THE HISTORY OF CHINESE LITERATURE

Writing in China dates back to the hieroglyphs that were used in the Shang Dynasty of 1700 –
1050 BC. Chinese literature is a vast subject that spans thousands of years. One of the interesting things
about Chinese literature is that much of the serious literature was composed using a formal written
language that is called Classical Chinese. The best literature of the Yuan Dynasty era and the four novels
that are considered the greatest classics are important exceptions. However, even during the Qing
Dynasty of two hundred years ago, most writers composed in a literary stream that extended back
about 2,400 years. They studied very ancient writings in more or less the original written language. This
large breadth of time with so many writers living in the various eras and countries makes Chinese
literature complex. Chinese literary works include fiction, philosophical and religious works, poetry, and
scientific writings. The dynastic eras frame the history of Chinese literature and are examined one by
one.

The grammar of the written Classical Language is different than the spoken languages of the
past two thousand years. This written language was used by people of many different ethnic groups and
countries during the Zhou, Qin and Han eras spanning 1050 BC to 220 AD. After the Han Dynasty, the
written language evolved as the spoken languages changed, but most writers still based their
compositions on Classical Chinese. However, this written language wasn’t the vernacular language even
two thousand years ago. The empires and groups of kingdoms of all these eras were composed of
people speaking many different native languages. If Europe had a literary history like China’s, it would be
as if most European writers until the 20th century always tried to write in ancient Classical Greek that
became a dead language more than two millennia ago.

1. Shang Dynasty (about 1700-1050 BC) - Development of Chinese Writing

The first dynasty for which there is historical record and archaeological evidence is the Shang Dynasty. It
was a small empire in northern central China. No documents from that country survive, but there are
archaeological finds of hieroglyphic writing on bronze wares and oracle bones. The hieroglyphic writing
system later evolved into ideographic and partly-phonetic Chinese characters.

2. Zhou Dynasty (1045-255 BC)

Basic Philosophical and Religious Literature

The Zhou Dynasty was contemporaneous with the Shang Dynasty, and then they conquered the Shang
Dynasty. Their dynasty lasted for about 800 years, but for most of the time, their original territory was
broken up into dozens of competing kingdoms, and these finally coalesced into several big and warring
kingdoms by the end of the Zhou era. The great literary works of philosophy and religion that became
the basis for Chinese religious and social belief stem from what is called the Spring and Autumn Period
(770-476) and the Warring States Period (475-221). Taoism, Confucian literature, and other prominent
religious and philosophical schools all emerged during these two periods.
3.Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC)
Literary Disaster and Legalism

At the end of the Zhou Dynasty era that is called the Warring States Period, of the surviving few
big states in the land, the Qin Dynasty became the most powerful. The Qin Dynasty had big armies and
conquered the others. Once the Qin emperor had control, he wanted to keep it, and they squelched any
opposition to his authority. In the conquered territories, there were teachers of many different
doctrines and religions. A big philosophical and religious school then was called Mohism. They were
particularly attacked by the Qin Dynasty, and little is known about it. An early form of Buddhism was
also established in China at that time, but their temples and literature were destroyed and even less is
known about them. The emperor wanted to reduce the One Hundred Schools of Thought to one that he
approved. He ordered the destruction of most books all over the empire. He even killed many Confucian
philosophers and teachers. He allowed books on scientific subjects like medicine or agriculture to
survive. So the “Book Burning and Burial of Scholars” was a literary disaster.

On the other hand, the Qin Dynasty standardized the written Classical Language. It is said that a
minister of the Qin emperor named Li Si introduced a writing system that later developed into modern
Chinese writing. Standardization was meant to help control the society. The standardized writing system
also helped people all over the country to communicate more clearly.

4.Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD)

Scientific and Historical Texts

A former peasant leader overthrew the Qin Empire. The Han Dynasty era lasted for 400 years. At
the beginning of the era, Confucianism was revived. Confucian texts were rewritten and republished.
Confucianism was mixed with the Legalism philosophy of Li Si. The resulting ideology was the official
ideology of the Han Dynasty and influenced political thinking afterwards. The era’s major contributions
were historical texts and scientific works.

