moves it left and right, the other moves it up and

MICROSCOPE down.

EYE – man height, hand, finger, thickness of hair REVOLVING NOSEPIECE OR TURRET – this is
the part that holds two or more objective lenses and
LIGHT MICROSCOPE – thickness of hair, cell, can be rotated to easily change power.
bacterium
OBJECTIVE LENSES – usually you will find 3 or 4
ELECTRONIC MICROSCOPE – cell, bacterium, objective lenses on a microscope. They almost
virus, macro molecules, small molecules, atom always consist of 4x, 10x, and 100x powers. When
combined with (most common) eyepiece lens, we
History of microscope get magnifications of 40x (4x times 10x), 400x and
1000x.
Dutch spectacle maker, Zacharias Jansenn, around
the year 1590. The compound microscope uses RACK STOP – this is an adjustment that determines
lenses and light to enlarge the image and is also how close the objective lens can get to the slide.
called an optical or light microscope. The simplest
CONDENSER LENS – the purpose of the
optical microscope is the magnifying glass and is
condenser lens is to focus the light onto the
good to about ten times (10x) magnification. The
specimen. Condenser lenses are most useful at the
compound microscope has two systems of lenses for
highest powers (400x and above)
greater magnification, 1) the ocular, or eyepiece lens
that one looks into and 2) the objective lens, or the DIAPHRAGM or IRIS – many microscopes have a
lens closest to the object. rotating disk under the stage. This diaphragm has
different sized holes and is used to vary the intensity
MICROSCOPE PARTS and size of the cone of light that is projected upward
into the slide.
EYEPIECE LENS – the lens of the top that you
look through. They are usually 10x or 15x power.
TYPES OF MICROSCOPE
TUBE – connects the eyepiece to the objective
(1) LIGHT MICROSCOPE
lenses.
- Principle of reflection
ARM – supports the tube and connects it to the base. (2) TRANSMISSION ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE (TEM)
BASE – the bottom of the microscope, used for - Principle of absorption and reflection
support. - Like the SEM, the TEM uses electrons in
creating a magnified image, and samples
ILLUMINATOR – a steady light source used in
are scanned in a vacuum so they must be
place of a mirror
specially prepared. Unlike the SEM,
STAGE – the flat platform where you place your however, the TEM uses a slide preparation
slides. Stage clips hold the slides in place. If your to obtain a 2D view of specimens, so it’s
microscope has a mechanical stage, you will be able more suited for viewing objects with some
to move the slide around by turning two knobs. One degree of transparency. A TEM offers a
high degree of both magnification and
 resolution, making it useful in the physical MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN
and biological sciences, metallurgy,
nanotechnology and forensic analysis. - All plants were made of cells (contributed
to cell theory)
(3) SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
(SEM) RUDOLPH VIRCHOW
- The SEM uses electrons rather than light
for image formation. Samples are scanned - All cells come from pre-existing cells by
in vacuum or near vacuum conditions. cell division.
After the item is prepared and placed in the CELL THEORY
chamber, the SEM produces a 3D, and
black-and-white image on a computer - All living things are made up of cells
screen. Offering ample control over the - All cells come from pre-existing cells
amount of magnification, SEMs are used - Cells are the basic unit of life
by researchers in the physical, medical and
biological sciences to examine a range of CELL DIVERSITY
specimens from insects to bones.
- SIZE (smallest is bacterium; longest is
giraffe’s nerve cell; and biggest is ostrich

CELLS -
egg)
SHAPE
- INTERNAL ORGANIZATION: Nucleus,
CELLS- basic unit of structure and function of life. Organelle, Eukaryotes, Prokaryotes
Cells make up living things and carry out activities
that keep a living creature alive. SIMPLE OR COMPLEX CELLS
HISTORY PROKARYOTES

First discovered and named by ROBERT HOOKE - The first Cells

in 1665 - Cells that lack a nucleus or membrane-
bound organelles
- Cells looked similar to cellula or small - Includes bacteria
rooms - Simplest type of cell
- Dead cell walls of plant cells(thin slice of - Single, circular chromosome
cork) - Nucleoid region (center) contains the DNA
- Little boxes (cells) - Surrounded by cell membrane & cell wall
(peptidoglycan)
ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK 1674 - Contain ribosomes (no membrane) in their
cytoplasm to make proteins
- Witnessed a living cell under microscope - Have no membrane-bounded organelles
- Also discovered bacteria - EUBACTERIA & ARCHAEBACTERIA
- Made a handheld microscope to view pond
water and scrapings from his teeth. EUKARYOTES
THEODOR SCHWANN - Cells that HAVE a nucleus and membrane-
bound organelles
- All animals were made of cells - Includes protists, fungi, plants, and animals
(Contributed to cell theory) - More complex type of cells
 - Contain 3 basic cell structure: NUCLEUS, - Tails are made of fatty acids and are
CELL MEMBRANE, CYTOPLASM hydrophobic (repel water)
WITH ORGANELLES - Make up a bilayer where tails point inward
- PROTISTA, FUNGI, PLANTAE, toward each other
ANIMALIA - Can move laterally to allow small
- 2 Main Types of Eukaryotic Cells: molecules (O2, CO2, & H2O to enter)
PLANT CELL, ANIMAL CELL

