation.
In your learning journal write a brief report on the survey,
identified areas of improvement and the strategies devised.

Unit 5: Managing human resources 135

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

We have given you a lot of information about what factors at work

lead to job satisfaction and motivation. You can make significant
improvements to the enjoyment of work and resultant motivation and
performance if you remain sensitive to the needs and feelings of the
staff you manage.
In the next section we discuss performance management. This is
much broader than performance appraisal, which we touched on
under the section on internal staffing administration.

Performance management

The different aspects of human resource management that we have

explored in this unit are all essential for effective management and for
improving the performance of your organisation / project and the
people involved. We have noted that human resources management
entails helping to guide, direct and enable people. The quality of the
performance of these people is, therefore, crucial for the success of
your organisation / project. Rees and McBain (2004, pp. 77) provide
this useful definition of performance management: A process for
establishing a shared understanding about what is to be achieved, and how it
is to be achieved; an approach to managing people which increases the
probability of achieving job-related success (Weiss and Hartle, 1977).
Performance management thus aims to increase job-related success
based on a shared understanding of goals and objectives. It is
concerned with measuring outputs that have concrete targets and the
ways in which these targets are to be delivered.
A performance management system consists of three stages. Rees and
McBain (2004, pp. 77–78) have summarised these stages as follows:

Planning, which includes

z definition of job responsibilities
z setting performance expectations
z goal or objective setting at the beginning of the period.

Managing, which involves:

z monitoring performance and achievement towards objectives
z feedback and coaching
z competency review
z development planning.

136 Unit 5: Managing human resources

 Module 7: Management Skills

Reviewing, which embraces:

z formal performance appraisal, resulting in a rating
z links to reward, if deployed within the organisation
z feedback about competencies or other aspects of performance.

The involvement of staff in all stages of performance management

nurtures ownership of individual and organisational goals and
minimises the anxieties associated with the (often negative)
perceptions about the last stage. Motivation plays a central role in
each of these stages. The skills you studied in Unit 3 on solving
problems creatively, establishing supportive communication, gaining
power and influence and improving employee performance through
enhancing motivation, among others, are essential for managing the
performance of your staff.

Unit 5

Unit 5: Managing human resources 137

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Unit summary

In this unit, you have covered the following main points:

z the main functions of human resource management:
o staffing
o training and development
o compensation (salaries and other benefits)
o health and safety
o employee and labour relations
o human resource research
z what managers do for others, including the managerial roles of
guiding, directing and enabling
z managerial qualities and personal characteristics
z teamwork, including effective teams, strategies for building the
team and how best to work in a team
z job satisfaction and motivation, including Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs and Herzberg’s ‘two factor theory’
z performance management.
The unit began by discussing the main functions of human resource
management. In addition, we stressed the need to be aware of the fact
that managerial qualities, experience and personality all play a role in
the management process. These issues were raised in order to
emphasise the importance of their impact on your work. We also
explored the twin issues of teamwork and job satisfaction, with the
aim of helping you promote both in your management activities. In
the last section of the unit we briefly discussed performance
management.
To check how you have got on, look back at the learning outcomes
for this unit and see if you can now do them. When you have done
this, look through your learning journal to remind yourself of what
you have learned and the ideas you have generated.
In Unit 6 we will look at the issue of managing organisational
change.

138 Unit 5: Managing human resources

 Module 7: Management Skills

Answers to self-help questions

Self-help question 5.1

Broadly, the main functions of human resource management are:
z preparing job descriptions and analyses
z recruiting and selecting staff
z induction
z staff training and development
z staff planning
z staff health and safety
z employee and labour relations.
You may have included other functions, too.

Self-help question 5.2

Obviously, everyone’s list of tasks will be different. Here we offer
some suggestions about the kinds of things you might do under each
of the three headings.

Guiding

Unit 5
z looking after new staff and volunteers
z guiding and advising the staff you are responsible for
z communicating the organisation’s goals and ideas
z running staff meetings
z setting a good example to other staff
z team building
z trouble-shooting
z overseeing projects
z training
z conflict resolution
z counselling individuals.

Unit 5: Managing human resources 139

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Directing
z making decisions
z setting goals and priorities
z trouble-shooting
z running staff meetings
z carrying out decisions
z giving feedback on staff performance
z training
z allocating responsibilities
z disciplining
z conflict resolution
z initiating change.

Enabling
z communicating the organisation’s goals and ideas
z team building
z motivating staff
z training
z building personal relationships
z supporting staff
z staff development
z counselling individuals.
These are just a few of the tasks you might have thought of.
Note that some of these tasks appear under more than one heading.
That’s because all tasks are interrelated – there are no clear
boundaries.

Self-help question 5.3

1 True
2 False
3 False – only 2 respondents indicated this.
4 True
5 False – 13 respondents indicated that respect from others was
important to them for self-esteem, compared with only 4 who
named privilege.

140 Unit 5: Managing human resources

 Module 7: Management Skills

References

Armstrong, M. (1990) How to be an Even Better Manager, Kogan Page

Limited, London.
Blunt, P. and Jones, M.I. (1992) Managing Organisations in Africa,
Walter de Gruyter, Berlin.
Dale, M. (1993) Developing Management Skills: Techniques for improving
learning and performance, Kogan Page Limited, London.
Mondy, R.W. and Premeaux, S.R. (1995) Management Concepts,
Practices and Skills, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Rees, D. and McBain R (eds.) (2004) People Management: Challenges
and Opportunities, Palgrave Macmillan, London.
Stewart, D.M. (ed.) (1987) Handbook of Management Skills, Billing and
Sons Limited, Worcester.

Unit 5

Unit 5: Managing human resources 141

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

142 Unit 5: Managing human resources

Unit 6: Managing
organisational change

Unit introduction ......................................................145

Unit learning outcomes .............................................145
Why change?.............................................................146
Models of change management .................................150
Common management problems ...............................153
Issues in developing countries ....................................155
The action-learning cycle ...........................................159
Do it yourself: improve your organisation ..................166
Unit summary ...........................................................171
Answers to self-help questions ...................................172
References.................................................................173
Assignment ...............................................................174
 Module 7: Management Skills

Unit introduction

Welcome to Unit 6 Managing organisational change.

Managing would be easier if all organisations were the same and
never needed to change – but of course no work situation is static or
perfect. On the contrary, each organisation is unique and youth
development work is particularly dynamic. In fact, there is always
opportunity for improvement in the way organisations are structured
and managed. So management must rise to the challenge of bringing
about changes that will benefit the organisation and its stakeholders.
In this unit, we’ll discuss the need for organisational change and
examine the types and the process of change. In addition, we’ll
discuss the various dimensions of change. We’ll then go on to explore
organisational issues in developing countries. The unit ends by
discussing how action-learning is particularly suitable to youth work
and looking at ‘action-learning’ as a strategy for tackling problems
that youth organisations experience.
At the end of this unit, you’ll find your third written assignment.

Unit learning outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

z discuss the need for and the types and dimensions of
organisational change

Unit 6
z outline the two main approaches to change management
z explain the process of change
z explore key areas for management in organisational change
z relate the management of organisational change to the principles
and practice of youth development work.

Unit 6: Managing organisational change 145

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Why change?

Rapid and constant change – social, economic and technological –

has become an unavoidable aspect of modern life. Growing global
competition puts pressure on all organisations to reduce costs,
improve quality, find new growth opportunities and increase
productivity. As a result, there is an increasing need for organisations
to embrace continual change. Yet those of us who are involved in
managing change know that it is a very difficult task. According to
Machiavelli’s The Prince:
“There is nothing more difficult to plan, more doubtful of
success, nor more dangerous to manage than the creation of a
new system. For the initiator has the enmity of all who would
profit by the preservation of the old institutions and merely the
lukewarm defenders in those who should gain the new ones.”
Bourne and Bourne, 2002, p. 4

Change may be traumatic and may be unsuccessful, but attempts to

manage change can reduce its negative effects on any organisation
and its members (Armstrong, 1999, p. 20). An effective organisation
thus takes deliberate steps to manage change smoothly. Since it’s the
people who implement change, the manager’s behaviour and the
support of the staff are extremely important.
In order for change management to be successful, we need to be able
to understand:
z the major types of change
z the process of change
z dimensions of change
z approaches to change management.
This list is by no means exhaustive.

Strategic and operational change

Basically, there are two types of change: strategic and operational
(Armstrong, 1999, p. 21):
Strategic change
This is deep level change in the strategy of the organisation. This type
of change is concerned with large, long-term and organisation-wide
issues. It involves moving to a future state in which the organisation
has been re-defined in terms of its strategic vision. Strategic change
covers the mission of the organisation, its policies on matters such as
growth, quality, innovation and people values, its market and the
technologies it employs. Strategic change includes the organisation’s
internal resources, capabilities, culture, structure and systems. It
occurs within the context of a fiercely competitive environment. It

146 Unit 6: Managing organisational change

 Module 7: Management Skills

seems particularly relevant in the context of globalisation and the

global market, and is one of the dimensions of the organisation that
chaos theory addresses. You may wish to refer back to Reading 1
from Unit 1 to see the relationship between strategic change and
chaos theory.
Implementation of strategic change requires thorough analysis and
understanding of all these factors during the stages of formulation
and planning.
Operational change
Operational change relates to new systems, procedures, structures and
technology that have an immediate effect on working arrangements
within a part of the organisation. Operational change impacts more
immediately on the workforce than broader strategic change, and
therefore this type of change must be handled very carefully.

The process of change

Change entails analysing the past to see what actions are required
now for the future. It involves moving from a present state, through a
transitional state, to a future desired state (Armstrong, 1999). The
change process requires the commitment of those who manage the
organisation and those affected by the change.
The process of change within an organisation begins with an
awareness of the need to change. This is followed by an analysis of
the state of the organisation and the factors that have created the need
for change. Once this diagnosis of the situation has been made, you
will have an indication of the direction in which action needs to be
taken. At this point, you may identify several possible courses of
action; therefore you must evaluate each before making a choice of

Unit 6
the preferred action.
The next step is crucial, as you now have to decide how to move from
one stage to the next. Managing the change process in this
transitional state is extremely important. In the words of Armstrong
(1999, p. 22), it is here that the problems of introducing change
emerge and have to be managed.
Common problems encountered are ‘resistance to change’, ‘low
centre of gravity’, ‘high levels of stress’, ‘misdirected energy’,
‘conflict’ and ‘losing momentum’.
To revise what we have discussed thus far, complete the activity
below.

Unit 6: Managing organisational change 147

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Activity 6.1
(about 5 minutes)
Answer the following questions in your learning journal.
1 Why is strategic change described as deep level change?
2 How does it differ from operational change?
3 What are the three stages of the process of change?
Discuss your answers with your colleagues.

Dimensions of change
Bourne and Bourne (2002) outline for us three dimensions of change:
z ‘incremental change’
z ‘continuous improvements’
z ‘participative’ or ‘directed’ change.
Incremental change involves a number of steps. While the steps are
small and can be achieved easily, over time the change is cumulative
and may be significant. On the contrary, radical change is very
noticeable and usually involves a single significant step.
Continuous improvement is used in many industries to develop the
business. It is defined as a low risk strategy. Its strength is making
change a significant process, while not having the disruptive elements
associated with larger changes. It makes change habitual.
Participative change involves the participation of those directly
affected by the change. It depends on the goodwill of those involved
in the change to work through the change process. More often than
not, however, change is directed. Directive change depends on those
making the change having the power to order others to effect the
change.
From a youth perspective, participative change is best as it reinforces
democratic values and emphasises and builds on the members’
commitment and loyalty to the organisation.
Now read Case study 6.1 and complete the exercise in Activity 6.2.

148 Unit 6: Managing organisational change

 Module 7: Management Skills

Case Study 6.1

A Real Service Organisation
Staff had been recruited for their organisational and administrative
skills and not for their ability to handle clients. The structure was
hierarchical; each person had a rigid job description and a supervisor
to ensure that things were done properly; generally work was
conducted to a high standard. Everyone arrived promptly at 9 a.m.
and finished promptly at 5 p.m. with an hour for lunch between 1
p.m. and 2 p.m. The organisation had a paternalistic approach,
almost protecting the staff from commercial realities. While this
created a very loyal staff team and minimised staff turnover, it led to
complacency and a lack of new ideas that would normally come in
through new staff. Over several years, revenues began to decline but
this had been offset by cutting costs. After a period, nonetheless, the
senior management team found more cost cutting just too painful. It
was also found that customers were leaving. It was then decided that
changes would have to be made for the organisation to survive.
(Bourne and Bourne, 2002, pp. 64–66)

Activity 6.2
(about 10 minutes)
Answer the following questions in your learning journal:
1 At what stage of the process of change is this organisation?
2 What changes do you think are necessary to ensure the

Unit 6
survival of the organisation? Why?
3 Describe how you would make these changes (the process).
4 Identify what you think would be the greatest challenges
for managing these changes.
Discuss your ideas with your colleagues.

Unit 6: Managing organisational change 149

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Models of change management

Basically, there are two approaches to managing change: the planned

approach and the emergent approach. The planned approach involves
change that is consciously embarked upon and planned by an
organisation as contrasted to the type of emergent change that might
come about through accident, by impulse or that is forced on the
organisation (Burnes, 2000).

The planned approach

The two main planned approaches to change management discussed
in this unit are Lewin’s three stages model (Burnes, 2000) and Bullock
and Batten’s four-phase model.

Lewin’s three stages model

The three stages of this model are:

Unfreezing
Unfreezing is the first phase of the model. Rubin (1967) in Burnes
(2000) states that unfreezing requires some form of confrontational
meeting or re-education process for those involved. This approach can
be achieved through a team-building process or some other form of
management development in which the organisational problem to be
solved is analysed.

Moving
In this phase of the model new behaviours are developed. Burnes
(2000) contends that changed values and attitudes must be developed
and implemented, suitable for the process of changing the
organisational structures and processes. The implementation of the
new behaviours, values and attitudes should be viewed as a
continuous organisational process and managed in such a way as to
stop the people involved from reverting to the old ways of doing
business.

Refreezing
Burnes (2000) defines the refreezing stage as the use of strategies to
stabilise the organisation at the new stage following change, in order
to ensure that the new ways of working are relatively safe from
regression.
One of the major weaknesses of the planned change approach is that
it is based on the assumption that a common agreement can be
reached among all the parties involved in a change process because
they all have an interest and willingness in doing so. Burnes (2000)
argues that the premise for such an assumption is unrealistic. He

150 Unit 6: Managing organisational change

 Module 7: Management Skills

posits that it ignores the differences and tensions that can be brought
to bear by organisational politics, power and vested interests.

Bullock and Batten’s four-phase model

Bullock and Batten developed an integrated four-phase model of
managing organisational change after reviewing over thirty different
models of change management. Change in this model is viewed from
two dimensions: the ‘change process’ dimension and the ‘change
phases’ dimension.
The ‘change process’ dimension is a method employed primarily for
reacting to the process of moving on from one state to another,
whereas the ‘change phases’ dimension is the proactive method of
identifying the distinctive states or phases an organisation goes
through to undertake planned change (Burnes, 2000). We may pursue
such planned change only in a relatively stable environment, while
reacting to change will be better suited to a more turbulent
environment. The four phases of this model are:

Exploration phase
In the exploration stage an organisation has to explore and decide
whether it wants to make specific changes in its operations and, if so,
to commit resources to planning the changes.

Planning phase
At this stage consultants are involved in the collection of information
in order to determine the nature of the problem and actions to be
taken.

Action phase

Unit 6
This is where the organisation implements the change that it decides
is needed.

Integration phase
Once the change process is implemented successfully, the focus is
now on the reinforcement of new behaviours through feedback and
reward systems. The organisation must ensure that the successes of
the change process are spread to all levels.

The emergent approach

Supporters of the emergent approach believe that, rather than a series
of linear events in a given period of time, change is a continuous
process.
They describe emergent change as change that unfolds in an
apparently spontaneous and unplanned way. Dawson (1996) describes
two ways in which change can be regarded as emergent rather than
planned:

Unit 6: Managing organisational change 151

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

1 Managers make a number of decisions apparently unrelated to

the change that emerges. The change is therefore not planned.
However, these decisions may be based on unspoken, and
sometimes unconscious, assumptions about the organisation, its
environment and its future (Mintzberg, 1989) and are, therefore,
not as unrelated as they first seem. Such implicit assumptions
dictate the direction of the seemingly disparate and unrelated
decisions, thereby shaping the change process by ‘drift’ rather
than by design.
2 External factors (such as the economy, competitors’ behaviour
and political climate) or internal features (such as the relative
power of different interest groups, distribution of knowledge and
uncertainty) influence the change in directions outside the control
of managers. Even the most planned and executed change
programme will have some emergent impacts.
Dawson (1996) further notes that the above highlights two important
aspects of managing change:
z the need to identify, explore and if necessary challenge the
assumptions that underlie managerial decisions
z understanding that organisational change is a process that can be
facilitated by perceptive and insightful planning and analysis and
well crafted sensitive implementation phases, while
acknowledging that it can never be fully isolated from the effects
of serendipity, uncertainty and change.
(This explanation of ‘emergent change’ is based on
http://www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/infokits/change-management/types-of-
change)

152 Unit 6: Managing organisational change

 Module 7: Management Skills

Common management problems

Let’s now look at a few of the most common management problems

and give hints on how to improve them. The following table (adapted
from Armstrong, 1990, pp. 151–153) provides a useful framework. It
offers practical examples and suggests some solutions.

Common management problems

Problem Solution
Inability to learn Analyse mistakes thoroughly and be
from mistakes honest, though not over-critical, about
what went wrong, in order to avoid the
same kind of mistake in future.
Incompetence This can be minimised through
improvement in selection procedures,
monitoring performance standards and
eliminating and correcting weaknesses.
Staff development and training
programmes should also play a role here.
Over-confidence Over-confident people usually have tunnel
vision. They only see where they
themselves are headed, but what is
happening during the process is lost.
Regular exposure of these people to other
people’s views might be a useful strategy.
Under-confidence An under-confident person needs
reassurance constantly. Mentors can help
in the process of building confidence by

Unit 6
giving the under-confident person tasks
within his/her competence at first and
gradually making tasks more difficult.
Carelessness This is usually a result of over-confidence.
To eliminate this, you should encourage
staff always to check everything they
produce – and make sure you do this
yourself, too. Develop systematic,
efficient checking procedures.
Laziness Motivational strategies and individual
counselling can help. As a last resort,
implement punishment measures, because
laziness costs the organisation.
Lack of foresight Anticipate, plan and make contingency
plans to cope with the unexpected. Make
sure your staff do this too.