Sima Qian wrote Historical Records that is a major history concerning the overall history of
China from before the Shang Dynasty until the Han Dynasty. The book’s prose was considered a model
for writers in succeeding dynastic eras. Another important historical text concerned the Han Dynasty
itself.

Some scientific texts were also thought to be important for their times, thought it doesn’t seem
that the information was widely known or well known afterwards. The Han Dynasty era was one of the
two main hotspot eras for scientific and technical advance. But printing wasn’t available for wide
publication of the information. During the Eastern Han Dynasty towards the end of the Han era, the
influence of the philosophy of the Confucian Classics that hindered scientific progress was waning. So
people were more free to pursue invention. Cai Lun (50–121) of the imperial court is said to be the first
person in the world to create writing paper, and this was important for written communication at the
end of the empire. Finery forges were used in steel making. Two or three mathematical texts showing
advanced mathematics for the times were written.

5. Tang Dynasty (618-907)

Early Woodblock Printing and Poetry

The Tang Dynasty had a big empire that benefited from trade with the west along the Silk Road, battled
with the Tibetan Empire, and experienced the growing influence of organized Buddhist religions. This
era’s main contribution to Chinese literature was in the poetry of Dufu, Li Bai and many other poets.
Dufu and Li Bai are often thought of as China’s greatest poets.

Li Bai (701–762) was one of the greatest romantic poets of ancient China. He wrote at least a thousand
poems on a variety of subjects from political matters to natural scenery.

Du Fu (712-770 AD) also wrote more than a thousand poems. He is thought of as one of the greatest
realist poets of China. His poems reflect the hard realities of war, dying people living next to rich rulers,
and primitive rural life. He was an official in the Tang capital of Chang An, and he was captured when the
capital was attacked. He took refuge in Chengdu that is a city in Sichuan Province. It is thought that he
lived in a simple hut where he wrote many of his best realist poems. Perhaps more than 1,400 of his
poems survive, and his poetry is still read and appreciated by modern Chinese people.

6.Song Dynasty (960-1279)

Early Woodblock Printing, Travel Literature, Poetry, Scientific Texts and the Neo-Confucian Classics

The next dynasty is called the Song Dynasty. It was weaker than the Tang Dynasty, but the imperial
government officials made remarkable scientific and technical advances. Military technology greatly
advanced. They traded little with the west due to the presence of warring Muslim states on the old
trade routes. There wasn’t territorial expansion, but the empire was continuously attacked by nomadic
tribes and countries around them. Their northern territory was invaded, and they were forced to move
their capital to southern China. So the era is divided into two eras called the Northern Song (960-1127)
and Southern Song (1127-1279) eras. One of the era’s technological accomplishments was the invention
of movable type about the turn of 2nd millennia during the Northern Song period. This helped to spread
knowledge since printed material could be published more quickly and cheaply. Travel literature in
which authors wrote about their trips and about various destinations became popular perhaps because
the texts could be cheaply bought. The Confucian Classics were codified and used as test material for the
entrance examination into the elite bureaucracy, advanced scientific texts and atlases were published,
and important poems were written.

Su Song wrote a treatise called the Bencao Tujing with information on medicine, botany and zoology. He
also was the author of a large celestial atlas of five different star maps, and he also made land atlases. Su
Song was famous for his hydraulic-powered astronomical clock tower. Su's clock tower is said to have
had an endless power-transmitting chain drive that he described in a text on clock design and astronomy
that was published in 1092. If this is so, it may be the first time such a device was used in the world.
When the Southern Song Empire was conquered by the Mongols, these inventions and the astronomical
knowledge may have been forgotten.