CELL MEMBRANE PROTEINS

ORGANELLES - Proteins (LIPIDS, CARBOHYDRATE)
help move large molecules or aid in cell
ORGANELLES recognition
- PERIPHERAL proteins are attached on the
- Little organs, structures that enable cell to SURFACE (inner or outer)
live, grown and reproduce - INTEGRAL proteins are EMBEDDED
- Very small (Microscopic) completely THROUGH the membrane
- Perform various functions for a cell - Molecules are constantly moving and
- Found in the cytoplasm changing
- May or may not be membrane-bound
CELL WALL
ANIMAL CELL
- Found outside of the cell
1. CELL MEMBRANE-surrounds the cell membrane
2. CYTOPLASM- jelly-like substance where - Nonliving layer
other organelles are suspended - Supports and protects cell
CELL OR PLASMA MEMBRANE - Found in plants, fungi, & bacteria

- Gate into the cell CYTOPLASM OF A CELL

- Composed of double layer of
- Jelly-like substance enclosed by cell
phospholipids and proteins
membrane
- Surrounds outside of ALL cells
- Contains organelles to carry out specific
- Controls what enters or leaves the cell jobs
- Living layer and is Fluid - Contains enzymes that help to regulate the
movement of vesicles and other
CELL MEMBRANE IN PLANTS
compounds as they move between other
- Lies immediately against the cell wall in organelles or between cells
plant cells - Help to keep other organelles in their place
- Pushes out against the cell wall to maintain and helps materials move easily between
cell shape them
- Contains microtubules which are hollow
PHOSPHOLIPIDS cylinders, they assist in transport as well as
helping to maintain the structure of the cell
- Heads contain glycerol & phosphate and - Provides a medium for chemical reactions
are hydrophilic (attract water) to take place
NUCLEUS CENTRIOLES

- Control Organelle - Found only in animal cells

- Controls the normal activities of the cell - Paired structures near nucleus
- Contains the DNA in chromosomes - Made of bundle of microtubules
- Bounded by a nuclear envelope - Appear during cell division forming mitotic
(membrane) with pores spindle
- Usually the largest organelle - Help to pull chromosome pairs apart to
- Each cell has fixed number of opposite ends of the cell
chromosomes that carry genes
- Genes control cell characteristics MITOCHONDRION (pl. MITOCHONDRIA)

NUCLEAR ENVELOPE - Both plants & animal cells have

mitochondria
- Double membrane surrounding nucleus - “Powerhouse” of the cell
- Also called nuclear membrane - Converts energy stored in food into energy
- Contains nuclear pores for materials to for work
enter & leave nucleus - Generate cellular energy (ATP- Adenosine
Triphosphate))
INSIDE THE NUCLEUS - More active cells like muscle cells have
MORE mitochondria
- The genetic material (DNA) is found - Site of CELLULAR RESPIRATION
- DNA is spread out and appears as (burning glucose)
CHROMATIN in non-dividing cells - Interior called MATRIX (one of 2
- DNA is condensed & wrapped around compartments of cristae containing
proteins forming as CHROMOSOMES enzymes, DNA, ribosomes)
- Surrounded by a DOUBLE membrane
in dividing cells
- Folded inner membrane called CRISTAE
(increases surface are for more chemical
WHAT DOES DNA DO?
reactions)
- DNA is the hereditary material of the cell - Has its own DNA
- Genes that make up the DNA molecule - Mitochondria Come from cytoplasm in the
code for different proteins EGG cell during fertilization therefore you
inherit your mitochondria from your
NUCLEOLUS mother