Unit 6: Managing organisational change 153

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Self-help question 6.1

(about 10 minutes)
Here are two thumbnail sketches of workers in an organisation
who display some of the problems outlined in the table above.
Diagnose what each problem is, and suggest a solution.
Case 1:
Fayed is a new recruit who shows great enthusiasm for
fieldwork, but when you ask him to present a brief report on
aspects of a community project, he procrastinates. The
morning of the deadline you have set for him to deliver the
report, he stays away from work, though you are pretty sure
he is not ill.
Problem/s:

Solutions:

Case 2:
Susan is a strong performer in the organisation and can be
relied on to see projects through. However, other staff find her
difficult to get along with. She is a poor listener and tends to
overwhelm and dominate her colleagues. Although she is good
at managing big issues, she often forgets the details. When her
colleagues point them out to her, she dismisses their criticisms
and blames others. Her subordinates are getting tired of fixing
up the details that she has omitted.
Problem/s:

Solutions:

Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the

unit.

154 Unit 6: Managing organisational change

 Module 7: Management Skills

Issues in developing countries

Organisations in developing countries face a number of special

problems. It has been argued (Blunt and Jones, 1992) that they all
tend to share some characteristic features and have similar
management issues. In addition, their managers face a particular set
of challenges.

Management issues
Here is a summary of the sorts of things that can go wrong in these
organisations at the three levels of management.

Top management problems

Problems for the top management level may include:
z overworked staff
z authoritarian or paternalistic management styles
z centralised control and decision-making
z unclear mission – no sense of direction
z extensive activities outside the organisation
z politicised management
z weak executive support systems.

Middle management problems

Unit 6
Problems experienced at middle management level may include:
z weak management systems and controls
z inadequate management and administrative skills
z lack of specific industry knowledge and experience
z under-staffing
z being risk averse: staff unwilling to take independent action or
initiative
z close supervision, little delegation
z low levels of motivation.

Operating level problems

Problems may also exist at the operating or functional level of an
organisation. These may include:
z inefficient, high-cost operations

Unit 6: Managing organisational change 155

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

z low levels of activity or productiveness

z over-staffing
z staff under-utilised
z low pay
z poor morale
z weak boundaries of responsibility
z vital technical core staff and functions under-protected or
neglected.

Activity 6.3
(about 10 minutes)
Study the above lists of common problems in developing
country organisations.
Use them as a checklist to assess organisational problems in
your workplace by answering the following questions:
1 Which problems at each of the three levels apply in your
organisation? Add any problems not mentioned.
2 What strengths does your organisation have at each of the
three levels? (For example, Blunt and Jones (1992) found
that top management in developing countries tended to be
educated, articulate and well-travelled.)
Write up your answers and reflections in your learning journal.
It will be useful if you discuss these issues with your fellow
students or peers – but be very careful to be tactful, maintain
confidentiality and respect the privacy of the staff in your
organisation.

Naturally, many of the problems may apply to organisations around

the world – developing and developed. But as a youth development
worker you need to be aware of any weaknesses that do exist in your
organisation. As a manager, it’s your job to work hard to minimise
these problems and change your organisation for the better.

156 Unit 6: Managing organisational change

 Module 7: Management Skills

Problems faced by managers

Some of the problems and challenges faced by managers in the
developing world include the following:
The impact of governments
In some developing countries, there is a general perception that public
resources are being mismanaged – for example, if a government
spends money earmarked for development on political election
campaigns. An improvement in the effectiveness of public
management is an important condition of sustainable development
(Howell in Blunt et al, 1993, p. 88).
Inappropriate management styles
In many cases, Western management styles have been adopted as
appropriate for management in Africa and Asia, but the special
circumstances and conditions of organisations in developing
countries have sometimes not been considered. For example, in
African organisations, the views of local grassroots organisations and
communities are dominant and should always be kept in mind. This
is not necessarily part of Western management style.
Favouritism
Goran Hyden (in Blunt et al, 1993, p. 88) sees the fundamental
problems of African management as lying in: “the economy of affection
which means that the network of support, communications and interaction
among structurally-defined groups connected by blood, kin, community or
other affinities, (for example religion)” that determines who will get
government-funded jobs. So employment in and for government, for
example, does not rest on the employee’s skills and abilities but on
whom in the government s/he is related to.

Unit 6
Elitism
The elite may manage the system in their own interests, together with
aid organisations and donor governments.
Excessive bureaucracy
This derives from over emphasis on classical management practices.
The focus tends to be on management procedures as ends in
themselves rather than on using procedures to tackle the practical
problems faced by management and make organisations more
effective. Governments may use long and often irrelevant processes in
order to ensure that the correct procedure is in place, but this is at the
expense of the people affected by these processes.

Unit 6: Managing organisational change 157

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Activity 6.4
(about 10 minutes)
Whether you work in a developing or a developed country, your
organisation will undoubtedly have its own problems.
1 What problems for management does your organisation
face?
2 Which ones do you perceive to be beyond your
organisation’s control?
3 Which ones can you and your colleagues do something
about?
Make notes on your answers in your learning journal.
Use them as a basis for discussion of these issues with your co-
workers or your fellow students.

Finding solutions
What can be done about these problems? Some of them are beyond
the scope and influence of any organisation. Others can be remedied
with determination and a focused approach.
Here are three suggestions:
1 Contingency management theory argues that management
should focus on an organisation-to-organisation scale of
operation. This means that, instead of looking for universally
applicable management procedures, each organisation should
concentrate on how it performs itself, and what solutions are
particularly suited to its own situation. Sometimes relevant ideas
can be derived from another organisation in a very similar
situation.
2 A comprehensive understanding of the activities and
performance of an organisation from the inside is necessary.
3 In order to improve organisations, the action-learning cycle can
be used to learn more about the organisation and what should be
done to improve it.
How can action-learning help improve the management of
organisations and change them for the better? In the section that
follows, we will look at the action-learning cycle as a useful strategy
in change management.

158 Unit 6: Managing organisational change

 Module 7: Management Skills

The action-learning cycle

Youth work organisations – particularly in developing countries –

must be very flexible and responsive to change because they often
function in turbulent and changing political, economic and social
environments. In addition, they must cope with these in a context of
severe resource and infrastructural constraints – for example, little
money, few resources and limited local services like power and
transport. So youth work organisations need to be able to develop and
grow – and they need empowering and authentic processes to do it.
One such process is action-learning (Taylor et al, 1997, pp. 2–3,
pp. 49–58).
Action-learning is a dynamic way of bringing about change for the
better. It is a process that encourages members of an organisation to
understand their own problems – and find their own solutions to
them.
Action-learning is different from action research. Action research is
generally used to gather information about other people’s
communities or organisations, and make recommendations to them,
whereas action-learning is aimed at finding solutions to your own
organisation’s problems.
The process of action-learning consists of a cycle that has four
elements:
z action
z reflection
z learning

Unit 6
z planning.
Let’s look at each of these elements in turn.

Action
During the action stage you identify the problem. Some of the
questions to ask during this stage are (Cattermole et al, 1987, p. 83):
z Is the problem significant?
z Which people need to work on it?
z How can they best be brought together?
z What are their preferred learning styles?
z Who might be the best person to act as facilitator?
These questions aim to highlight the problem/s that the organisation
is facing.

Unit 6: Managing organisational change 159

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Reflection
In the reflection stage you look again at the identified problem to
clarify it and ensure that it is the real one faced by the organisation.
Questions to ask are (Cattermole et al, 1987, p. 83):
z How do we, as a group, experience the problem?
z Is this the real problem or do we need to reinterpret?
z What questions do we need to ask? Of whom?
z Are we committed to tackling it?

Learning
The third stage is the learning stage. During this stage you determine
whether you and your colleagues have similar or different problems
and work out how you are going to address them – individually and
collectively. Questions to ask are (Cattermole et al, 1987, p. 83):
z How do you understand the problem?
z Is it similar to others’ problems?
z What are the alternative solutions?
z What might be the consequences of each?
z Do any of the solutions seem worth pursuing?
z What action would that entail? By whom? When?
z What help is needed?

Planning
Next, in the planning stage, you consider plans for solving the
identified problems. The implications and consequences of these
plans are the major focus here. Questions to ask are (Cattermole et al,
1987, p. 83):
z If I try out the solutions discussed, what would the consequences
be? For others? For me?
z What have I learned? About the problem? About others? About
me?
These four stages in the action-learning cycle form a repeating round
of activity in the form of a spiral that could either be upward, leading
to greater effectiveness, or (rarely, we hope) downward, leading to
frustration and demoralisation. An action-learning process never
takes place in neat, separate steps but it does provide a tool for
learning and problem solving.
Here is a diagram showing how the cycle works.

160 Unit 6: Managing organisational change

 Module 7: Management Skills

N
PLAN ING

ACT
LE AR NIN

ION
G

REF
LECTION

The action-learning cycle

Self-help question 6.2

(about 5 minutes)
In Unit 3, you were introduced to a problem-solving model.
You might like to revisit this section now. You’ll find it under
the sub-heading ‘Skill 3: Solving problems creatively’.
Compare that model with the action-learning cycle described
above and answer the question below.
In what way is the problem-solving model similar to the action-
learning cycle?

Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the Unit 6
unit.

Characteristics of action-learning
The process of action-learning assumes certain values that are vital to
maintain the nature of the action-learning process.
These values are:
z respect for people’s experience and knowledge and recognition of
them as valid: the values of action-learning are democratic
z encouragement of learning from one another: this reduces
hierarchical differences

Unit 6: Managing organisational change 161

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

z enabling people to challenge the status quo, to change themselves,

and the organisation
z encouragement of personal growth and recognition of its value in
changing and improving systems, institutions and organisations.

Activity 6.5
(about 15 minutes)
In your opinion, how far do these values match the principles
and practice of youth development work? Write your opinion
and answers to the following questions in your learning
journal:
1 Do you feel these values are appropriate in the
management and operation of youth work organisations?
Why or why not?
2 Which of these values is your organisation currently
practising?
3 Which of them are not present in your organisation?
Explain why.
These are important issues. We strongly recommend that you
discuss them with your work colleagues, peers or fellow
students. They would also form an excellent basis for a tutorial
discussion.

Action-learning can only take place in the right environment. The

organisation and all its members should be committed to the process.
Here are the characteristics of an organisation in a position to
implement action-learning successfully (Taylor et al, 1997, pp. 54–
57). They are:
z leadership that enables everyone in the organisation to
understand and own the organisation’s vision and its strategies
z trust that affirms the value of all members and their roles and
functions
z clear plans, criteria and standards that allow progress and
achievement to be measured
z members and management that view mistakes and failures as
learning opportunities while striving for excellence
z recognition of and commitment to communication and
information as the keys to effective learning
z members who are open to learning and to new ideas and
methods

162 Unit 6: Managing organisational change

 Module 7: Management Skills

z structures, systems, procedures, resources, methods and

communication that are aimed at supporting the learning process
z enough time spent on action, reflection, learning and planning in
order to ensure a creative balance between them.

Action-learning is useful for your organisation because:

z it helps you to structure organisational evaluation and planning
sessions annually or biannually
z it helps in project management and monitoring
z it is a useful evaluation tool at the end of meetings, projects,
programmes and tasks
z it helps the organisation to learn from particular failures or
successes in a programme, project or task
z it is useful for solving conflict.
Now that we have discussed the values, characteristics and reasons for
using action-learning to improve organisations, it’s time to reflect on
its practical application in a case study.

Case Study 6.2

A story of risk
Picture yourself in the boardroom of an office block in central
Johannesburg. The windows are grimy. The cheap table is scratched
and worn. The chairs are uncomfortable. But this is no ordinary
NGO. It is an organisation with tens of thousands of members
throughout the country. It employs 160 people in 16 regional offices.

Unit 6
Its leadership is elected by the membership. In its own field, it has
been the leading NGO in South Africa for the past fifteen years.
But now it is floundering. Relationships between membership and the
staff are at an all-time low. The context is changing and the leadership
has lost touch. Internal conflicts are rampant, and the members are
being neglected. Clearly something needs to be done. Two
consultants had been contracted to help them sort things out but had
failed. Now yet another consultant has been called in.
In the boardroom the consultant faces a powerful grouping of the
leadership, headed by the General Secretary and his assistant. The
General Secretary is sharp, intelligent and in control. He speaks
directly to the point. ‘We’re in trouble here. Over the last couple of years
two highly respected consultants have proposed changes to the way this
organisation functions. All these proposals make sense, but none of them have
worked, and we continue to flounder. What do you offer that can make a
difference?’

Unit 6: Managing organisational change 163

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

The consultant is clearly on the line. ‘I offer you nothing in the way of
specialised advice,’ he says. ‘But then specialised advice hasn’t got you
anywhere so far. What I can do is facilitate a process for you that will enable
you to reflect on your organisation and the context in which you find
yourselves. The aim is that you learn from your own experience and arrive at
your own solutions. I can’t change your organisation, only you can do that.
You know far more about this organisation than you think you do, and
certainly more than I do. What you need is a process to draw that out, and a
process that will help you to believe in your own abilities to find solutions that
work for you.’
The room is quiet. All eyes are on the General Secretary. Finally he
responds. ‘On the face of it you seem to offer us even less than the other
consultants, yet you still want to charge a fee. On the other hand we remain in
more trouble than ever. The process you talk about is not going to happen
overnight, I’m sure. Why should we trust you to take us through such a
process when even you don’t know where it will end up?’
‘I can’t convince you to trust me,’ the consultant answers. ‘But I suspect
that the real issue is that you don’t trust yourselves. Outsiders can’t solve your
problems for you. Only you can do that. You, yourselves are causing the
problems. You have to turn that around, and become the instruments of your
own success.’
Silence. Everyone is looking slightly vague and confused. The
consultant holds his breath and wonders whether he has gone too far.
The General Secretary stares at him. The others around the table look
to their neighbours to take the lead. Finally the Assistant General
Secretary smiles wryly, and speaks. ‘I think you are being honest, and I
also think you are right. I think you have already recognised the main
problem here, which is our belief that the problems and the solutions lie
outside of this room and outside of ourselves. Let’s carry on. Tell us more
about this process of yours.’

164 Unit 6: Managing organisational change

 Module 7: Management Skills

Activity 6.6
(about 10 minutes)
Answer the following questions in your learning journal:
1 Why do you think the previous consultants have failed in
their efforts to help this organisation?
2 What specifically does this consultant offer that the others
did not?
3 Do you agree with the decision of the Assistant General
Secretary to carry on with the process of action-learning?
Why?
4 Do you think that, in general, outsiders cannot solve an
organisation’s problems? Why or why not?
Keep your notes from this activity to use in the assessment
task at the end of this unit.

Action learning in youth development work

Action-learning is particularly useful in youth development work
because:
z all organisations learn as they operate and grow, and youth
development work organisations are especially dynamic
z it is important for youth development workers to constantly
improve the quality and effectiveness of their work; action-
learning offers an effective tool to bring this about; it will give

Unit 6
youth workers a sense of pride in forming part of a dynamic and
worthwhile organisation
z action-learning improves employees’ skills and abilities; the most
effective learning occurs when people are assisted to use their
own experience and skills to solve issues and problems; this helps
them to solve bigger problems in future and leads to self-reliance
and empowerment
z people are encouraged to co-operate and learn from one another,
and to use their skills and experience to develop the organisation’s
potential.
Finally, the values and principles behind action-learning – ownership
of problems and solutions, creative thinking, collaboration, co-
operation and empowerment – match very well with the values of
youth development work. So as a tool for management and an agent
of change in youth work organisations, it is particularly relevant and
appropriate.

Unit 6: Managing organisational change 165

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Do it yourself: improve your organisation

Action-learning has much to offer your organisation because it aims

to solve work problems, recognise and use opportunities, and improve
the organisation by using its most important resource – its employees.
It enables you and your colleagues to learn through your own
mistakes and collectively to find solutions to problems.
How can you achieve this? By following the eight action-learning
steps. These are designed to help you and your colleagues to make
strategic choices about leading your organisation and planning for the
future.
Let’s examine each of the eight steps in detail.

Step 1: Facilitating the process

Basic principles
The fundamental principles behind the facilitation of action-learning
involve:
z helping the participants collect and share information that
describes an experience
z reflecting on that experience through discussion prompted by
asking the right questions
z drawing out the learning from the reflection
z ensuring that the learning will be applied, through planning, to
inform and improve future practice.

How to facilitate
z Prepare questions carefully so that they have the best chance of
eliciting a relevant response, which will allow the learning to take
place.
z Aim to include as many of the members of the organisation as
possible. The numbers will be limited, however, by how many can
realistically engage in and feel a part of the process. From
experience, the ideal group size is not more than 16, although a
very experienced and competent facilitator can deal with groups
of more than 30. In larger organisations it’s necessary to select a
representative group to undertake the process.
z Think carefully before selecting participants. Ideally all those who
will be affected or play a part in managing the learning process
should participate. If this isn’t possible, choose representatives
from all interested parties. Make sure you have clear plans at the
end as to how the process will be fed back to those who couldn’t
participate.

166 Unit 6: Managing organisational change

 Module 7: Management Skills

z During the questioning sessions, divide the participants into

smaller groups of not more than five – fewer if the group is not
too large. The smaller the group, the greater the participation of
all involved, but remember that more groups will take longer to
report back. Each group should elect a reporting secretary and
someone to report back to the larger group.
z Report the small group findings to the full group. There are
numerous ways of reporting back. One method is to get the small
groups to report back orally, with the facilitator or an assistant
writing the responses on a flipchart or board. Whichever method
you use, it’s important to capture the responses in writing so that
they can be referred to later.
z Direct the full-group discussion. Once the responses of the small
groups have been fed back, it’s the task of the facilitator to direct
the full group discussion in such a way that the common themes,
conclusions or learning can be extracted. Much of the art of the
facilitator lies in managing this process. A few questions to
initiate the discussion will help in drawing out the learning. The
quality of the discussion and the subsequent learning is
dependent on the quality and relevance of the questions asked.
Do not hesitate to refine questions to meet specific needs.
z The process we have described here may well be familiar to you.
It forms the overall framework in which action-learning takes
place. In Step 2 we look at how to draw out information about
the group’s experiences of the organisation.

Step 2: the vision and the values

z Make a list of what your clients (or yourselves) consider your
greatest achievements over the past two years (or any selected

Unit 6
time span).
Do the same for failures.
z List the events over the past five years that have had an impact on
the life of the organisation. Indicate in each case whether the
impact was positive or negative.
z Imagine that you are attending a major international banquet to
honour the contributions made by organisations in your field of
operation. Your organisation receives the highest honour for the
service it provides. You are presented with a citation in the form
of a scroll, which lists the reasons you have been chosen as an
example of excellence in the field. What do you think will be
included in this citation?

Drawing out the learning

Once all this information has been listed and is fresh in the memory
of the participants, draw out the central issues raised by asking:

Unit 6: Managing organisational change 167

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

z What specific and unique role does your organisation play in

society?
z What are the guiding principles, values and beliefs that underlie
all that your organisation does?

Step 3 Defining the service

z Whom do you serve? Build a profile as complete as possible of
your clients. Include as many characteristics as you can. For
example, include where they live, age, income, employment,
specific needs.
z Why do you serve?
z What are your clients asking of you?
z How may your clients and their needs change in the future?