7.Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368)

Drama and Great Fictional Novels

The Mongols were nomadic people who herded cattle north of the Tang Empire and wandered over a
large area fighting on horseback. They believed that they might be able to conquer the world. They
easily conquered Persia far to the west. It was a big empire with high technology, a big population and a
big army. Then they decided to try to conquer all the countries around them. They attacked the Tang
Dynasty, the Dali Kingdom in Yunnan, and much of Asia, and they formed the biggest empire in the
history of the earth until then. They conquered Russia, a part of eastern Europe and a part of the Middle
East. In China, the Mongols established the very rich Yuan Dynasty. In their camps, the Mongols were
entertained by shadow puppet plays in which a lamp cast the shadows of little figurines and puppets on
a screen or sheet. In the Yuan Dynasty, puppet drama continued to entertain the rich dynastic courts in
vernacular language. Dramatic operatic theaters with human actors speaking in vernacular language was
a favorite form of entertainment as well, and some of China’s best dramatic scripts were written then.
Also two of the four novels that are generally considered China’s best literary classics were written in
vernacular language then. So though the Yuan Empire wasn’t ruled by Chinese, it was an era of some
historically renowned dramatic playwrights and novelists who wrote in vernacular language.

8.Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

Novels

The Chinese rebelled against the Mongols, and the Ming Dynasty era began about 1368. The Mongols
and the Ming government still sometimes fought. Because of this and the presence of Muslim countries
in between, trade with the west was reduced to the pre-Yuan level. The Ming initially were interested in
exploration, and Muslims whose ancestors arrived during the Yuan Dynasty and who were familiar with
seagoing trade were employed to make long voyages to the Indian Ocean, the Middle East and perhaps
Africa. Then they became isolationist. It is interesting that a book that is one of the four great classics
called Journey to the West about a monk going to India was written during this time of isolation. Maybe
the thought of travel to the lands in the west was appealing then. Novels were the era’s main
contribution.

9.Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)

Novels and Pre-Modern Literature

The Manchus invaded the Ming Empire from the north and established the last dynasty called the Qing
Dynasty. The Manchus were not Chinese, but they retained the Neo-Confucian governing system of the
Song and Ming eras. The Qing Dynasty came under increasing attack from both internal rebellions and
foreign countries. In the 19th century, foreign literature and the West became better known. In the
middle of this era, the last of China’s four great classic novels was written called Dream of the Red
Chamber (紅樓夢); and near the end of the era, modernistic literature developed.

10. Modern Era (1912-present)

Westernized Literature

Sun Yat-sen led a revolution that marked the end of Chinese dynasties in which a clan rules an empire.
Of course, the big change of Chinese society that happened with the change of government led to a
change in literature. It became westernized, and the Classical Language wasn’t used. The national
government wanted women to have more of an equal status in society, and women writers and scholars
were taken more seriously. There was a lot of politically oriented literature printed. Scholars had access
to foreign literature, and many students studied abroad.

10 great writers from China’s long literary history.

ina and its long history goes hand in hand with its rich literary tradition. The Zhou dynasty (1030-221 BC)
saw some of the earliest forms of literature, and it was during this time that the writings of Confucius
and Lao Tzu were penned, from which the philosophies of Confucianism and Taoism arose. Prose poetry
flourished under the Han dynasty (202 BC-AD 220), and the Tang dynasty of the seventh- through tenth-
centuries marked the golden age of Chinese literature. The novel arose during the Song dynasty (960-
1279), and the following centuries saw the publication of the “four great classical novels.” The twentieth
century brought about the rapid modernization of China and its literature, though censorship during the
Cultural Revolution and under communist rule has threatened to halt this transformation.

1. Qu Yuan (339-278 BC) was a statesman and poet during the Warring States period. He has been
attributed to the first seven poems of the Chu ci (Songs of Chu). He served under King Huai but was
banished after composing the poem “Li Sao” (Encountering Sorrow), which attacked the court for failing
to listen to his advice. He committed suicide by throwing himself in a river.

2. Wang Wei (701-761) was a painter, musician, poet, and devout Buddhist. He composed “landscape
poems” while roaming the lands near the Wang River, exchanging verses with his friend Pei Di. A Zen
Master taught him the doctrine of dunwu (instantaneous enlightenment), and Wei’s later poetry reflects
his devotion. He was referred to as Shi fo, or the Buddha of Poetry. The poet Su Shi said of his works:
“There is painting in his poetry, and poetry in his painting.”

3. Shi Nai’en (1296-1372) was the author of the first of the “four great classical novels,” though some
historians believe his mentor Luo Guanzhong played a role its writing. Not much is known about Shi, but
the work attributed to him, Shuihu zhuan (Water Margin), about a rebellious leader of outlaws, has been
equally banned and celebrated over hundreds of years. Water Margin was written in popular vernacular
and expanded on its characters in contrast to the historical writings of the time, advancing the art of the
novel.