- Inside nucleus ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM – er

- Disappears when cell divides
- Makes ribosomes that make proteins - Network of hollow membrane tubules
- Connects to nuclear envelope & cell
CYTOSKELETON membrane; intercellular highway (one part
of the cell to another)
- Helps cell maintain cell shape - Functions in Synthesis of cell products &
- Also help move organelles around Transport
- Made of proteins - Two kinds of ER ---ROUGH & SMOOTH
- Microfilaments are threadlike & made of
ACTIN ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM – rough
- Microtubules are tubelike & made of er
TUBULIN
 • Has ribosomes on its surface - Materials are transported from Rough ER
• Makes membrane proteins and proteins for to Golgi Bodies to the cell membrane by
export out of cell VESICLES
• Proteins are made by ribosomes on ER
surface LYSOSOME
• They are then threaded into the interior of
the Rough ER to be modified and - Spherical that contain hydrolytic enzymess
transported - Contain digestive enzymes
- Break down food, bacteria, and worn out
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM – cell parts for cells
smooth er - Programmed for cell death (APOPTOSIS)
- Lyse & release enzymes to break down &
- Doesn’t have ribosomes on its surface recycle cell parts
- Makes membrane lipids (steroids)
- Regulates calcium (muscle cells) LYSOSOME DIGESTION
- Destroys toxic substances (Liver)
- Various membraic processes - Cells take in food by PHAGOCYTOSIS
- Lysosomes digest the food & get rid of
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM wastes

- Includes nuclear membrane connected to VACUOLES

ER connected to cell membrane (transport)
- Fluid filled sacks for storage
RIBOSOMES - Small or absent in animal cells
- Plant cells have a large Central Vacuole
- Made of PROTEINS and rRNA - In plants, they store CELL SAP
- “Protein factories” for cell - Temporary storage for sugar, proteins,
- Join amino acids to make proteins through minerals, lipids, wastes, nutrients, and
protein synthesis water
- Can be attached to Rough ER - Includes storage of sugars, proteins,
- Be free (unattached) in the cytoplasm minerals, lipids, wastes, salts, water, and
enzymes
GOLGI BODIES
CILIA & FLAGELLA
- Stacks of flattened sacs
- Look like a stack of pancakes - Hair-like organelles that extend from
- Have a shipping side (CIS FACE) & a surface cells
receiving side (TRANS FACE) - Function in moving cells, in moving fluids,
- Receive proteins made by ER or in small particles across the cell surface
- Transport vesicles with modified proteins - Cilia are shorter and more numerous on
pinch off the ends cells
- Composed of a network of membrane- - Flagella are longer and fewer (usually 1-3)
covered sacs called CISTERNAE that look on cells
like deflated balloons.
- Located near the nucleus and functions as - Both compose of 9 pairs of microtubules
the finishing center of the cell
- Modify, sort, & package proteins PLASTIDS
molecules and fats from ER for storage or
transport out of cell - Membrane-bound found in plants
(1) CHLOROPLASTS CELL CYCLE

• Found only in producers (organisms An orderly sequence that occurs from the time
containing chlorophyll) when a cell is first formed until it divides into 2
• Use energy from sunlight to make own new cells.
food (glucose)
• Energy from sun stored in the Chemical Most of the cell cycle is spent in the
Bonds of Sugars INTERPHASE then the MITOTIC STAGE of
• Photosynthesis (conversion of light energy cell division.
to chem energy stored in glucose)
• Surrounded by DOUBLE membrane STAGES OF INTERPHASE: non-dividing
• Outer membrane smooth and soft state
• Inner membrane modified into sacs called
THYLAKOIDS G1 stage – cell growth, organelles replicated,
• Thylakoids in stacks called GRANA & accumulates materials for DNA synthesis
interconnected
S stage – DNA synthesis occurs and DNA
• STROMA – gel like material surrounding
replication results in duplicated chromosomes
thylakoids
G2 stage – cell synthesize proteins needed for
(2) CHROMOPLASTS
cell division
• Synthesize and store pigments
MITOTIC STAGE
(3) LEUCOPLASTS
2n Clone: same genetic information in parent
• Store food such as starches, proteins, and cell and 2 daughter cell.
lipids
4 sister chromatids of each chromosome
(centromere = center of sister chromatids
cell cycle uncondensed but replicated) separate and
become the nuclei of the 2 daughter cells. The
cell cycle ends once the cleaving of the
CELL DIVISION – replaces worn out or cytoplasm is complete.
damaged cells and heals wounds
MITOSIS: division of somatic cells
CELL INCREASES and DECREASES -
When cell is not dividing: (1) DNA molecules
Cell Division increases the number of is extended, uncondensed = chromatin
SOMATIC (body) cell
4 sub - phase
- Mitosis (division of nucleus)
- Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm) (1) Prophase
Chromosomes condensed
Apoptosis (cell death) decreases the number of Spindle fibers form (microtubules from
cells, preventing a tumor from occurring. centriole)
Chromosomes are captured by spindles
Apoptosis and Cell Division keeps the cells (2) Metaphase
balance. Chromosomes align along equator of the
cell with one kinetochore facing each pole
Both cell division and apoptosis occur during The fully formed spindle consists of poles,
normal growth. asters, and fibers. The metaphase plate is a
plane perpendicular to the axis of the
spindle and equidistant from the poles. The
chromosomes attached to the