Drawing out the learning

z Do you need to change your services to meet the changing needs
of your clients?
z Should you increase the number of services you provide or
provide fewer?
z Should you target a wider clientele or be more selective?
z Should you improve the quality of your service?

Step 4: Assessing human resources

z What are the distinctive skills and competencies that you have in
your organisation?
z Who in particular has these skills and competencies?

Drawing out the learning

z In light of the services that you need to provide in the future and
the organisational structures necessary to support this work, what
skills and competencies are lacking?
z Should you increase the range of your competencies or
concentrate on a smaller number?
z Should you employ more people, fewer people, or retrain those
you have?

Step 5 Assessing material resources

z What are the key material resources that you depend on to
provide your service?
z Who provides you with these resources?

168 Unit 6: Managing organisational change

 Module 7: Management Skills

Drawing out the learning

z Are you dependent on too few providers, or are you wasting
energy by having too many?
z Could you be getting your resources from other sources more
efficiently?
z Are there new resources that you will need to implement new
strategies?
z Where will you get these new resources from?

Step 6: Identifying the necessary changes

z How do the previous four steps in the process fit together? Is
there any conflict among the different parts?
z What are you suggesting in the four steps above that is different
from the situation in the past?

Drawing out the learning

z What specific new directions are being suggested here?

Step 7: Planning the changes

z What are the changes we hope to see in our organisation?
z Who will take responsibility for managing the process?
z What steps need to be taken to implement them?
z When do we hope to see them happen?
z How will we measure that they have been achieved?

Unit 6
z How often will progress be monitored and by whom?

Step 8: lmplementing action-learning

z Make participants aware of the action-learning process that’s
been used to reach this point. Ask them if they can identify the
method used by the facilitator.
z Share the principles of action-learning and the action-learning
cycle with the group. Suggest that it be used to monitor the
implementation of the strategic changes.

Now you’ve read through the eight steps involved in the action-
learning process, it’s time to reflect on this.

Unit 6: Managing organisational change 169

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Activity 6.7
(about 20 minutes)
In your learning journal, answer the following questions:
z What do you think are the strengths of the action-learning
process?
z What are its weaknesses?
z Have you any prior experience of the process? If so, how
effective was it in solving problems and finding strategies
for change?
z How important do you think it is that organisations change
by themselves and learn through this process? Why?
z Are there any problems in your organisation that you
believe could be tackled using this process? List them.
z Which steps in the process are most applicable to your
organisation?
z What specific changes would you like to see in your
organisation?
Do you think the action-learning process could help the
organisation make these changes? Give reasons for your
answer.

170 Unit 6: Managing organisational change

 Module 7: Management Skills

Unit summary

In this unit you have covered the following main points:

z the inevitability of change
z the dimensions of change and the main types of change:
‘strategic’ and ‘operational’
z organisational issues and challenges at the three levels of
management
z common management problems and suggestions on how to solve
them, and specific management problems in some developing
countries
z action-learning and its four phases – action, reflection, learning,
planning; the action-learning cycle and its continuing patterns;
the values and principles behind action-learning
z how the action-learning cycle could improve organisations; how
the action-learning process works (the eight steps).
We have looked at the management problems faced by organisations.
We have also discussed how the action-learning cycle can be used to
improve organisations. We have seen that the strength of action-
learning lies in organisations’ recognition of the fact that solutions to
problems are to be found within and not outside organisations.
Facilitators merely help to identify problems and solutions that staff
generate themselves. The last section of the unit presented a ‘do it
yourself ’ set of guidelines on how to improve your organisation
through the action-learning strategy.
To check how you have got on, look back at the learning outcomes

Unit 6
for this unit and see if you can now do them. When you have done
this, look through your learning journal to remind yourself of what
you have learned and the ideas you have generated.
In the next unit we will discuss the management of communication
and of ICT (information and communication technology) both of
which are vital to the process of change management.

Unit 6: Managing organisational change 171

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Answers to self-help questions

Self-help question 6.1

Case 1 – Fayed:
Problem/s
z Fayed may be under-confident as a new recruit.
z He may also be unsure of his report writing skills or be
inexperienced in this area – or he may know he is not up to the
task (incompetence).
z He may be lazy – though given his enthusiasm in other work
areas, this is unlikely.
Suggested solutions
Fayed may need more support from you and his colleagues. You
could suggest training for him in report and other writing skills. Also
he might benefit from having an experienced staff member guide him
through his first few weeks in your organisation. This should help to
build his confidence.

Case 2 – Susan:
Problem/s
Susan is a valuable staff member, but she is also over-confident. This
leads her to be unable to accept critical comments or learn from them.
It also means she makes careless mistakes, which put an added
burden on other staff.
Suggested solutions
Susan may need some personal staff development to improve her
listening skills and help her accept others’ views and constructive
criticisms. You could arrange for some personal mentoring to develop
her skills in these areas. It might also be useful to discuss with her
strategies for ensuring she gives more attention to checking the
important but smaller details of her daily work. Meetings where staff
are given the opportunity to discuss these issues with Susan might
also be beneficial.

Self-help question 6.2

The problem-solving model in Unit 3 is very similar to the spiral of
action-learning. They both have four stages. Though the problem-
solving model does not use identical terms for each stage, the object
of each stage is similar. In both cases, the actions are continuous and
repetitive.
The reason for these similarities is that both these models are aimed
at solving problems collectively and collaboratively.

172 Unit 6: Managing organisational change

 Module 7: Management Skills

References

Armstrong, M. (1990) How to be an Even Better Manager, Kogan Page

Limited, London.
Blunt, P. and Jones, M.L. (1992) Managing Organisations in Africa,
Walter de Gruyter, Berlin.
Blunt, P., Jones, M.L. and Richards, D. (1993) Managing Organisations
in Africa: Readings, cases, and exercises, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin.
Bourne, M. and Bourne, P (2002) Change Management, Bookpoint
Ltd., Oxon.
Burnes B. (2000) Managing Change: A Strategic Approach to
Organizational Dynamics, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited,
Prentice Hall Publishing, Essex, UK.
Cattermole, F., Airs, M. and Grisbrook, D. (1987) Managing Youth
Services, Longman Group UK Limited, Essex.
Dawson S. (1996) Analysing Organisations, 3rd edition, Macmillan,
London.
Mintzberg H. (1989) Mintzberg on Management: Inside Our Strange
World of Organizations, The Free Press, New York.
Taylor, T., Marais, D. and Kaplan, A. (1997) Action Learning For
Development: Use your experience to improve your effectiveness, Juta, Cape
Town.

Unit 6

Unit 6: Managing organisational change 173

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Assignment

First, a reminder that your work in this module will be assessed in the
following ways:
1 Completion of the unit assessment tasks that you will carry out
throughout this module (30 per cent). There are four assignments
– at the end of Units 2, 4, 6 (i.e., the one below) and 7. All these
assignments will add up to 30 per cent of the unit assessment.
Your learning institution will indicate when and which of these
tasks should be submitted for marking by your tutor.
2 The learning journal that you will keep for recording your
responses to the different learning activities in each of the units
(20 per cent). Your learning institution will inform you when to
submit the learning journal for assessment.
3 A report of about 1,750 words. You will find full details at the
end of the Module Summary (50 per cent).
Note: make sure you discuss the assessment requirements with your
tutor so that you are clear about what you are expected to do and
when, and any particular requirements in your institution.

Assignment 3
This task counts towards your final assessment on this module. This
task and the tasks at the end of Units 2, 4 and 7 together add up to 30
per cent of your final mark.
Length: About 750 words.
For this assessment task, draw on the work you did for Activity 6.7 in
this unit.
Apply your reflections about the eight-step action learning approach
to improving an organisation to the situation described in Case study
6.2.
What are the strengths and weakness of the action learning approach
in the situation described?
How effective do you think it would be in this situation in solving
problems and finding strategies for change?
Add any other comments on action-learning you feel are relevant to
your own organisation.
Submit your written answers to your tutor.

174 Unit 6: Managing organisational change

Unit 7: Managing
youth development
work

Unit introduction ......................................................177

Unit learning outcomes .............................................177
What is communication? ...........................................178
Key elements.............................................................180
Barriers .....................................................................183
Practical writing skills................................................189
Managing ICT ..........................................................193
Unit summary ...........................................................199
Answers to self-help questions ...................................200
References.................................................................201
Assignment ...............................................................202
 Module 7: Management Skills

Unit introduction

Welcome to Unit 7 Managing communication and ICT – the final unit in

this module.
Every aspect of management involves communication skills and
information technology. In this unit we examine the basic principles
of good communication and the special communication skills that
you need as a youth development manager. We give you tips on
effective communication, including the important area of listening
skills, and alert you to common communication barriers. We offer
you some practical advice on writing skills for a variety of purposes
so that your message is understood.
This unit ends by providing an overview of information and
communication technology (ICT) as a tool for change within
organisations.

Unit learning outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

z outline the importance and elements of communication
z describe barriers to communication and ways of minimising them
z explain the role of ICT in management and the need to manage
its use
z describe the elements of a simple management information
system.

Unit 7

Unit 7: Managing youth development work 177

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

What is communication?

Communication involves conveying a message: orally, verbally, in

writing or through the use of signs. The essential element in
communication is the delivery of information and the essential
process is sharing. Communication is also about the quality of the
content that we communicate.
Here are four basic principles of communication:
z Communication is fundamental to all human behaviour, though
not all communication is human communication.
z Communication is not always intentional; nor is it always verbal.
It includes body actions, tone of voice, use of space, gestures and
touch.
z The context of communication influences its meaning. The
formality and informality of the communication style will
influence what is communicated.
z Communication requires effort. The communicator should be
willing to explain and elaborate, but also to listen.
Communication is the blood in the body of an organisation. If the
communication process breaks down, like a body with blood that has
clotted, the organisation does not function properly. So
communication is an essential aspect of managing your staff.
Communication is also the process through which management gets
things done.
Management needs communication to (Koontz et al in Scammel,
1990, p. 11):
z establish and disseminate the goals of an enterprise
z develop plans for the achievement of goals
z organise human and other resources in the most effective and
efficient way
z select, develop and appraise members of the organisation
z lead, direct and motivate members of the organisation
z control performance.

Communication skills
As a manager, you get much of your work done through talking and
listening – mostly face-to-face (Stewart, 1992, p. 277). Because you
communicate with different people, you need a variety of
communication skills.
In the course of your work, you might need to communicate with any
of the following people:

178 Unit 7: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

z senior management
z superiors and supervisors
z work peers
z other colleagues
z staff – subordinates and juniors
z dignitaries
z visitors and guests
z the general public.
To communicate effectively with such a variety of people, you need to
be:
z able to express yourself clearly
z a good listener
z aware of what is going on
z supportive
z persuasive
z fair and open
z ready to communicate with anyone in your complex network.
The way you communicate depends to a large extent on the person
you want to communicate with. According to Stewart (1992, p. 278–
279) this process can be guided by asking the following questions:
z Who are they? You will communicate on a different level with a
cabinet minister compared with one of the young people in your
youth group.
z What cultural differences might there be? You will communicate
more effectively if you are aware of their cultural assumptions
and signals.
z What is their role? This will determine the content of your Unit 7
communication.
z Are they from your own organisation? This will mean that they
use the same jargon that you are used to.
z How many different people are you communicating with
simultaneously? This is a valid question to ask yourself in a
meeting or when writing a report.

Unit 7: Managing youth development work 179

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Managing your communication

The five Ws apply here. These are:
Who ........................... am I communicating with?
Why ........................... am I communicating this?
Where ........................ am I communicating?
When ......................... am I communicating?
What .......................... do I intend to communicate?
Sensitivity is the key. These questions apply quite widely and will
enable you as a manager to convey a clear and appropriate message
and become a more effective listener.
According to Stewart (1992, p. 278) there is a sixth question, which is
‘How?’ How should I communicate? For example, do I write a memo
or do I phone this message?
This is vital because how we say something is as important as what
we say. This is the golden rule in community work, and you should
keep it constantly in mind. Also keep in mind that actions speak
louder than words.

Key elements

As we have seen, communicating means more than just talking. Here

are some key elements of communication (Stewart, 1992, pp. 288–
289):
Listening is communicating. Listening is one of the most important
but most neglected communication tools. This is an important lesson
for all managers. Simply by listening attentively to someone, you will
give them a sense of self-worth and indicate that you think they are
important. This will also help them clarify their own ideas. You might
also find that by listening to another person, you have filled out and
extended your own ideas.
Questioning is a sign of genuine listening and key to communicating
well. Questioning should be aimed at opening up opportunities for
developing the relationship. These could include reflection, analysis
and the sending of positive messages.
Silence is communicating – it communicates the need for reflection.
You and your staff need time and space to think. This will allow you
the opportunity to reflect creatively and positively. It may also result
in your staff renewing their energy and commitment to work. As a
result, managerial intervention may become unnecessary – which
reduces the pressure on you.

180 Unit 7: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

Talking establishes rapport. In what is sometimes termed a

managerial ‘walkabout’, managers interact with personnel to get to
know them as people, not only as employees. The aim is to see what
they value and how they think and feel about aspects of everyday life
– not just work. This is part of creating a culture of communication.
It also allows for effective upward communication, where staff see
that their views count. They are allowed to communicate what they
know and air their problems. This also enables you to manage the
grapevine effectively. When you give and receive information first-
hand at various levels, it helps eliminate rumour and speculation
caused by lack of communication or by miscommunication.
Body language and tone of voice also communicate. These can be
positive, showing your interest and involvement, or can be negative,
giving away what you really feel or think when you wish to disguise
this. If you avoid the most offensive of these signals, you will improve
your communication and manage more effectively.
Examples of body language that show you are listening include:
z eye contact (or a particular direction for where your eyes look
that is appropriate to the culture of the person you are talking
with)
z a nod of the head
z supportive noises
z not looking at your watch
z not shuffling with paper or doodling.
Language and words. Sometimes the words we use do not convey the
message that we want to send. Language can trap us because of
jargon and abbreviations, and sometimes we use too many words.
This problem is worse when communicating across language barriers.
If you are communicating across languages, be all the more careful,
clear and precise. In the words of Confucius:
“If language is not correct, then what is said is not what is
meant.” Unit 7
“If what is said is not what is meant, then what ought to be
done remains undone.”
Feedback is part of communication. It is as important in the
communication process as words, language and non-verbal
communication. It involves giving the other person the opportunity to
respond, and showing that you have understood what they have said.
The role of feedback is especially important when you communicate
across language and cultural barriers. It is important to make sure the
receiver of the communication gets the message you intend him or
her to get.
Cultural differences affect communication. A person’s cultural
background impacts on the way they communicate. Cultural

Unit 7: Managing youth development work 181

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

assumptions and verbal and non-verbal signals differ across cultures.

For example, in Westernised societies maintaining eye contact is
usually recommended as part of good communication, but in the
culture of Australian Aboriginal people it is regarded as a sign of
disrespect. This is also the case between men and women in some
Islamic cultures. If you are not aware of the different cultural signals,
a situation of misinterpretation and miscommunication may arise.
You will learn more about culture and its role in communication in
Module 10 Conflict Resolution Strategies and Skills.
These are some of the key elements of communication. The
following activity gives you the opportunity to explore how they work
in practice.

Activity 7.1
(about 1 hour)
In your workplace, observe three brief examples of
communication in the course of one or two days. These should
be communications you participate in.
Make brief notes in your learning journal on each of these
exchanges, using the list of key elements above as a checklist
as to how effective they were.
Evaluate each exchange in the following terms:
z Which of the elements in the checklist were evident?
z Which were lacking?
z How good were your communication skills and what might
you do to improve them?
z How good were those of your fellow communicator?
z How effective was the communication? Why?
Share your findings with work colleagues (if appropriate),
friends or fellow students in a tutorial session.
Important note: Remember to preserve confidentiality. Do not
use the name of the person in your journal and do not include
any sensitive material. You should also explain to each person
the nature of this course and this activity and ask their
permission before you use them as the focus of your
observations.

Unfortunately, communication is not always a smooth and successful

process. You may have discovered this in Activity 7.1! There are
many barriers to communication. Let’s look at some of them now.

182 Unit 7: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

Barriers

Barriers to communication affect everyone differently. The list we

offer here aims to be inclusive. You will not find all of these things a
problem – but others may. We suggest you work through the barriers,
reflect on whether they affect you, and think about tactics to avoid
each one. We have included activities to help you do this.
Language
You should convey your message in words the receiver will
understand. For example, patients may not be able to understand the
complex language of medical specialists because of the language they
use (sometimes called the language ‘register’ or jargon). When a
doctor communicates with her or his patient, the language should be
understandable to the patient. Plain language is always worth striving
for – it removes one of the most common communication barriers.

Activity 7.2
(about 5 minutes)
Think of one recent incident where this barrier occurred –
either with you or in your presence – and write notes in your
learning journal.
1 Describe the incident in two or three sentences.
2 Write down what practical steps could be taken to avoid
this happening again.

Noise
Noise in the form of overwhelming sounds can make communication
strained or impossible – if, for example, you are trying to facilitate a
group of young people but construction workers are repairing the
floor above you with noisy equipment. Unit 7
Distractions
Distractions include any form of interference, such as a sound, that
interferes with or detracts from the communication process. For
example, if you communicate through a memo in your organisation
but everyone receives lots of memos per day, this will interfere with
the effectiveness of your communication. People may come to ignore
memos altogether to try and get some work done. A fairly new
medium, electronic mail or e-mail, is prone to have the same effect
because people receive so many messages that are not important and
waste their time.

Unit 7: Managing youth development work 183

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Self-help question 7.1

(about 5 minutes)
What other distractions can create barriers to communication?

Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the

unit.

Whatever the distractions are, don’t just put up with them. Take steps
to improve the communication environment by reducing the
distractions – or if you can’t, reschedule your communication for
another time or place. Also, if you find your colleagues are suffering
from communication fatigue – too much information – choose to
speak to them face to face, and find a relaxed, quiet time and place to
do it in.
Too many steps
Do not form long chains in the communication process. This may
result in the right message being sent but the wrong one being
received. You can illustrate this by playing the ‘telephone game’.
With a group sitting in a circle, whisper a short message to the person
on your left. S/he should whisper the message to the person on her or
his left, and so on until it reaches the person on your right, who says
it out aloud. Then the group can compare the two messages – the
original and the final one – and draw their own conclusions about the
risk of too many steps in the process.

Self-help question 7.2

(about 2 minutes)
Suggest three strategies you could use to reduce the risk of too
many steps in the communication chain.
1
2
3
Compare your answers with those suggested at the end of the
unit.

184 Unit 7: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

Listening difficulties
Listening is a very special skill – and one that is under-used. Listening
skills include:
z being attentive
z looking attentive
z feeding back what the other person says – through repetition or
perhaps a question – to show you have heard and understood
z processing what the other person has communicated
z including the other person’s views and ideas in your feedback.
Listening difficulties can also arise if the people you are
communicating with have a lot on their minds. They may have too
much work or information overload, or they may have had trouble at
home, or be thinking about a sick child. These can all cause listening
difficulties.

Activity 7.3
(about 15 minutes)
1 Ask a trusted friend, family member, work colleague or
fellow student to evaluate your listening skills as you
discuss a matter with them or someone else.
2 Get them to use the above checklist to assess your success
at avoiding listening difficulties.
Discuss the results with them and note your discussion in your
learning journal.

Lack of feedback
This is linked to listening. Communication is a two-way process and
all parties must share an understanding of what is communicated.
You can make sure of this by giving clear, consistent and regular Unit 7
feedback. If you don’t, people will act on their own assumptions and
understandings, with no common ground. Giving feedback will avoid
this problem.
Distrust
If the receiver or the sender distrusts the credibility or sincerity of the
other person, this could result in suspicion, which will undermine the
communication process. The message will be heard but may be
discounted or discredited.
Emotions
An emotionally charged situation usually distorts communication.
What is communicated may get buried under strong but irrelevant
feelings. This is why it so important a part of professionalism to

Unit 7: Managing youth development work 185

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

restrain your emotions in work situations and remain calm, rational

and polite at all times. Indifference, apathy, lack of concern and
insensitivity are also emotions that impede the communication
process. On the positive side, of course, if communications touch
emotions such as enthusiasm, friendliness, concern and sympathy,
excellent work may result.

Activity 7.4
(about 10 minutes)
In your workplace, identify an incident in which strong
emotions or distrust obstructed the communication process.
Briefly describe it in your learning journal (remember to
preserve confidentiality).
Suggest ways the incident could have been better handled to
avoid the communication problems.

Culture
Everyone comes from a specific cultural and work background, with
their own language, view of the world and set of experiences. The
receiver of a communication might not have the same culture,
language or work background as the sender. Communication between
sender and receiver will be difficult unless each is sensitive to the
other’s culture.

Overcoming barriers
Here are some quick suggestions to overcome barriers to
communication:
z Adjust to the world of the receiver. Fit your message to the
receiver’s vocabulary, interests and values.
z Give feedback. Check how much of the message the receiver has
understood.
z Use face-to-face communication – you can better adapt the
message to the receiver’s reactions.
z Use reinforcement. Send the message in a number of different
ways (oral and written) to get it across.
z Re-emphasise important points – and follow up.
z Use direct, simple language.
z Suit the actions to the word. Do what you say you are going to
do.
z Streamline communication channels.

186 Unit 7: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

Communication barriers can create major problems for managers.

The following case study gives you some idea of what can go wrong
when communication channels are impeded – or dry up altogether.

Case Study 7.1

Frank Sanders and the Egyptian project
Frank Sanders was appointed the manager of Champion
Construction’s new project in Egypt. As a proven manager of many
successful projects, he looked forward to his first assignment overseas.
He called on the President of the company just before leaving for
Cairo.
After ten minutes of personal chit-chat, the President said, ‘We hope
your project will be the first of many for us in Egypt and other
countries in the Middle East. We need to develop a new set of
policies and procedures, and we hope your experience will be a major
asset. I have no doubt about your skill as a manager; we’re pleased
with how you have run your projects here. And I know you realise
that you will have to adapt to this new situation. It won’t take you
long to discover cultural, legal and political differences. You know the
old saying, “When in Rome...” Well, that’s why I think we should
consider that we are going into Egypt as a guest. They need our
knowledge at this time, but none of us knows what the future will be.
‘Frank, it will be up to you to develop rapport with the various
political factions that might gain power in the future. You will be the
only American on this project, so it will be important for you to learn
as much as you can about how your employees think. I’m sure you
can do this, but you will be in for many surprises. They may have a
different view of “right and wrong”. Your employees might expect
you to be an all-knowing, paternalistic leader, or they might want to
participate fully in decisions. You’ll need to find out some answers for
us. Can we promote the most capable workers regardless of their
affiliations? Will they work for money, or do they value other things
more? What about risk-taking? Do they expect things to be done by
“custom and tradition”, or will they welcome change that promises Unit 7
material rewards? Which of your actions will be well received by your
employees, your suppliers and government officials? You are going to
have to sort through all of this for us.’
Frank remembers leaving the President’s office wondering where to
turn. Earlier, he had bought a guidebook on Egypt and a phrase book,
The Traveller’s Door to Arabic. After talking with the President, Frank
only had a week to make preparations for the trip to Cairo, but he
continued to devote as much time as possible to learning Arabic
phrases. On the trip he continued his studying.
Frank soon found that living and working in Egypt were very
different from anything he had ever done. Just getting a place to live
and setting up his office brought up one problem after another. Most

Unit 7: Managing youth development work 187

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

of the Egyptians working on the project spoke good to excellent

English; but except when they were talking to Frank, they rarely used
it. While Frank’s few Arabic phrases were satisfactory for shopping,
they were of little help in his work.
Frank could pick out a few words that his employees spoke in Arabic,
but he was never sure of the meaning. Sometimes they would look
over at him and smile. Frank began to think they were making fun of
him. Frank’s displeasure must have shown on his face, for on several
occasions the conversation would stop. In fact, the smiles were just
attempts to be friendly, but the employees did become uncomfortable
as a result of the displeasure they sensed in Frank’s reactions.
One month after arriving in Cairo, Frank Sanders was largely isolated
from his employees. His contact was limited to formal discussions.
He was unhappy and apprehensive. He had no idea how he was going
to carry out the directives the President had given him just before he
left for Egypt.
Adapted from Knapper and McAfee, 1982, pp. 254–256.

Activity 7.5
(about 30 minutes)
Read over the case study carefully and write answers to the
following questions in your learning journal.
1 Which of the barriers to communication are illustrated by
this case study? Make a list of them and explain each one.
2 Discuss how cultural differences hindered effective
communication in Frank’s case.
3 What steps could Frank’s boss – the President – have taken
to reduce the risk of these communication barriers arising
for Frank in Egypt?
4 What steps could Frank himself have taken to reduce the
barriers and improve communication
a) before he got to Egypt?
b) once he got to Egypt?
5 What managerial skills should Frank use to improve the
situation?
This activity will be most useful to you if you use it as part of a
discussion – either at a tutorial session, at your workplace or
among your peers and fellow students.

188 Unit 7: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

Practical writing skills

So far in this section on communication we have discussed general

guidelines and principles. Now it’s time to examine the specific
writing skills involved in effective communicating at work, some of
the Do’s and Don’ts for better writing.

Good writing guidelines

DO’s DON’Ts
DO explain technical terms DON’T use a long word where
you use. a short word will do.
DO use the person’s name and DON’T write in the third
the magic word: ‘you’. person if you can avoid it.
DO use charts, graphs and DON’T write long complicated
illustrations. sentences.
DO use the journalists’ DON’T clutter up text with
approach: unnecessary information.
z Tell them what you are
going to say
z Say it
z Tell them what you have
said.
DO use short sentences and DON’T produce lengthy
paragraphs. documents or bulky reports
that will not be read by busy
colleagues.
DO try to keep letters and DON’T be over detailed and
memos to a single page. elaborate.
(Hannaway and Hunt, 1992.)

Types of written communication Unit 7

Report writing
Report writing is an important way of recording or documenting the
progress of the organisation, its staff and its projects. It’s also used for
accounting to stakeholders. A useful framework for report writing
uses the following headings:

Terms of reference
This is the authority on which you are acting and the guidelines for
the report.

Unit 7: Managing youth development work 189

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Procedure/s adopted
These could include interviews with various people, analysis of
existing records, comparison with other organisations, etc.

Findings
These will form the main substance of the report – what you found
out, what you make of this information and the explanation for it.

Conclusions
In this part of the report you summarise the information and round it
up.

Recommendations
Your recommendations should be firm, and linked to the
Conclusions. You could include a statement like this:
Based on the conclusions set out above, my recommendations are:
1 That . . . .
2 That . . . .
3 That . . . .

Business letters
Business letters must be accurately expressed, brief and to the point.
No-one wants to waste time unscrambling long, confused written
messages.
Here are brief guidelines for writing business letters:
z Write with your audience in mind and adjust your language to
that audience.
z Keep your writing clear, simple and natural.
z Use short words, sentences and paragraphs.
z Keep the letter short – if possible, stick to one page.
z Space your writing for eye appeal – use attention-getting devices
such as capitalisation, indenting, icons, etc.
z Avoid jargon and technical terms that may not be clear to your
reader.
z Tell your reader the time frame for any action required.
z Remember the ABC of writing – Always Be Courteous.

Letters of complaint
z Make the complaint specific.
z Make sure your facts are correct.

190 Unit 7: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

z Mention the good as well as the bad points – show tact and
balance.
z Express regret at having to complain. Explain that the complaint
is too serious to be overlooked.
z Be specific about the action you expect.
z Ask for a speedy response to your complaint.

Replying to complaints
z Begin the letter with an expression of regret.
z Avoid the temptation to win an argument.
z Explain the circumstances that caused the trouble or difficulty,
but avoid being overly defensive.
z Say that you hope the person complaining has not been unduly
inconvenienced.
z Say exactly what you are going to do to set matters right.
z Say that every effort will be made to prevent a recurrence.
z End the letter with an expression of good will.
The following sample letter of complaint was taken from the internet
at www.liverpool.gov.uk/Images/tcm 21-32176.pdf.
The owner Mr A. Jones
A.N. Other Furniture 1 Every Road
Any Road Anytown
Anytown
21 November 2006

Dear Sir/Madam
On 25 October, I bought a three-piece suite from you for £750 that is
faulty. The problems are:
Unit 7
1 One of the arms of the settee is loose.
2 There are a number of nails sticking out of the chairs and the
settee.
3 One of the cushions on the settee has flattened.
I complained about this to you the day after delivery and was told
someone would call out. I have heard nothing since.
I wish to reject the goods and claim a replacement/ refund.
Please respond to my complaint within seven days.
Yours faithfully,
A. Jones

Unit 7: Managing youth development work 191

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Activity 7.6
(about 10 minutes)
After reading the letter, assess its quality in terms of the six
guidelines on letters of complaint. Answer the following
questions in your learning journal.
1 Is the complaint specific?
2 Are the facts correct?
3 Have both good and bad points been mentioned?
4 Is the action expected specific?
5 Has a speedy response been requested?
Discuss your views with colleagues.

The next activity will help you to identify your writing skills strengths
and weaknesses.

Activity 7.7
(about 10 minutes)
Answer the following questions in your learning journal:
1 Which of the practical writing skills covered in this unit
(report writing, routine business letters, written
complaints) are you especially good at?
2 Which skills need further development? (If you are not
sure, discuss it with your work colleagues or supervisor.)
3 Are there any other writing skills you think you need to
develop?
4 Choose the type of writing you believe you are weakest at
and use the guidelines on effective writing to complete a
brief sample report, business letter, letter of complaint or
other business writing task.
Keep your notes from this activity. You may wish to use them in
the assessment piece for this unit.

192 Unit 7: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

In a nutshell
To wind up this section on communication, we offer you the
following quick guide to good communicating.
z Use face-to-face communication as often as possible, particularly if
the message is difficult.
z If possible, reinforce oral with written communication.
z Ensure the message has been clearly understood. Ask for
feedback. Consider the receiver’s level of understanding and
personality.
z Tailor the style of the message to suit him or her.
z Keep your message clear, brief and simple.
In this final section of Unit 7, we will look at how information and
communications technology (ICT) needs to be managed in order to
be applied as an important tool for change within an organisation.
You will recall that change is inevitable, and therefore as a manager
of a youth organisation you must equip yourself with all the tools for
change management that we discussed in Unit 5. This part of the unit
will also introduce you to the elements of a simple management
information system.

Managing ICT

Information and communications technology (ICT) is a fast-changing

field that requires constant updates. Access to ICT is one of the
central issues often raised because of the unevenness of access
between developing and developed countries. But even within
individual countries, access to ICT is generally not even. In
developing countries, for example, ICT access in major cities and
towns may be as advanced as in the developed world, while the
remote and rural areas of these countries often have very limited
access. Decisions on the use of ICT by organisations always need to Unit 7
take stakeholders’ access into consideration. ICT is an area with
which we recommend you should keep yourself up to date through
regular reading of recent articles from both print and electronic
media, where possible.
In this section of the module we only provide a brief introduction to
the subject as a reminder of the importance of ICT. We also aim to
encourage you to consider applying the kinds of management
thinking and skills that we have been discussing in this module to the
use and management of ICT in organisations.
Keep in mind ICT’s implications and benefits to managing change
and ensuring participation in decision-making.

Unit 7: Managing youth development work 193

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Definitions
ICT
ICT can be described as the range of technologies required for
information processing and includes the use of electronic computers
and computer software to convert, store, process, transmit and
retrieve information from anywhere, anytime.
ICT increases the speed of communication, and at the same time
allows us to access, retrieve and store information that is vital to the
effective functioning of youth organisations or businesses.
Communication through electronic mail (e-mail) and fax, for
example, is much faster – often instantaneous – than sending letters
by post. In essence, access to information helps us learn from other
peoples’ mistakes, gives us new ideas and insights that help us to
effect changes in organisations, and enables us to organise
information in a systematic way.
Additionally, ICT allows us to spend less on communication costs in
the long term and enhances networking (for example, information-
sharing) between and among organisations, regardless of their
geographic locations. In this way, we can optimise the use of
resources by learning what other organisations are doing, and in so
doing avoid duplication and waste of resources.
ICT is crucial in supporting the voluntary sector’s fundamental role in
economic and social development. It is a necessary and integral
aspect of various kinds of community and voluntary support,
training, welfare, counselling, advice, in a wide range of fields: from
education to planning, from arts to small business development, from
health promotion to crime prevention.

Database management
A database is a collection of records or data that is stored in a
computer and can be consulted to answer queries. A database
management system (DBMS) is a software program (or programs)
that enables you to store, modify and extract information from the
database in several ways. Some examples of a DBMS are Oracle,
Microsoft SQL Server and FileMaker.
A DBMS enables an organisation to change its information systems
more easily as information requirements change.

Telecommunications
A telecommunications network is a system arranged to facilitate the
movement of messages from one part of the network to another at a
distance and via many links. This enables people to establish and
maintain contact to support one another in their activities and to
exchange information and share resources. Some examples of
telecommunications networks that you are probably familiar with are:

194 Unit 7: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

z Computer networks
z The internet (and e-mail)
z Telephone networks (public and mobile)
z Telex networks
These networks can include voice (telephone) and data
communications (including text and image), and can even include the
active images of the people communicating. An important benefit of
these networks is the opportunity they provide for people all over the
world to communicate at a distance, share resources and ideas and
collaborate. For example, they have made it easier and faster for us to
get involved in international issue networks (such as Amnesty
International or Greenpeace) without leaving our offices or homes.
For those of us who are studying, the internet has made it easier and
faster to do research.

Planning ICT use

Like all other resources of an organisation discussed in this module
(for example, staff, finance and time), ICT resources require
management: that is they require planning, directing and controlling.
Data management through a management information system (MIS)
helps us to protect data that is invaluable to the life of an organisation
(for example, account balances, recorded history, and former and
present membership records). This process has also been proven to be
cost effective, because data can be re-used as often as necessary
without incurring any additional costs.
Below is Plunkett et al’s (2005) definition of an MIS:
“It is a formal collection of processes that provides managers
with the quality of information they need to make decisions,
solve problems, implement change and create effective and
efficient working environments.”
The quality information that managers require to make decisions
comes from a variety of sources. An example of a source of
Unit 7
information in an educational institution offering programmes like
the Diploma in Youth Development Work is the students’
registrations forms, which contain personal data such as gender, age
and address; educational background data such as qualifications; and
latest interest in improving these qualifications, that is, courses
applying to register for. Technology is used to capture, store and
process this data to produce information for decision-making on
aspects like learner support that require knowledge of students’
distribution, registered courses and other learner profile details. It is
possible to produce such management reports manually but it takes
time, while technology processes and produces different types of
reports in record time.
A simplified diagram of an MIS provided below shows the different
sources and users of information in an oil company.

Unit 7: Managing youth development work 195

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Domino Oil Company Management Information System

Data sources Information Users

Field Production Data Engineering

c barrels of oil Department
c cubic feet of gas

Internal Budget Data

c revenue data Marketing
c expense data Department

Partnership
Arrangement data
c drilling status Finance Department
c work in progress

Data Analysis/
Operating Division Data Entry Filtering
c acquisitions Decision-making Geology
c leaseholds information* Department
c operation expenses

Service Bureau Data Human Resource

c geological studies Department
c government statistics

Industry Data
c trends Accounting
c competition Department

Wainwright Martin et al (2004) emphasise that developing an MIS

will depend on the role of information in the particular organisation.
Obviously, it will be influenced by the organisational culture. Though
specific to an oil company, the MIS above can be adapted to suit the
needs of a youth development organisation. Activity 7.8 asks you to
look at how this could be done.

196 Unit 7: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

Activity 7.8
(about 15 minutes)
In your learning journal:
1 Review the simplified MIS of an oil company provided
above.
2 Change the data sources and information users of this MIS
to suit youth development work, taking into consideration
the culture and MIS use of your organisation or programme.
3 Give reasons for the changes you have made.
4 Identify the types of information that will be required by
the different users in your organisation.
Discuss your MIS with colleagues or your tutor.

Important steps to follow in developing a MIS include:

1 Assessing the current use and management of your organisation’s
information resources
2 Establishing a plan for the future use of your organisation’s
information resources. This will include determining which data
are required, and where and how they are to be used in your
organisation, and making decisions about the most timely and
highest quality source for each data element that is needed.
3 Managing the data resource. This includes:
z acquiring and maintaining data
z defining and describing each data entry and ensuring clarity
and consistency
z organising data and ensuring that data can be retrieved easily
z protecting and securing the data
Unit 7
z accounting for the use of data – this is vital and avoids any
possible abuse of data within an organisation
z recovering / restoring or upgrading data whenever necessary
z determining data to be retained by your organisation and
disposing of any inactive databases
z ensuring that training and consultation are part of the
management process to ensure effective use of data.
The activity below rounds off this section by asking you to examine
which telecommunications networks you use and for what purposes
in your organisation.

Unit 7: Managing youth development work 197

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Activity 7.9
(about 15 minutes)
For each of the telecommunications networks listed below,
describe in your learning journal:
1 the nature and status of your organisation’s access – for
example, whether your organisation makes use of the
network and whether all staff have access
2 ways in which your organisation uses each network
3 the benefits your organisation has derived from using the
networks, including how each has reduced barriers to
communication within your organisation
4 if there is a kind of network you are not using, state the
reason.
computer networks
the internet (and e-mail)
telephone networks (public and mobile)
telex networks.

198 Unit 7: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

Unit summary

Unit 7 has concentrated on two vital areas of management –

communication and ICT. In the first part of this unit, you covered the
following main points:
z the basic principles of communication
z the vital role that communication plays in managing an
organisation
z the key communication skills a manager needs
z how to adapt your communication when dealing with different
people
z key elements of communicating, including common barriers and
practical writing skills.

In the second part of the unit, you covered:

z the management of ICT
z approaches to planning ICT use.

We have seen that communication can take many forms. This means
you have to be flexible in the ways you communicate. You must also
be sensitive to others’ views and preferred communication styles – so
there is much skill involved. We have also given you a brief overview
of ICT and its use in organisations, and have provided some guidance
that will help you manage ICT more effectively and efficiently.
To check how you have got on, look back at the learning outcomes
for this unit and see if you can now do them. When you have done
this, look through your learning journal to remind yourself of what
you have learned and the ideas you have generated. The area many
people find most challenging is written communication – so we
Unit 7
include an assessment task that allows you to receive feedback on
your writing skills. You will find it at the end of this unit.
This brings you to the end of Module 7 Management Skills. We hope
you have found your study of this module useful and relevant to your
work. Now turn to the Module Summary. There you will find details
of the module assignment. This is a major assessment piece that you
are required to complete and submit for assessment.

Unit 7: Managing youth development work 199

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Answers to self-help questions

Self-help question 7.1

Obviously there are dozens of possible answers to this question.
These suggestions will get you started.
Distractions that can cause barriers to communication include:
z interruptions
z visual distractions – such as a television being on in the room
z background music
z other people’s conversations
z sudden or repeated movements – especially by people nearby
z the telephone.

Self-help question 7.2

1 Communicate important messages in person.
2 Use organisational communication channels like newsletters,
routine meetings, internal mail or messenger systems that reach
everyone directly.
3 Seek regular feedback on your communications to check whether
the messages get through accurately.

200 Unit 7: Managing youth development work

 Module 7: Management Skills

References

Hannaway, C. and Hunt, G. (1992) The Management Skills Book,

Billing and Sons Limited, Worcester.
Plunkett, W.R., Attner, R.F. and Allen, G.S. (2005) Management:
Meeting and Exceeding Customer Expectations, Thomson South-Western,
USA.
Scammel, B. (1990) Communication Skills, Macmillan, London.
Stewart, D.M., (ed.) (1992) Handbook of Management Skills, Billing and
Sons Limited, Worcester.
Wainwright Martin, E., Brown, C. V., DeHayes, D.W., Hoffer, J.A.
and Perkins, W.C. (2004) Managing Information Technology: What
Managers Need to Know, 4th edition, Pearson Education Inc. N.J.

Unit 7

Unit 7: Managing youth development work 201

Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Assignment

First, a reminder that your work in this module will be assessed in the
following ways:
1 Completion of the unit assessment tasks that you will carry out
throughout this module (30 per cent). There are four assignments
– at the end of Units 2, 4, 6 and 7 (i.e., the one below). All these
assignments will add up to 30 per cent of the unit assessment.
Your learning institution will indicate when and which of these
tasks should be submitted for marking by your tutor.
2 The learning journal that you will keep for recording your
responses to the different learning activities in each of the units
(20 per cent). Your learning institution will inform you when to
submit the learning journal for assessment.
3 A report of about 1,750 words. You will find full details at the
end of the Module Summary (50 per cent).
Note: make sure you discuss the assessment requirements with your
tutor so that you are clear about what you are expected to do and
when, and any particular requirements in your institution.

Assignment 4
This task counts towards your final assessment on this module. This
task and the tasks at the end of Units 2, 4 and 6 together add up to 30
per cent of your final mark.
Length: No more than 500 words.
Turn to the writing task you completed for Activity 7.7 in this unit. If
you wish, you may use this piece of writing as the basis of this
assessment task.
Your assessment task is to complete a short piece of business writing
and submit it for assessment. It could be a brief report, a business
letter, a memorandum, etc. You need to consult with your tutor who
will decide on the specific form of the assignment.

202 Unit 7: Managing youth development work

Summary

Module summary ......................................................205

Glossary....................................................................207
Further reading .........................................................209
 Module 7: Management Skills

Module summary

We are now at the end of this module. You should, as a result of

working through the units, have developed certain knowledge, insight
and skills that relate to the work of a youth development worker. All
this should be a valuable knowledge and skills base to help you to
perform competently in the neighbourhoods and localities in which
you will be working with that very special community of people:
young women and men.
This module has focused on the roles and tasks that you need to
perform as a manager in a youth work organisation. It has shown you
how to manage both your own work and the staff you are responsible
for, and also given you guidelines on how to handle organisational
development and change. Human resource management has been
examined and you have also been introduced to some of the key
management processes, including project planning, critical path
analysis, budgeting and monitoring expenditure. Since good
communication underpins all of good management, we have devoted
a whole unit to helping you further develop those skills. This last unit
has also covered ICT management.
Now that you have completed this module, you should be able to:
z demonstrate awareness and commitment to the management
tasks that are important in the delivery of youth development
work
z discuss key theories, approaches, styles and practices of
management, in particular relating to the not-for-profit sector
z explore key areas for management, such as organisational
change, staff development, monitoring of expenditure and
budgetary control, project management and critical path analysis
z relate approaches to management to the principles and practice
of youth development work to ensure that management styles are
appropriate
Summary

z be aware of the distinct roles and organisational characteristics of

NGOs and non-NGOs
z manage a discrete project from inception to completion within an
agreed time-scale
z supervise and support a team of volunteer and/or paid staff
z work within the principles of financial accountability, including
budgeting and financial management
z contribute effectively to job, organisational and personal
development
z work collaboratively with other agencies.

Summary 205
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

We wish you success in your various assignments and in your work as

a youth and community development worker. Best wishes also as you
complete the other modules in this course.

206 Summary
 Module 7: Management Skills

Glossary

action-learning A method of bringing about change that draws

on the experiences and ideas of the people
affected and helps them to diagnose their
problems and find their own solutions.
administration Procedures carried out on behalf of an
organisation according to predetermined
guidelines.
audial By ear; listening.
cognitive style The particular way an individual processes
information.
communication Conveying a message, orally, non-verbally, in
writing or through the use of signs.
data base Support software that we use to create, manage
management and protect our organisational data.
system
delegating Giving responsibility to others.
effectiveness Doing the right thing – i.e., setting the right goals
and objectives and then making sure they are
accomplished.
efficiency Doing things the right way – i.e. getting the most
from your resources.
figurehead A person who stands as a symbol of authority.
formal authority The power and authority invested in the head or
boss of an organisation.
hardware The physical pieces of a computer or
telecommunications system, such as the central
processing unit.
human resources The people or staff in an organisation.
Summary

incremental Short-term planning that is constantly revised

planning and reshaped to take changing situations into
account.
induction A formal process of helping new staff to adjust
to the organisation.
interpersonal The tendency to interact in certain ways with
orientation people; social behaviour.

Summary 207
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

information The technology required for information

technology processing; includes the use of electronic
computers and computer software to convert,
store, process, transmit and retrieve information.
job analysis The process of determining the skills and
knowledge required to do a specific job in an
organisation.
management The process of controlling money, people and
physical resources in an organisation.
MIS Management information system: a formal
collection of processes that provides managers
with the quality of information they need to
make decisions, solve problems, implement
change and create effective and efficient working
environments.
Maslow Abraham Maslow, an expert on child
development, whose theory of the hierarchy of
needs set out the essential needs that must be met
at each stage of a person’s life if an individual is
to grow and develop.
NGOs Non-governmental autonomous, private, non-
profit organisations that organise development-
related activities.
organising The process of prescribing formal relationships
among people and resources to accomplish
goals.
performance The formal evaluation of job performance.
appraisal
recruitment The process of attracting qualified and skilled
individuals to apply for a specific job.
risk-averse Unwilling to take independent action or take
risks.
selection The process of choosing from a group of
applicants the one best suited for a specific job.
self-development A process of personal growth.
software The set of programs that control the operations
of the computer system.
tactile By touching; also referred to as kinaesthetic.
visual By eye; seeing.
voluntarism The practice of committing oneself to activities
and functions without expecting monetary
reward.

208 Summary
 Module 7: Management Skills

Further reading

The following list of books and texts is meant to support your

learning throughout this module. We suggest you discuss with your
tutor how and where to find some of these publications so that you
can read widely from this list to enrich your understanding of the
subject matter.
Armstrong, M. (1990) How to be an Even Better Manager, Kogan Page
Limited, London.
Armstrong, M. (1990) Management Processes and Functions, Institute of
Personnel Management, London.
Blackburn, J. and Holland, J. (eds.) (1998) Who Changes?
Institutionalizing participation in development, Intermediate Technology
Publications, London.
Blunt, P. and Jones, M.I. (1992) Managing Organisations in Africa,
Walter de Gruyter, Berlin.
Bourne, M. and Bourne, P (2002) Change Management, Bookpoint
Ltd., Oxon.
Briscoe, C. and Thomas, D.N. (eds.) (1977) Community Work: Learning
and Supervision, Allen and Unwin Ltd, London.
Burnes B. (2000) Managing Change: A Strategic Approach to
Organisational Dynamics, 3rd edition, Pearson Education Limited,
Prentice Hall Publishing, Essex.
Cattermole, F., Airs, M. and Grisbrook, D. (1987) Managing Youth
Services, Longman Group UK Limited, Essex.
Dale, M. (1993) Developing Management Skills: Techniques for improving
learning and performance, Kogan Page Limited, London.
Drabek, A G. (1987) ‘Development Alternatives: The Challenge for
NGOs – An Overview of the Issues’, World Development, Vol. 15,
Supplement, Pergamon Journals, Ltd., UK.
Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. (eds.) (1996) Non-Governmental
Summary

Organisations: Performance and Accountability, Earthscan, London.

Handy, C.B. (1985) Understanding Organisations, Penguin Books Ltd,
London.
Hannaway, C. and Hunt, G. (1992) The Management Skills Book,
Billing and Sons Limited, Worcester.
Harris, K. (1993) ‘Information Technology in the Community and
Voluntary Sector’, in Ennals, R. and Molyneux, P. (eds.) Managing
with Information Technology, Springer-Verlag, Ltd., London, pp. 240–
257.
Hoffman, J.J., Digman L.A. and Crittenden W.F. (1991) ‘The
Strategic Management Process in Non-Profit Organisations with

Summary 209
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Dynamic Environments’, Journal of Management Issues, Vol. III, No. 3,

pp. 357–371.
Knapper, A.F. and McAfee, R.B. (1982) Cases and Experiential Learning
Exercises in Personnel, Grid Publishing, Columbus, OH.
Mondy, R.W. and Premeaux, S.R. (1995) Management Concepts,
Practices and Skills, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Parsons, T. (1937) The Structure of Social Action, McGraw Hill, New
York.
Plunkett, W.R., Attner, R.F. and Allen, G.S. (2005) Management:
Meeting and Exceeding Customer Expectations, Thomson South-Western,
USA.
Rees, D.W. (1988) The Skills of Management, Routledge, London.
Rees, D. and McBain, R. (eds.) (2004) People Management: Challenges
and Opportunities, Palgrave Macmillan, London.
Stewart, D.M. (ed.) (1992) Handbook of Management Skills, Billing and
Sons Limited, Worcester.
Taylor, T., Marais, D. and Kaplan, A. (1997) Action Learning for
Development: Use your experience to improve your effectiveness, Juta, Cape
Town.
Todaro, M.P (1997) Economic Development, 6th edition, Addison
Wesley Longman Ltd., Harlow, UK.
Whetten, D.A. and Cameron, K.S. (1984) Developing Management
Skills, Scott, Foresman and Company, Glenview, IL.

210 Summary
 Module 7: Management Skills

Assignments

A final reminder about the assessment requirements for this module.

Your work in this module will be assessed in the following three
ways:
1 Completion of the unit assessment tasks that you will carry out
throughout this module (30 per cent). There are four assignments
in this module; at the end of Units 2, 4, 6 and 7. All these
assignments will add up to 30 per cent of the unit assessment.
Your learning institution will indicate when and which of these
tasks should be submitted for marking by your tutor.
2 The learning journal that you will keep for recording your
responses to the different learning activities in each of the units
(20 per cent). Your learning institution will inform you when to
submit the learning journal for assessment.
3 A report of about 1,750 words. You will find full details below
(50 per cent).
The institution in which you are enrolled for this Diploma
programme may decide to replace part of these assignments with a
written examination (worth 30 per cent of the final mark.)
Note: make sure you discuss the assessment requirements with your
tutor so that you are clear about what you are expected to do and
when, and any particular requirements in your institution.

Report
This assignment counts towards your final assessment in this module
and is worth 50 per cent of the final mark. You should discuss with
your tutor the exact requirement for your institution.
Summary

Length: 1,750 words.

For this assignment you need to choose a work situation in your
organisation or one you are familiar with that demonstrates
successful management strategies.
Prepare a report on this work situation explaining the different
management strategies that are used to achieve success. Your report
should include a plan of activities and a proposed budget.
The aim of your report should be to demonstrate your understanding
of the management strategies that contribute to success in the
organisation.

Summary 211
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Note: If you are not familiar with a suitable work situation, you can
use a case study as the basis of your report. Discuss this with your
tutor.

212 Summary
Readings

The readings in this section will help you develop your understanding
of Module 7 Management Skills. The reading numbers, their titles
and author(s) and the unit in which they appear are listed below.

1 ‘Management theories’ (Unit 1) .........................................215

2 ‘Management and administration in the private
and public sectors’ by W. David Rees (Unit 1) ....................222
3 ‘Non-governmental organisations as agents
of development’ by Sybert Liebenberg (Unit 2) .................227
4 ‘The development role of non-governmental organisations:
the South African paradigm’ (Unit 2) By John E. Allwood .240
 Module 7: Management Skills

Reading 1: Management theories

By the module authors

Management theories can be categorised broadly as ‘classical’,

‘behavioural’ and ‘current’.

Classical theories
The classical school of management theory spans the period 1900 to
the 1920s. Traditional or classical management theory was mainly
directed towards improving the efficiency of organisations. Because
money and other resources are usually in short supply in youth work,
efficiency will be one of your main concerns. Classical theory
included the study of ‘bureaucratic’, ‘scientific’ and ‘administrative’
management.

Bureaucratic management
Bureaucratic management theory describes organisational structures
that are based on a rational set of structuring guidelines, with rules
and procedures, a work hierarchy and a clear division of labour
between managers and hierarchical levels of workers. Max Weber
(1864–1920), who was one of the founding fathers of modern
sociology, claims that bureaucracy is the most logical and rational
structure for large organisations in advanced societies, and an
inevitable development as societies industrialise and modernise,
because they allow you to organise complex and extensive processes
systematically and rationally. He says that bureaucracies should not
be dominated by charismatic authority but rather by legal or rational
authority– based on law, agreed formal procedures and written rules –
which enables checks on all processes to take place. According to
Weber, positional authority of a superior over a subordinate should
stem from legal and technical competence, whereas charismatic
authority tends to stem from the personal qualities of an individual.
The problem with the latter is continuity: how are things to be
maintained when a charismatic leader dies or moves on, and what
happens if the charismatic leader lacks technical competence?
Think here of the differences of style among managers that you have
experience of, including the managers in your present organisation.
Think of those who run things by force of personality, and compare
Readings

their effectiveness with those who are technically competent and

manage by rules. Consider whether the size of the organisation
favours one style over another. How bureaucratic do you think youth
work should be? Why?

Readings 215
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Scientific management
Scientific management utilised scientific investigation in the form of
close observation and bio-mechanical, statistical analysis of working
procedures, to find the ‘one best way’ to do work tasks. Scientific
Management (by F.W. Taylor, 1856–1915) dealt with the role of
workers in the working procedures in assembly line production. It
divided work sharply between managers who could do the scientific
analysis of the work tasks and workers who would be expected to do
what the managers had specified on the basis of their analysis.
Work on the line was broken down into ‘time and motion’ patterns,
where physical movements were analysed for their efficiency and
accuracy. The analysis included rest and refreshment phases as well as
work tasks, and these were all allocated norms of time for each
movement and ideal amounts of work to be done at each phase.
Targets were then set for the time allowed for each stage in the
assembly process. The argument is that increased organisational
productivity is a function of increased efficiency, and that the latter is
concerned with creating jobs that reduce the use of time, human
energy and other productive resources. Thus jobs were structured as
series of controlled tasks, to be performed according to specific
procedures and methods.
This ignored the processes of human interaction that are at the heart
of all work organisation, and the method came under enormous
criticism because of this. Nevertheless, time-limiting and target-
setting are very much part of modern management systems. For
example, in the British National Health Service, doctors and nurses in
local practices are expected to work to an optimum notional several
minutes each to interview a patient who is sick. Funding is given to
the practice on that basis. Undoubtedly, as a manager of resources, it
will benefit you to look systematically at what is being done in a
project and work out the most efficient ways of working, if only to
save human effort and avoid frustration.

Administrative management
Administrative management focuses on the flow of activity through
an organisation. In particular it emphasises the flow of information in
the operation of the organisation. Efficiency derives from
rationalising this flow of activity and optimising the flows of
information. You can easily see the value of this when you consider
the dangers of organisations where managers do not know what is
happening in another part of the organisation from their own.
Henri Fayol (1841–1925), a French engineer, created a model of how
an organisation should be administratively managed. He saw the
manager’s role as crucial: the manager plans and organises the
activity but then switches to a command position, co-ordinating all
the various activities with one another and controlling the
performance of the company at key points.

216 Readings
 Module 7: Management Skills

Fayol describes fourteen ‘principles of management’, by which he

means organisational principles. The principles he felt to be most
important are: specialisation of labour, which has the value of
continually upgrading all skill levels; unity of command, where each
employee has only one boss, which simplifies and clarifies roles;
scalar chain of authority, which gives the organisation a military-style
command structure from top to bottom; and authority and unity of
direction, which means that managers have the right to issue orders
and must be obeyed, so that the manager’s plan always has priority.

Behavioural and human relations theories

The shift away from classical theory to the neoclassical human
relations theory took place after almost a chance discovery at the
Hawthorne Works in Chicago. During the studies of methods of
work organisation designed to improve employee motivation and
productivity that were conducted between 1924 and 1933, it was
discovered that remarkable and even sustained improvements in
motivation and production took place whenever attention was paid to
the workforce as human beings. The theories that developed from this
basis gradually uncovered an awareness of the extraordinary human
potential that everyone has, and the realisation that the right human
relationships in an organisation would release this capability.
Consider the work situations that you have experience of: ask
yourself what sort of relationships within and around the work
situation most stimulate and motivate you to work. You can probably
see how insight into this area of work organisation could well be of
enormous value to your youth work.
By the early 1950s, research into human relations methods had shown
that the behavioural approach did not always increase productivity,
and that only in certain key areas was it highly effective: techniques
based on studies of motivation and leadership now became critical to
the management process. This research eventually generated the
human resources model of organisational effectiveness, and this
became widely recognised as a significant progression from human
relations theory.
You will have learned from Module 1 Commonwealth Values in Youth
and Development that human beings have considerable intellectual
potential that is often suppressed by the social and educational
system. The same thing has been found to be true in work. The
human resources school posits that employees are immensely creative
and potentially highly competent, and that much of their talent
Readings

remains untapped by managers who may not have the insight or the
skills to release these abilities. The human resources school
discovered that above all employees want meaningful work; they want
to contribute creatively and to participate in decision-making and
leadership functions. This is obviously especially important to you as
a youth leader. These theories have led to major changes of work
practices and job enrichment programmes in, for example, the car
industry.

Readings 217
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Current theories
In many ways, the dynamics of the global market have upset many of
what had become widely accepted as effective management practices,
particularly in very successful American and Japanese companies.
Firms that had been right at the top of their fields were suddenly
forced to downsize and restructure. Some failed for no obvious
reason. New firms began to spring up based on the internet, and
small entrepreneurs suddenly become major players. This has led to
radically new ideas in management theory, which may well throw
light on ways that you may work with young people.
Basically, the three current theories on management are systems,
contingency and chaos theory (this section is based on McNamara
1999).

1 Systems theory
Systems theory starts by looking at an organisation and asking “in
what ways is this organisation a system?” A system is a collection of
parts organised to accomplish an overall goal. If one part of the
system is removed, the nature of the system is changed as well. For
example, a functioning car is a system of organised parts. Remove the
carburettor and you’ve no longer got a working car. A system consists
of inputs, which go through a series of inter-connected processes or
subsystems and are turned into outputs with outcomes.
In the case of the car, the main input is gas energy in the form of fuel;
this is fed through a carburation sub-system into an engine sub-
system, which converts it into mechanical energy in a propulsion sub-
system and the output is movement of the car. Systems are
characterised by feedback from each part of the system to the one
before. If the feedback process is sensitive enough, the managers can
quickly get a sense of where something is going wrong and put that
right. Modern cars are particularly good at this with the use of
electronic control systems.
Within an organisation, inputs would include resources such as raw
materials, money and people. These inputs go through a planned,
technical labour process where they are organised and controlled,
ultimately to meet the organisation’s goals. Outputs could be products
or services to a market.
Effective management always has very good feedback systems in
place, so that rapid changes can be made to any part of the system
that is not functioning properly. Feedback might be via information
sources at the level of the human resources carrying out the labour
process, from inbuilt technical checking systems or from customers /
clients using the output products. Feedback also comes from
monitoring the larger environment served by the organisation and
providing inputs into the system, such as state policy, the financial
system, new technologies or the world market. This overall

218 Readings
 Module 7: Management Skills

conceptual framework can be applied to any organisation and any of

its sub-organisations.
Systems theory helps managers to look at the organisation from a
broad but precise perspective. Systems theory has created a powerful
model by which managers can interpret patterns and events in the
workplace. They can use it to analyse the various parts of the
organisation, and, in particular, the interrelations of the parts, e.g.,
the coordination of central administration with its programmes.
When you work with government agencies or large NGOs you may
well find that thinking about these as systems and subsystems helps
you get to grips with how best to work with them.

2 Contingency theory
Because so many favoured management systems have foundered in
the new global marketplace (one thinks particularly of the recent
collapse of so many internet businesses, for example), contingency
theory has developed from behavioural theories to contend that there
is no one best way of managing. A management style that is effective
in one situation may not be at all effective in another. The manager’s
ability to manage is contingent or dependent on various situational
factors, including her or his preferred management style and the
capabilities and attitudes of the people being managed, as well as the
context of the process.
Contingency theory posits that when managers make a leadership
decision, they must take into account all aspects of the current
situation and act on those aspects that are key to the situation at
hand. If you are leading a difficult group, then you will have to judge
the group atmosphere, how much power you’ve got and weigh those
things against what is required by the project: it’s a matter of finely
balancing all the variables.

3 Chaos theory
This is the latest idea imported from science and technology into
management theory. What chaos theory has discovered in the natural
world is that underneath the apparent order and patterned structure
of the world are huge, turbulent, chaotic energies. Structure and
pattern eventually emerge from this chaos but are themselves always
threatened by it.
That’s easy to see in a Japanese city that lies on a tectonic plate
boundary. But chaos theorists in the management arena also argue
Readings

that organisations are potentially chaotic and can collapse unless

management is prepared to work with the energies in the system. This
may be observed in the successful adaptation and dramatic growth of
post-modern giant corporations like Microsoft as compared with
modernist dinosaurs like IBM. Managers in the old corporate
structures have always acted on the basis that organisational events
can be tightly controlled, whereas in organisations like Microsoft the
emphasis is on adapting to the inevitable changes.

Readings 219
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Chaos theory recognises that events are rarely controlled or

controllable. Many chaos theorists (as do systems theorists) refer to
biological systems when explaining their theory. They suggest that
systems naturally develop towards more complexity, and as they do
so, these systems become more unstable and must expend more
energy to maintain that complexity. As they expend more energy,
they seek new organisational structure to maintain their stability. This
trend continues until the system often splits, combines with another
complex system or falls apart entirely – what many see as the trend in
life, in organisations and the world in general. This means expecting
the unexpected and being prepared to adapt to it; planning and
designing but not being absolutely tied to your plan; and being
sensitive to the energies in the system and working with them.

Principles of management
Classical management theory is still a dominant force in management
practice in spite of the advanced thinking of the modern and post-
modern eras. It is still widely accepted that effective management
ought to be based on Henri Fayol’s fourteen principles of
management, identified in Armstrong (1999, p. 10) as follows:
z division of work and specialisation
z authority to match responsibility
z discipline
z unity of command (one person, one boss)
z unity of direction
z subordination of individual interest to the general interest
z fair remuneration in relation to effort
z centralisation
z the scalar or hierarchical principle of line of authority
z the principle of order (place for everyone and everyone in his or
her place)
z equity
z stability of tenure of personnel
z importance of initiative
z importance of esprit de corps (group harmony and cohesion that
makes the members want the group to succeed).

References
Armstrong, M. (1999) How to be an Even Better Manager: A Complete A-
Z of Proven Techniques and Essential Skills, Kogan Page Limited,
London.

220 Readings
 Module 7: Management Skills

McNamara, C. (1999) ‘Brief Overview of Contemporary Theories in

Management’, The Management Assistance Program for Nonprofits,
http://www.managementhelp.org/mgmnt/cntmpory.htm

Readings

Readings 221
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Reading 2: Management and administration in

the private and public sectors

by W. David Rees

A factor which is likely to have a major effect on the structure of an

organisation is whether it is in the private or the public sector. The
differing objectives of private and public sector organisations and the
differing circumstances within which they have to operate necessitate
different approaches. There may be ways in which each sector can
improve by adopting some of the practices of the other, but there is a
sound logic to many of the differences. Public sector bodies are
democratically accountable, often have to meet a wide variety of
statutory requirements, tend not to have clear quantifiable aims, and
are usually very large. The largest employer in western Europe is, for
example, the British National Health Service. Private sector
organisations are often much smaller, with clearer, usually
commercial, goals and often the need to encourage delegation of
authority and risk-taking in a way that would be quite inappropriate
in the public sector.

The differences between management and

administration
One way of viewing the differences in approach in the private and
public sectors is by distinguishing between management and
administration. This has been done by a British civil servant
associated with the Treasury Centre for Administrative Services.
These differences are shown in the chart contained as an appendix to
this chapter and are likely to apply in other countries as well. The
emphasis with ‘management’ is on results and taking calculated risks,
and with ‘administration’ it is on procedures, accountability and risk
avoidance. The differences should not be seen as complete opposites
but rather as the two ends of a continuum. There will be some
organisations that operate in the middle of the continuum; with some
it may even be difficult to classify them accurately as private or public
sector – for example, the BBC. With the public sector there is also
considerable variety. The nationalised industries were quite
deliberately set up in Britain as public corporations with much more
autonomy than Civil Service departments, to help them operate on a
commercial basis. There is, of course, great variety within the private
sector. Factors such as size, product variety and risk factors will
influence private sector organisations. Some private sector
organisations may have more characteristics in common with some
public sector organisations than they do with other private sector
organisations at the end of the continuum. Some companies may
need to review their balance between a managerial and administrative
approach just as much as public sector bodies.

222 Readings
 Module 7: Management Skills

Effectiveness in the public sector

The differences between private and public sector organisations are
often necessary; however, there has been growing concern about the
effectiveness of many public sector organisations. This had led to a
considerable amount of continuing pressure for change. Whilst it is
appropriate for managers in the public sector to acknowledge the
parameters within which they have to work, it is also necessary for
them to identify the likely changes. The Civil Service has often been
under scrutiny, and the Conservative Governments, led by Mrs
Thatcher, actually reduced its size in a drive to make it more cost-
effective. There has also been a persistent attempt to make public
sector organisations operate more with a managerial, as opposed to
an administrative, approach. This is not an entirely new development.
The Maud Report in 1967 was particularly critical of local
government in Britain. Amongst the many criticisms were the
absence of integrated policies, the rigidity of departmental
boundaries and the lack of delegation. Recommendations included
the need for clarification of objectives, a greater emphasis on
management, assessment of results and the creation of a
management board.
These criticisms and recommendations were reinforced by the Bains
Report in 1972. In particular there was adverse comment about the
myth of policy being a matter for elected members and
administration for the officers. The recommendations included the
need to have much more effort at identifying and clarifying policy,
with councillors in particular being more involved in this and less
involved in administrative detail. This in turn necessitated a far more
corporate approach, increased delegation, more financial planning, a
clearer management structure and performance review.
Although these attempts to change local government have been
somewhat of an uphill task, the pressures have continued. Local
authorities are being continuously squeezed into trying to make more
effective use of their resources by their ever increasing commitments
on the one hand, and increasing government control and restriction
of their spending on the other hand, including the use of rate-
capping. The problems that can be created by the resulting imbalance
between the demand for services and the availability of resources are
explained later in this chapter. This is in the section showing the
similarity between some of the problems experienced in the Health
Service and local government. Other pressures include the trend
towards competitive tendering, particularly in Conservative-controlled
Readings

local authorities, and the requirements that direct labour

organisations to compete on the open market with private firms for
building contracts with their own Council.

Other public sector changes

Elsewhere in the public sector there has also been pressure for greater
cost-effectiveness – even if private sector practices haven’t always

Readings 223
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

provided the answers. The Health Service was reorganised following

the Griffiths Report of 1983. General managers were introduced into
hospitals and decision-making now rests with them instead of the
former teams, which were supposed to arrive at a consensus before
taking any decisions. Additionally, the whole tier of area level
administration in the Health Service was removed, and in local
government the Metropolitan Councils and the Greater London
Council were abolished. Organisations formerly in the public sector,
such as British Telecommunications, British Airways, the gas
industry, the British Airports Authority and Rolls-Royce, have been
sold off and the pressures on any remaining public corporations to
pay their way are going to remain.
The problem Britain and other countries face is one of rising
expectations and demands on the public sector combined with slow
economic growth. This inevitably causes a search for cost-
effectiveness regardless of the political complexion of any particular
Government. It also creates more need for the systematic
identification of priorities. This became particularly apparent in the
Health Service as it became obvious that the ‘open-ended
commitment’ to meeting the medical needs of the nation could not be
sustained. Advances in medical knowledge and the ‘ageing’ of the
population meant that there were clearly not the resources to do
everything. The consensus model of decision-making, previously
explained, tended to preserve the status quo and also led to an
uncoordinated, and at times haphazard, response to resource
allocation. The Griffiths structure within the hospital service at least
gives general managers the authority to take decisions about resource
allocation. This structure is also operating within the context of
national policies designed to identity medical priorities and
redistribute resources on a geographical basis.
Similar problems are evident in local government. Some councils are
committed to, or are expected to, provide more in the way of services
than they have the resources to provide. If the issue of imbalance is
not recognised and dealt with at a policy level by the councillors’
policy decisions get pushed down to the officers who have the
dilemma of deciding which needs to meet and which not to. The
devices that can be used in this situation, as with the Health Service,
include rationing, queuing, the temporary or permanent withdrawal
of selected services and reductions in quality. Considerable stress can
be placed on those having to take and implement these decisions,
which may be aggravated by an imperfect understanding of what has
caused this stress. This pattern of imbalance between the demands
placed on a service and the resources provided to meet it is likely to
occur throughout the public sector.

Bureaucracy in the private sector

The attempts to increase the cost-effectiveness of organisations and to
reduce any bureaucratic waste are not of course confined to the
public sector. Many private sector companies find that this is a

224 Readings
 Module 7: Management Skills

chronic issue they have to deal with. There seems to be an increasing

willingness in the private sector to query the value of large head
offices.
Successful private companies that have fairly determinedly avoided
having large head offices and have opted for a decentralised structure
include GEC, Plessey and the Bass Group. Decentralisation is not a
panacea, but the point that is continuously emphasised by market
competition is that if private companies spawn unproductive
bureaucracies their future is at risk even more than public sector
organisations. Underlying all this in the public and private sectors in
Britain and elsewhere is the fact that limited economic growth is
bound to be a continuing pressure for the more effective use of
organisational resources.

Conclusion
The basic theme of this chapter has been that there is no one way of
designing an organisation. Organisational structures are means to
ends and not ends in themselves. The structure that may be ideal in
one situation can be disastrous in another. The individual manager
needs to examine the fit between what is appropriate in terms of
organisational design and operation and what actually exists. He also
needs to do what he can to make the fit as close as possible. Hopefully
the organisation structure will be in line with the objectives that are
being pursued and the manager can go on to the next issue which is
whether his own style is appropriate. Just as with organisational
structure, there is no one pattern that will always guarantee success.
The different characteristics of administration and
management

Administration Management
Objectives Stated in general terms Stated as broad strategic
and reviewed or changed aims supported by more
infrequently. detailed short-term goals
and targets reviewed.
Success criteria Mistake-avoiding. Success-seeking.
Performance rarely Performance mostly
measured. measured.
Resource use Secondary task. Primary task.
Decision-making Has to make few decisions Has to take many decisions
but affecting many and can affecting few and has to
Readings

take time over it. make them quickly.

Structures Roles defined in terms of Roles defined in terms of
areas of responsibility. decision-making,
information-handling and
formal authority.
Roles Arbitration. Protagonist.

Readings 225
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Administration Management
Attitudes Passive: workload Active: seeking to
determined outside the influence the environment.
system. Best people used to find
Best people used to solve and exploit opportunities.
problems. Time sensitive.
Time-sensitive. Risk-accepting but also risk
Risk-avoiding. -minimising.
Emphasis on procedure. Emphasis on results.
Doing things right. Doing the right things.
Conformity. Local experiments: need
Uniformity. conformity to be proved.
Independence.
Skills Legal or quasi-legal. Economic or socio-
Literacy (reports, notes). economic.
Numeracy (statistics,
figures)

226 Readings
 Module 7: Management Skills

Reading 3: Non-governmental organisations as

agents of development

by Sybert Liebenberg

Introduction
It is generally accepted that non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
have become very important and permanent institutions in the
implementation of development programmes and projects. It is
therefore important that every student of the development process
should clearly understand the nature of NGOs and the way in which
they function. In order to facilitate such an understanding, this unit
will focus on the definition, classification and functioning of NGOs,
as well as their weaknesses and strengths.

Defining NGOs
Based on the vast expanse of literature that has tried to explain what
constitutes non-governmental organisations, Kane (1990:14) argues
that the concept may vary from “charity in the noble and/or religious
sense of the term, to political associations, and ... local and popular
development initiatives”, which makes a definition extremely difficult.
(Also see Clark 1990, Nerfin 1991 and Merrington 1992.)
The problematic nature of NGOs, and therefore the difficulty in
finding a definition for them, is illustrated by Salem and Eaves (1989),
who declare that “until 1983, there was no (World) Bank statement which
clearly and comprehensively defined NGOs”. Despite their problematic
nature, Kane (1990:14–15) identifies three criteria that could assist in
their definition.
Kane’s three criteria for the definition of an NGO
1 It should be privately set up (as opposed to being set up by the
state) and structured and sufficiently autonomous in its activity
and financing. This, above all, is what ensures its non-
governmental character.
2 It should be a non-profit-making institution to ensure its
‘voluntary’ or ‘benevolent’ character.
3 It should support development. This is what ensures its ‘public
interest’ character, even if governments have introduced
Readings

legislation to limit the areas in which ‘public interest’ can be

exercised.
In accordance with the first criterion identified by Kane, Padron
(1987:71) argues that one of the central characteristics of NGOs is
the fact that they are “not part of a government and ... have not been
established as a result of an agreement between governments.”

Readings 227
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Kane’s second criterion, namely the non-profit dimension of NGOs,

is also supported by the Development Bank of Southern Africa,
which states that NGOs should be “non-profit seeking”, in that any
surpluses generated during the courses of activities are utilised to
further the development aims and objectives of the organisation.
(McLachlan 1991 :1). The emphasis on non-profitability is also
stressed by Erasmus, who defines NGOs in terms of being non-
profitable organisations that seek to “amass financial and/or
technical/scientific resources to meet socially identified needs” (1992:13).
In essence, then, NGOs can be defined as autonomous, privately set
up, non-profit-making institutions that support, manage or facilitate
development action.

Classification of NGOs
Another method of understanding the nature of NGOs is to analyse
the various categories into which NGOs can be classified. In this
regard they can be classified along the following broad lines:
z their evolutionary stage
z their organisational type
z their functional nature
z their geographical classification
z their membership.

Evolutionary classification
In terms of the evolutionary classification of NGOs, Korten
(1990:115–24) argues that they must proceed through an evolutionary
process that is characterised by four generations or stages. These four
generations are: relief and welfare, small-scale, self-reliant, local
development, sustainable systems development and public
conscientisation (see text box). By stating that NGOs must go
through a process of evolution, Korten is arguing that, as
organisations, NGOs will have to adapt themselves to their
environment and the needs which they are trying to address. In other
words, as soon as a particular need that the NGO is addressing is
satisfied, the NGO will change its character and function in order to
address the new demands that develop out of its environment. In
order for NGOs to survive, they must be able to adapt themselves to
the way in which the needs of the people they serve change.

228 Readings
 Module 7: Management Skills

In terms of Korten’s evolutionary classification, he has identified the

following stages of evolution through which NGOs can evolve:
z First generation: Relief and welfare organisations are
organisations that tend to be defined in terms of their primary
commitment to relief and welfare.
z Second generation: Small-scale self-reliant local development
organisations are organisations that satisfy the basic needs of a
community by utilising local resources.
z Third generation: Sustainable systems development organisations
are organisations that seek to maximise decision-making power
and control by the local population of the macro-processes that
concern themselves, by focusing on sustainable systems
development.
z Fourth generation: Public conscientisation organisations aim to
raise public awareness and change policies through development
education.
(Korten 1990:115–24.)

By stating that these are evolutionary in nature, Korten is arguing that

the specific needs which each of these generations tries to address
become void as a result of the nature of evolution. In other words, as
the organisation develops, the functions that it performs at the
particular state of evolution in which it finds itself become void as it
starts to perform the functions that are required of it in the next
evolutionary stage. Thomas (1992) states that it is important to realise
that, although Korten argues that these generations follow each other,
this might not be the case in practice. He argues that it would rather
be the programmes of the organisation that could be divided into the
various generations, and not the organisational design of a particular
NGO. An NGO might be able to implement a combination of all four
of the categories at any one time. An NGO might, for example, be
busy with a feeding scheme, which can be classified as a first-
generation type of activity, while it is simultaneously implementing a
public awareness campaign, which could be defined as a fourth-
generation development activity.

Organisational classification
In terms of the organisational classification of NGOs, Korten states
that NGOs can embrace any one of the following four organisational
types:
Readings

z voluntary organisations
z public service contractors
z people’s organisations
z governmental and non-governmental organisations
(Korten 1990:2)

Readings 229
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Voluntary organisations in this regard pursue a social mission in

terms of a commitment to shared values, while public service
contractors function as non-profit organisations that serve public
purposes. People’s organisations, in turn, represent the interests of
self-reliant social groupings (Jeppe 1992a:2). Within the context of
organisational classification, Jeppe also distinguishes what he terms
service delivery organisations, which aim at providing a
developmental service to a specific community. He also refers to these
organisations as ‘Non-governmental Development Organisations’
(Jeppe 1992a:23).
It could be argued that the organisational traits of each of these
categories are not mutually exclusive but representative of all the
organisational needs and functions of any development organisation.
This is illustrated by the fact that development organisations must
pursue a social mission in terms of a commitment to shared values.
This is done while serving public purposes which represent the
interest of self-reliant social groupings, within the broader context of
a national governmental development policy framework. In other
words, these categories do not represent separate organisational
structures, but essential components of a development organisation’s
design.

Functional classification
The same arguments can be put forward with regard to the functional
classification of NGOs. Cross (1994:10) identifies two main
categories, namely political and goal-oriented NGOs. Political NGOs
are politically aligned and function according to a political agenda,
while goal-oriented NGOs are functionally aligned with the interests
of a specific group. This makes them very goal-oriented, in that goals
tend to take precedence over other processes and procedures (Cross
1994:10).
Carroll (1992:13) identifies three main functional clusters of NGOs.
They are ‘productive and income-generating activities, social services,
and networking’.

230 Readings
 Module 7: Management Skills

Functional categories
Jeppe (1992b:9 and 10) and Bowden (1990:141) identify the following
functional categories:
z Specialised NGOs. These organisations engage in human and
physical development activities by focusing on technical training,
adult literacy, housing, agriculture, etc.
z Welfare NGOs. These organisations focus on relief and welfare
actions.
z Developmental NGOs. The primary focus of these organisations
is on human development (capacity building) and the
development of physical infrastructure.
z Advocacy NGOs. These NGOs provide communities and
individuals with specialised facilitation or consultation services.
As is the case with the organisational categorisation of NGOs, it is
apparent that the functional categories are also not mutually exclusive
in terms of a holistic development approach. In other words, an
NGO must fulfil all the functions that are stated as functional
categories within the parameters of its own structure to respond to
the multidimensional nature of not only the development process, but
also the functioning of NGOs.

Geographical classification
In terms of a geographical classification, NGOs can be divided into
the categories shown in the text box.
International NGOs. These organisations are based in the northern
hemisphere, although they may have offices in the Third World, and
provide development assistance throughout the Third World, through
financial and personnel aid.
Regional NGOs. The activities of regional NGOs are restricted to a
particular region, and provide more or less the same kinds of
development assistance as international NGOs.
National NGOs. National NGOs restrict their development actions
to a particular nation or state.
Local NGOs. These NGOs function at community level.

Membership classification
Readings

Thomas (1992) argues that NGOs can also be classified according to

their membership profile. In this regard, some NGOs may be set up to
benefit their own members. Examples of such organisations include
co-operatives, savings clubs and unions. Other organisations may be
set up for general public benefit. These organisations might include
charities and campaigning organisations (Thomas 1992:122).
Community-based organisations (CBOs) – which are sometimes also
called local or indigenous organisations – are also exponents of this

Readings 231
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

category of classification. CBOs are NGOs which have arisen

autonomously in communities, and which aim to bring about self-
reliant development (Meintjies 1994:13).

Functioning of NGOs
Before proceeding to a discussion of the specific aspects regarding the
functioning of NGOs, it is necessary to construct a general overview
of the backdrop to the dynamics involved in the processes of NGO-
related development.
Padron (1987:71) states that the context within which NGOs
function, is made up of four interrelated dimensions. They are:
z the popular sector and the historical context
z institutional relationships of the NGO
z the internal dynamics of the NGO, and
z the project itself.
In terms of its functionality, Padron (1987:71–2) argues that the
NGO:
“... exists by establishing a working relationship with the
popular sector, which also functions within a historical context.
The historical context is of importance as it defines the specific
nature of the given social reality within which both the NGO
and the popular sector/community function.”
It is important to note that, in terms of participation, communities
are able to express their own conception of what development entails:
“... in terms of participation in their own societies and
expression of what development means for them, in their
understanding of participation, and the way they define their
role in the development process”
(Padron 1987:72).

The NGO is not only engaged in a relationship with the popular

sector but also with the institutional sector. In terms of this
relationship, NGOs engage in a mutually beneficial relationship with
other agents of change which are active in the same area (Padron
1987:72). NGOs are not only influenced by the popular and the
institutional sectors, but also by their own internal dynamics,
institutional development and characteristics. All the abovementioned
dynamics determine the way in which NGO projects are to be
implemented (Padron 1987:72). The interrelated nature of this
process, as illustrated by Padron (1987), is supported by Salem and
Eaves’ (1989:3) analysis of the project cycle. According to them, a
typical NGO project cycle consists of the following phases:
z analysis identification
z project design

232 Readings
 Module 7: Management Skills

z project financing
z project implementation, and
z monitoring and evaluation.
The interrelated nature of the process is illustrated by the fact that
none of these phases could take place outside a process of interaction
with the four mentioned dimensions. In other words, each aspect of
the respective project phases is related in some way to the given four
dimensions. This assumption is supported by Merrington (1992).
Merrington (1992:10) states that an NGO has as its function the
transformation of resources which it receives from society, into
programmes, projects, products and services for a particular target
group of people. In essence, then, the NGO is dependent on and part
of the society at both community and all other levels of abstract
society (Merrington 1992:11). Merrington (1992) argues that for an
NGO to function efficiently it must possess a well-trained and
motivated staff. Secondly, it needs an organisational structure that is
appropriate in design to the task that it seeks to accomplish. Finally
Merrington (1992:11) argues that the ‘vision’ of the NGO must be
accepted by all the important stakeholders in a given community.
It could be argued that, when all these dimensions are recognised in
terms of a holistic view, it leads to a definition of the role of an NGO
beyond the mere implementation of concrete development projects
(Padron 1987:73). In order to give a more detailed perspective of the
NGO as an agent of development, it is necessary to analyse the
functions of an NGO in terms of the process of development.
Within the context of a more detailed analysis it has become clear
that an NGO serves as a catalyst for the implementation of the
development process. This is on account of the fact that the
development process seldom begins spontaneously and as a result it
has to be initiated by leadership with an external vision (Burkey
1993:60). The primary objective of development is to initiate a
process of “awareness building, of education, of people forming their
own organisations to define and create a demand for what they need
to lead a decent life” (Bhasin 1991 :8).
Erasmus (1992:17–18) argues that there are a number of reasons why
most communities are unable to initiate such a development process
by themselves. The first is the fact that most of these communities
lack the necessary resources that are required for the initiation and
maintenance of development efforts. Secondly, most of these
communities also do not have organisational structures that are able
Readings

to cope with initiatives that do emerge from the community and,

finally, because of various historical factors, most of these
communities are trapped in a dependency relationship which
hampers spontaneous development activities.
The fact that the NGO has to function as a catalyst of the
development process does not give such an organisation the mandate
to control and manipulate this process, especially in terms of the

Readings 233
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

primary importance of participation, empowerment and

sustainability. It is very important to note that the role of
development catalyst that is fulfilled by an NGO is a temporary one
(Brown and Korten 1989:11). For an NGO to perform an effective
catalyst role, it has to maintain “substantial independence in defining and
interpreting its own mission” so that it does not fall captive to
powerholders and their agenda (Brown and Korten 1989:12). The
catalysing functions of an NGO should aim at producing
participation, empowerment and sustainability in terms of the
development process.
The fact that the catalyst function of an NGO should be temporary
and aimed at enhancing participation supports the notion that NGOs
are functional in strengthening civil society (Shaw 1990:14). NGOs
can also function as expressions of a given civil society’s capacity for
free organisation that is not controlled by or localised as expressions
or mechanisms of political or economic domination (Frantz
1987:122–3). By functioning as instruments that facilitate the creation
of civil society, NGOs are enabling communities to ‘articulate’ their
development needs, and develop their own strategies based on these
articulated needs (Drabeck 1987). The fact that the functioning of
NGOs is instrumental in the creation of civil society and
participation, implies that in terms of the interrelated nature of the
development process, NGOs should also function as agents of
empowerment. In addition to these arguments, Erasmus (1992:15)
supports this notion when he states that:
“.... participation in development through a process of
empowerment, and any evaluation of NGOs must revolve
around the extent to which NGOs succeed in empowering
people at grassroots level.”
This position is also supported by Elliot (1987:57) when he argues
that empowerment is not something that can be delivered or bought,
but that it is a process which depends on people more than physical
resources.
Participation thus leads to empowerment and empowerment results
in the ability of a social grouping to evaluate its situation and make
decisions that could alter that specific situation. Padron states that the
use of a model of evaluation which involves the “measuring of actual
performance against preset objectives is of little use by itself. Instead a model
of evaluation should include the measurement of overall organisational
effectiveness as compared to final programme impact in terms of variables
such as morale, participation, leadership, power equations and social values”
(1987:164). It can be argued that one of the main aims of evaluation
is to ensure that development actions will result in sustainability. It
becomes apparent that all the given components of the development
process are interrelated. Any NGO effort aimed at development
should keep this situation in mind and formulate an appropriate
holistic participatory strategy to address the challenges of the
development process.

234 Readings
 Module 7: Management Skills

Weaknesses of NGOs
From what has been discussed thus far, it appears that NGOs are very
well suited as instruments that facilitate the process of development.
In spite of this apparent endowment it is important to note that there
are certain limitations that can inhibit the effective functioning of
NGOs.
Merrington (1992:16) summarises the limitations of NGOs as
follows:
z inadequate planning, organisation and management
z inadequate staff training
z inability to replicate projects and ensure sustainability
z inability to effectively collaborate at appropriate levels with
government services
z a lack of coordination of the efforts of individual NGOs to
ensure an effective macro level spread of development.
In addition to this, Clark (1990:57) also states that too little attention
is given to leadership and management training. This situation is
aggravated by the fact that leadership in NGOs tends to be
charismatic, and once such a leader disappears from the scene there is
nobody to take his/her place, thus creating a leadership vacuum. The
lack of leadership and relevant management skills may also have a
negative effect on the capacity of the NGO to perform complex
projects or tasks. This inability may, in turn, increase the inability of
the NGO to be able to ‘scale up’ successful projects and replicate
them on a regional or national scale (Brown and Korten 1989:16).
The implication of this is that most NGOs are unable to provide
routine services to large populations on a sustainable basis.
Another serious problem is their inability to learn from the mistakes
that other NGOs make. This is due to the high level of isolation and
rivalry that exists among NGOs, which hampers the process of social
learning (Clark 1990:60). One of the advantages of NGOs is that they
are very specific in terms of their actions and the needs of
communities that they serve. But because they are so specific in their
actions, they sometimes tend to ignore the larger context in which
they operate, and the other agencies and forces that also function in
the same system. This makes it almost impossible to implement truly
integrated development actions which would benefit from the
economy of scale.
Readings

Strengths of NGOs
Some of the strengths of NGOs include the following:
z Because they are able to facilitate a relatively high degree of
community participation, they can accurately identity the specific
needs of a community (Cernea 1988:17). In other words, NGOs
can more effectively identify community needs because they are

Readings 235
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

closer to the community than government structures. This is

because the members of the NGO may live in the community or
even belong to the community which they serve.
z Because they are functioning at community level, or have been
created as a result of a community initiative, they tend to enjoy
more legitimacy in the communities which they serve. This is
because communities might feel that such initiatives are their
own, and effectively address their own needs and interests. The
project therefore becomes the property of the community, and
because the community sees the project as its own, its members
are more likely to support it.
z The high degree of community participation creates a conducive
environment in which local knowledge and technology can be
utilised and adapted to local development needs. This high degree
of participation allows communities to apply knowledge and
technologies which they have developed themselves to suit their
own situation.
z Because of their structure, which is not characterised by the same
bureaucratic nature as that of governments, they are very flexible
and adaptive to local conditions and changes in the environment
(Paulton and Harris 1988:184). This means that they can respond
faster to situations and that their running costs are lower because
of their smaller organisational size, supported by its voluntary
character.

The relationship between NGOs and government

According to Thomas (1992) NGOs are likely to relate to the state in
one of three ways, as shown in the text box.
z Complementing the state. This entails that an NGO participates
with the state in providing services which the state would
otherwise not be able to provide. The NGO therefore becomes an
instrument of government policy implementation.
z Opposing the state. An NGO can oppose the state directly or
through various pressure groups in an effort to engage
government with regard to its policies which the NGO and the
community might feel are adversely affecting them (Thomas
1992:140).
z Reforming the state. NGOs can represent interest groups that are
working at grassroots level and negotiate with government to
improve government policies.
It could be argued that if a government is not able to provide all the
services required in the fields of welfare, development, local
government and economic growth, it should utilise NGOs to fulfil
these functions. NGOs therefore have a very important role to play as
partners of government in the development process.

236 Readings
 Module 7: Management Skills

Because NGOs could play such an important role in the government

development delivery systems, most governments would like to
monitor the functioning of NGOs closely. This creates a conflict
between NGOs and the state, since NGOs might interpret such
actions as interference on the part of government in their actions. The
fact that the NGOs do play a very important role in development
does not mean that the government should just abandon its
development role, and pour huge amounts of money into the NGO
sector and leave the responsibility of development to NGOs. NGOs
cannot function like government and government cannot function
like NGOs. It is therefore important that they complement and assist
each other in the process of development.

Conclusion
In conclusion it could be stated that NGOs can and must play a very
important role in the functional implementation of human
development. It is also clear that NGOs should try and broaden their
scope in terms of their implementing functions, in order to
complement the holistic nature of development. It has also become
clear that although on the one hand government wants to control the
functioning of NGOs, on the other hand it needs NGOs to function
as agents of civil society in order to produce effective results. Both
government and the NGO sector are therefore locked in a Catch-22
situation, since such a relationship would drastically change the
manner in which each perceives its own role and function. It could be
argued that for NGOs to remain relevant in the development sector,
and especially in terms of functional implementation, they should
utilise their unique characteristics (as discussed in this unit) with the
context of local development actions. NGOs should evaluate their
environments to see which functions government cannot perform as
effectively as it should, and serve as an alternative in the provision of
these services.
From this it becomes clear that NGOs, as institutions that promote
development, consist of a wide spectrum of functional, geographic,
membership, evolutionary and organisational groupings, which
makes it hard to develop a uniform definition. In spite of this, NGOs
still manage to function as relatively effective agents of development
in areas where government is not so effective. NGOs in general
therefore have a very important role to play in the process of
development. But in spite of the importance ascribed to NGOs, it is
also apparent that they do have certain functional limitations, which
could be addressed by government. There is therefore enough
Readings

manoeuvring space and a need for both NGOs and government in the
field of development.

Bibliography
Bhasin, K.(1991) ‘Participatory development demands participatory
training’. Convergence XXIV(4).

Readings 237
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Bowden, P. (1990) ‘NGOs in Asia: issues in development’. Public

Administration and Development 10.
Brown, L.D. and Korten, D.C. (1989) Understanding voluntary
organisations: guidelines for donors, World Bank, Washington.
Burkey, S. (1993) People first: a guide to self-reliant participatory rural
development, Westview, Boulder.
Carrol, T.F. (1992) Intermediary NGOs: the supporting link in grassroots
development, Kumarian, West Hartford.
Cernea, M.M. (1988) Non-governmental organisations and local
development, The World Bank, Washington.
Clark, J. (1990) Democratising development: the role of voluntary
organisations, Kumarian, West Hartford.
Cross, S. (1994) ‘South African NGOs in world perspective’.
Development and Democracy 7.
Drabeck, A.G.(1987) ‘Development alternatives: the challenges for
NGOs: an overview of issues’. World Development 15.
Elliot, C. (1987) ‘Some aspects of relationships between the north and
south in the NGO sector’. World Development 15.
Erasmus, G. (1992) ‘Saints or sinners? NGOs in development’.
Unpublished paper delivered at the Biennial Conference of the
Development Society of Southern Africa. University of Stellenbosch,
Stellenbosch, 9–11 September 1992.
Frantz, B.(1988) ‘The role of NGOs in the strengthening of civil
society’. World Development 15.
Jeppe, W.I.O. (1992a) ‘A new partnership of development NGOs and
the state’. In Jeppe, W.I.O. and Theron, F. (eds.), NGOs in
Development: University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch.
Kane, T. (1990) ‘Grassroots development: what role for voluntary
organisations?’ Voices from Africa 2.
Korten, D.C. (1990) Getting to the 21st century, Kumarian, West
Hartford.
Mclachlan, M. (1991) ‘DBSA’s involvement with non-governmental
organisation’, Development Bank of Southern Africa: Centre for
institutional specialists. Unpublished discussion paper.
Meintjies, F. (1994. ‘Community-based organisations and
development’. In Bernstein, A. and Lee, R. (eds.), Development and
Democracy, Development Strategy and Policy Unit of the Urban
Foundation, Johannesburg.
Merrington, G.J. (1992) ‘What role for non-governmental
organisations in development? Some aspects of strategy, planning,
organisation and management’. Unpublished paper delivered at the

238 Readings
 Module 7: Management Skills

Biennial Conference of the Development Society of Southern Africa.

University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, 9–11 September 1992.
Nerfin, M. (1991) ‘The relationship NGOs–UN agencies–
Governments: challenges, possibilities and prospects’. Position paper
prepared for the first international meeting of NGOs and UN systems
agencies. Development, International Co-operation and the NGOs,
Rio de Janeiro, 6–9 August 1991.
Padron, M. (1987) ‘Non-governmental development organisations:
from development aid to development cooperation’. In Drabeck, A.G.
(ed.), Development alternatives: the challenges for NGOs, Pergamon,
Oxford.
Salem, L.F. and Eaves, A.P. (1989) World Bank with non-governmental
organisations, The World Bank, Country Economics Department,
Washington.
Shaw, T.M. (1990) ‘Popular participation in non-governmental
structures in Africa: implications for democratic development’. Africa
Today 37(3).
Thomas, A. (1992) ‘Non-governmental organisations and the limits to
empowerment’. In Wuyts, M., Mackintosh, M. and Hewitt, T. (eds.),
Development policy and public action, Oxford University Press.

Readings

Readings 239
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

Reading 4: The development role of non-

governmental organisations: the South African
paradigm

By John E. Allwood

Introduction
Any discussion of the past, present or future role of non-
governmental organisations (NGOs) within the South African context
has to take place against the backdrop of apartheid and the current
political and constitutional debates. The environment within which
NGOs have been functioning has been one dominated by the society’s
preoccupation with apartheid. The immediate future environment is
one determined by the aftermath of the apartheid dominated order;
the longer term will be deeply affected by the way our society repairs
past damage caused to our human psyche, attends to our
infrastructure, organises our economy and negotiates the distribution
of power.
The character, objectives and modus operandi of NGOs functioning
in South Africa, particularly during the last two decades, have been
determined more by the political conditions prevailing in the country
than by basic human needs. Organisations were constantly called to
account for their stand on political issues and issues of justice. They
were assessed more by their socio-political positioning than by their
developmental functionality. Legitimacy was credited or denied by
government, progressive or conservative organisations, depending on
the organisation’s public political positioning. Any suggestion that an
organisation may conduct an economic welfare function non-
politically was emphatically rejected. Unless the NGO could
demonstrate that it was actively involved in the struggle for a new, just
and democratic society, its right to survive through funding or
popular support was questioned. In fact many NGOs’ most lucrative
fundraising and promotion occurred off an anti-apartheid base. The
determinant for recognition became a matter of how strongly the
organisation resisted apartheid, more than how well it served the
welfare cause and objectives.
Association with the government of the day is problematic. Most
popular NGOs would regard support from the South African
government as equivalent to promoting apartheid. The government
on the other hand found the political activities of the NGOs
threatening and placed a series of restrictions on the registration and
activities of NGOs to curtail their advocacy activities. Definitions of
welfare through community development, appropriate empowerment
and political activism became embroiled in rhetoric and hidden
agendas, while the struggle for the control of the politically sensitive
aid business continued.

240 Readings
 Module 7: Management Skills

The result of this scenario was that NGOs in South Africa became
highly politicised and operationally astute, both to survive and to
continue to attack causes of poverty, rather than provide band-aid
assistance for the symptoms. Apartheid in all its various forms of
structural and racial oppression was regarded as the prime cause of
poverty. Poverty therefore could only be effectively dealt with by
removing the prime cause.
Anything less was seen to be supporting the status quo and by
definition, against the cause of a just revolution towards a new
democratic order. It was argued that to achieve successful
development required a new political and economic order.
It is clear then that the function of NGOs in South Africa and the
role that they have played, is somewhat different to the function and
positioning of NGOs in other parts of Africa. In this country, there
has been a major focus on changing the political and economic
structure through aid. A major emphasis has been on the
politicisation and conscientisation of people groups and an a priori
assumption was made that, unless the aid and consequent activities
were aimed at structural change in society (or at least moved
communities in that direction) the NGO would be suspected of
enhancing the cause of oppression. Little middle ground was
tolerated. An organisation was considered to be for or against, but
never neutral. In the rest of Africa NGOs were more often operating
within a protocol negotiated with the government, focused on basic
needs in the community, and functioned with little overt political
activity.
The political pressures on progressive NGOs in South Africa have
resulted in a general paranoia with regard to information gathering,
information sharing, accountability and evaluation. Quite rightly so,
for in many instances the possession of information about
community activities, community leadership and community
organisation had life-threatening consequences. Security police
activities, civic and other political interest groups exerted their several
pressures on organisations, seriously curbing their freedom to act
within internationally accepted NGO functions within impoverished
societies. This, combined with the motives of funding organisations
who were often more interested in the human rights issues than in
welfare issues (if these can be separated), resulted in a skewed
portfolio of services being offered to communities, rather than
services which were chosen objectively, based on primary social and
economic needs (Arnove 1982). It was argued that political freedom
Readings

should come first, that structural inequalities should be addressed

before other development activities could be initiated. It was further
argued that the role of the NGO was primarily in the motivation and
organising of communities towards appropriate mass action, which
could pressurise local authorities to supply welfare requirements; that
it was a fundamental human right that the state should provide for its
poor and that the role of the NGO was to assist the poor in their
struggle for their rights, more than assisting them to obtain their

Readings 241
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

requirements through other means; that the inequalities of the

structure should be addressed, on the assumption that poverty was
caused more through maldistribution than an intrinsic lack of
resources; the maldistribution demonstrating a further manifestation
of the oppressive apartheid system.
Often these political pressures resulted in confused objectives for
NGOs. An organisation established to care for children found itself in
a public advocacy role on behalf of oppressed communities. A
technical service organisation, skilled in civil engineering and solid
waste disposal, had to devote time and resources to political
diplomacy in order to retain an apparently legitimate presence and in
order to continue with its basic mission. The provision of primary
health care became far more than training village health workers and
building clinics with local community effort. And even preschool
education became the ideological preparation of children for the new
South Africa. It is not the intention of this paper to argue the rights
and wrongs of NGO political involvement.
Suffice to state that holistic development to which NGOs should
aspire must, by definition and in order to attain sustainability, result
in a more just order with attendant equitable access to resources by
the poor.
Democratic principles and process became more important than the
accomplishment of physical goals; community mandates more
important than technical responses to problems. Education within the
underprivileged areas, particularly black areas, became the focal point
of legitimising protest action. Consequently any NGO involved with
education had to take cognisance of this fact and provide their
services accordingly. Becoming involved in the struggle became
synonymous with being a legitimate educational NGO.
The source of funds for the NGO, and the political affiliation of the
funder, has been a fundamental issue in determining the acceptability
of the organisation and its service to the community. Based on the
assumption that no aid is devoid of political affiliation and
motivation, it became crucial to ascertain the likely influences or
motives behind philanthropy. Organisations became branded as a
result of their funding source, regardless of the conditions pertaining
to grants and gifts, which may in fact have left the NGO free to
determine its own criteria for operation. Organisations became
castigated as sell-outs, collaborators, communist or progressive
depending on the assumed source of their funds, rather than on the
product they were delivering or the service being rendered.
Organisations also capitalised on the political preferences of donors
and tailored their promotional pitch to the particular audience. This
led to selling on the basis of what the organisation stood for, rather
than for what the organisation did.
The scramble for funds and the competition for community acclaim,
led many NGOs into unseemly and unproductive competition with
one another. Rather than a healthy competition which gives

242 Readings
 Module 7: Management Skills

communities greater choice and an ability to exercise true democratic

freedom, even in welfare and development spheres, NGOs built
themselves up through the denigration of the apparent competition.
This destructive process was legitimised by the assumed political
risks. It justified the exclusion from supportive networks of certain
organisations. Given the overall secrecy within which NGOs were
forced to conduct their business due to political sensitivities and
security realities, it was almost impossible to verify allegations, or for
organisations to defend their positions or correct erroneous
perceptions.
While the difficult and dangerous environment of the past few
decades has sharpened and strengthened some NGOs in their service
abilities, the shroud of secrecy has enabled others to pass off
ineffective programmes and inefficient operations onto the public and
donors alike, without objective accountability and evaluation being
applied.

The problem of poverty and limited resources

The debate regarding appropriate NGO activity vis-a-vis the enabling
and empowering of the poor to change the political and economic
structures, to achieve for themselves a sustainable and satisfying
lifestyle, will rage on. What will also continue is the rise in poverty,
the increase in numbers of people living below acceptable subsistence
levels, the number of child deaths, the number of people being born
to a destiny of deprivation, hardship and hopelessness.
The heralding of the new South Africa with peace initiatives, political
accommodations and new constitutions will mean little real change,
in the short and intermediate terms, in the lives of the poorest people
of our land. Even the long-term improvement is not assured if we
take a hard look at other societies in Africa which have sought to
change politically towards a more just dispensation.
What then will be the role of the NGO in this brave new land? A
number of crucial questions will have to be dealt with.
z Can the present generation of NGOs make the transition to
become what this new society will require of them, rapidly
increasing their capacity to assist the poor?
z Can the existing organisations find productive partnership
together in assisting one another and the client communities to
find solutions to common problems?
Readings

z Can there be a productive relationship between the government

and NGOs, taking into account the past history, conflicting
power bases, different economic perspectives, different
accountability and mandating procedures that governments need
for co-ordinated function in society in contrast to NGOs’ need for
entrepreneurial independent identify?
z How will the suspicions of the past be resolved?

Readings 243
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

z How will NGOs institute accountability and evaluation

procedures which will enable open declaration and sharing of
information and activities, to enable objective scrutiny by
interested parties?
z What social instruments will be used to determine how best the
limited South African resource base will be used for the greatest
good for the nation?
z Do the South African NGO community and the various
government bodies have the capacity, expertise, foresight and
strategies to remove those barriers which disempower
communities, and provide the appropriate resources and support
which will enable them to become sustainable and attain
interdependent sufficiency?
z Is there a national will, which may supersede organisational
differences and enable synergistic activity that will expand the
capacity for service, provide composite participative planning and
appropriate supportive action?
z The debate of these questions may create a forum which could
suggest appropriate roles for NGOs in the future South Africa. It
is necessary then, to look at the functions and roles of NGOs
within the new social, political and economic environment that is
anticipated in South Africa.

The role of NGOs in the new South Africa

It is, indeed, dangerous to make assumptions regarding the new
political and economic climate in South Africa. Yet, in order to be
prepared, some scenario planning is essential, indicating perhaps a
spectrum of possibilities. For the purpose of this discussion we
suggest the following environmental determinants:
z that sporadic violence within communities will continue for the
foreseeable future; political settlements leading to democracy will
be problematic; economic growth will not keep pace with
population growth
z there will be more poor South Africans a decade from now than
there are at present.
If the work of NGOs in alleviating poverty is valid, and if they can
adapt to new circumstances, becoming more effective, then we may
assume an increasingly important role for them to play.
In their interesting book Does Aid Work?, Robert Cassen and his co-
authors (1988) argue that, overall, aid given in the correct forms and
through the right agencies has decreased the growth of poverty within
specified areas. However, there are many identifiable, repeated causes
for failure on the side of the donor, that of the target people and of
the intermediary agency (often an NGO). In the case of the agency,
causes for failure are often the result of an inadequate analysis of past
strategies and a failure to learn from previous mistakes. Agencies do

244 Readings
 Module 7: Management Skills

not commonly share their failures and thus render themselves less
capable of learning from one another. A further inadequacy is that
NGOs tend to be focused on specific aspects of human need and fail
to take into account the macroeconomic environment or to work
together to determine policy debates which represent the interests of
the poorest and least in society, to the powerful and seemingly
significant.
The need for a clear focus for NGOs is raised by Larry Minear. He
asserts that it is “imperative for PVOs (NGOs) to give careful thought
to the activities through which they can make a distinctive
contribution ... they are partners in the aid process” (in Gorman
1984:25). It is implied that NGOs should not think of themselves as
singly responsible for all aspects of development in a community,
even though they may fully subscribe to a multidimensional approach
to development. NGOs should recognise their abilities and offer
services according to their strengths, rather than attempting to be all
things to all people. They should rely on networking with other
agencies to provide a holistic service. Each should work from a basic
human need perspective and evaluate strategies according to their
effectiveness, as determined by the community.
In analysing the effectiveness of NGOs, Brian H. Smith submits the
following observations. NGOs are generally cost-effective, they
bypass government bureaucracies and deal directly with the poor,
they support private indigenous institutions and thus promote local
self-reliance (in Gorman 1984:116). Yet the author argues that there is
a necessity for proof of effectiveness of NGOs before it be assumed
that they provide an effective aid delivery system (p.144). Dr Judith
Tendler in a thought-provoking evaluation of seventy-five NGOs,
done in 1982, concluded that the evaluation techniques measuring the
effectiveness of NGOs were not adequate to allow real evaluation of
their value and function to the communities they served (Tendler
1982). Measuring them by standards agreed upon by donor agencies
or other Western technical evaluators could result in misleading
conclusions.
The effectiveness of NGOs is enhanced by the space created for them
by good administrative and government structures, in which they can
thrive (Michael Calavan, quoted in Gorman 1985:215). However,
behavioural and perceptual changes are required by both NGOs and
government. For example, central officials must cease to regard
instances of local initiative and assertion of autonomy (lobbying,
demonstration, non-cooperation in central projects) as administrative
Readings

failures. They must learn to deal with people in a frankly ‘political’

manner.
Furthermore, external donor officials must question their own
bureaucratic values and learn to better understand the role of
democratic institutions. NGO workers must learn to balance their
paradoxical responsibilities as benevolent patrons and temporary
activists in local politics. Local leaders must acquire sufficient
confidence to be subtly (not excessively) self-assertive. Researchers

Readings 245
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

and consultants must overcome conceptual, methodological and

professional limitations in order to provide other actors with a clearer
notion of the problems they face.
Bureaucratic culture teaches officials to resist autonomous behaviour
through the recourse to professional standards and myths. All these
attitudes need modification to provide the space within which
effective aid can be provided through NGOs.
In regard to the need for greater democracy in development, John
Clark, in his book Democratizing Development (1991), suggests that
voluntary organisations will only achieve their full potential if they
develop a more strategic, coordinated way of working. Their projects
are important and will remain so, but in themselves they do no more
than create islands of relative prosperity within an increasingly hostile
sea. The projects should be seen as demonstrations, catalysts, and
vantage points. Using them as their base of experience and
knowledge, voluntary organisations should help to challenge
governments, official aid agencies, international companies and
others to change their ways. They should strive for changes in local
government policy and practice that the poor require. They should do
what they can to promote the evolution of people’s organisations and
grassroots democracy.
The challenge facing NGOs is to redefine the principles of
development, democracy and sovereignty in the light of mounting
poverty, growing inequalities, looming environmental threats and the
ever clearer interdependence of nations.
This demands of NGOs a new pragmatism. A world-view that is
restricted to flagging ideas of neo-imperialism and conspiracy theory
is no longer adequate if it is to catalyse change in the thinking of
governments. The suggestions and ideas must be well grounded in
economic reality and on the experience, both negative and positive,
within on-the-ground programmes. NGOs should challenge official
development thinking and advocate a new order based on human
values and environmental sustainability.
These sentiments are affirmed by David Korten (1984). It is an
approach to development that looks to the creative initiative of people
as the primary development resource and to their material and
spiritual well-being as the end that the development process serves.
Recognition of the dehumanising, inequitable, and environmentally
unsustainable consequences of conventional development models has
stimulated a serious search for alternatives. The role that NGOs will
have to perform is to develop such models within the community,
which will contribute to the redefinition of the development problem.
The role of the NGOs in South Africa must needs be diverse in order
to be of true service to our communities. The delivery of appropriate
welfare will be required, as much if not more, in the future as it is
now. Innovative work seeking for a redefinition of development
together with its pragmatic demonstration in community is urgently
required. Social empowerment, brokerage between resource givers,

246 Readings
 Module 7: Management Skills

agents of community transformation, facilitators, advocates,

consultants, and advocates of a new sustainable order are all roles
and functions that will be required of NGOs.
However, what will be essential is for each to define a specific role or
roles and become really proficient within that defined function. It will
be necessary to create systems of networking so that together several
organisations may serve the multidimensional requirements of
community needs if an impact is to be made on the profile of poverty
in this country (Van der Kooy 1990).
A new working relationship will have to be established between
NGOs and government agencies in South Africa, which will enable
NGOs to function with their own character, with community
participation and mandate. At the same time they must be enabled to
participate in the broader parameters of national development, which
are the state’s responsibilities. Given the limited resources available
and the urgent problems facing our country, this new functional
relationship must be tackled with courage and honesty in order to
enhance the service base. NGOs need to be able to operate with
freedom, given certain overall restrictions defined by common
problem identification, to mobilise community action and link
community needs to state resources.
A creative tension must remain between the public and private sectors
of development, in order to maintain checks and balances which
ensure efficient service, determined by the people and responsive to
their needs. This can be held within a healthy relationship, through an
unambiguous understanding of the different roles to be played by
government and NGOs.

Conclusion
South African NGOs have played an important role in enabling
communities to participate in the socio-political changes that have
taken place during the last two decades. Yet it is true to say that their
function within the socioeconomic, infrastructural and educational
arenas has not been as effective, partly because of the political
pressures of the environment.
Within the scenarios of a new South Africa with increasing poverty,
continuing violence and difficult transition towards a democratic
society, NGOs will have an even more crucial role to play. However,
to be effective they will have to change as the environment is
changing, and exhibit an ability to network effectively, define their
Readings

own critical objectives and exhibit a professionalism appropriate to

significant community-based organisations. NGOs will have to
recognise the need for a multidimensional approach and affirm those
who provide services different from their own. Unproductive
competition would be avoided through careful definition of functions
and need so that appropriate organisational strategies can be applied
without assuming full responsibility for the whole development
problem.

Readings 247
Commonwealth Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work

New liaisons will have to be formed in order to maximise the

utilisation of scarce resources and meet ever increasing challenges for
aid. Particularly important is the relationship with government
structures, where a new understanding is required by both parties.
NGOs must exercise a new pragmatism in the promotion of the
evolution of people’s organisations. They will need to challenge and
redefine the principles of development, in a manner that is relevant to
a new socio-political order. There will have to be an openness to learn
from one another, so that mistakes of the past are not repeated
through ignorance.
In a new spirit of critical cooperation, NGOs can synergistically
improve their ability to provide services to communities, enabling and
empowering people to take control of their own problems, so helping
to eradicate poverty.
It is not charity that the poor require, but a transformation of
development.

References
Arnove, R.F. (1982) Philanthropy and cultural imperialism, Indiana
University Press, Bloomington.
Cassen, R. and Associates (1982) Does aid work? Clarendon Press,
Oxford.
Clark, J. (1991) Democratizing Development, Earthscan, London.
Gorman, R.F. (1984) Private voluntary organisations as agents of
development. Westview Press, Colorado.
Korten, D.C. and Klauss, R. (1984) People-centred development,
Kumarian Press, Connecticut.
Tendler, J. (1982) Programme evaluation discussion paper no. 12, US
Agency for International Development, Washington.
Van der Kooy, R.J.W. (1990) Development in Southern Africa,
Programme for development research. Human Sciences Research
Council, Pretoria.

248 Readings