4. Luo Guanzhong (1330-1400) was a prolific writer who has had many anonymous works attributed to
him over the years. Historians agree that the second of the “four great classical novels,” Sanguo yani
(Romance of the Three Kingdoms), was written by Luo. Over 750,000 Chinese characters long, the novel
told the story of three kingdoms over the course of a century. It was based on a historical account and
contained historical figures, but also incorporated folk stories and plots from popular dramas of the
time.

5. Wu Cheng’en (c. 1500-1582), the author to whom the third of the “four great classical novels,” Xi you
ji (Journey to the West), is attributed. Loosely based on the historical account of the Buddhist monk,
Xuanzang, the novel humorously followed a group of pilgrims on a journey to India and back. The novel
contained religious themes, witty dialogue, and elegant poems, as well as critical commentary on
contemporary Ming-era China.

6. The Laughing Scholar of Lanling was the pseudonym of the unknown author of the controversial novel
Jin Ping Mei (The Plum in the Golden Vase). It has been frequently banned for its pornographic nature
since its publication around 1610. American translator David Todd Roy suspected poet Xu Wei (1521-
1593) to be its author. Wei was famous for his painting and calligraphy, and he was an early proponent
of women’s rights, writing a popular play on the legend of Mulan; however, he was also imprisoned for
the murder of his second wife.

Eileen Chang (September 30, 1920 – September 8, 1995) was a Chinese (Republic of China) writer. Photo
was taken in 1954 in Hong Kong, by 北角英皇道兰心照相馆. Public domain via Wikimedia Commons.

7. Cao Xueqin (1715-1763/64) was the author of the fourth of the “four great classical novels,” Honglou
meng (Dream of the Red Chamber), which told the story of an aristocratic family and its downfall. The
novel was written in vernacular and published in two editions: the 80-chapter version reportedly based
on Cao’s life, and the 120-chapter “Cheng edition,” published posthumously in 1791 and believed to
have been enhanced by the scholar Gao E. Cao’s novel is so important to Chinese literature that an
entire field of study called hongxue (redology) arose in the 1920s.

8. Lu Xun (1881-1936) studied medicine in Japan as a young man but ultimately concluded that he was
better served as a writer. In 1918, he published his first short story, A Madman’s Diary, the first
colloquial story in modern Chinese literature. His writings comprised many genres, from fiction to zawen
(satire) to a historical account of Chinese fiction. Mao Zedong called Lu “the standard-bearer” of the
new Chinese culture that arose after the May Fourth Movement.

9. Ba Jin (1904-2005), born Li Yaotang, began his career as a poet but achieved fame as a novelist. His
most famous novel was Jia (The Family); in addition to these novels, he also translated Russian, British,
German, and Italian works. Ba Jin’s most famous later work was Suixiang lu (Random Thoughts), a
painful reflection on the Cultural Revolution in which he was persecuted as a “counter-revolutionary.”
10. Zhang Ailing (or Eileen Chang) (1920-1995) was a student during the Japanese occupation of Hong
Kong during World War II. She returned to her home in Shanghai and supported herself by publishing
short stories and novels about the plight of women in difficult romantic relationships. She wrote the
anti-communist novel Rice Sprout Song in 1952 and moved to the United States three years later, where
she wrote novels and screenplays. In 2007, Ang Lee directed a movie adaptation of her novel Lust,
Caution.

CHINESE POETS
A Wife Mourns For Her Husband
The dolichos grows and covers the thorn,    O'er the waste is the dragon-plant creeping. 
The man of my heart is away and I mourn--    What home have I, lonely and weeping?  Covering
the jujubes the dolichos grows,    The graves many dragon-plants cover;  But where is the man
on whose breast I'd repose?    No home have I, having no lover!  Fair to see was the pillow of
horn,    And fair the bed-chamber's adorning;  But the man of my heart is not here, and I mourn 
All alone, and wait for the morning.  While the long days of summer pass over my head,    And
long winter nights leave their traces,  I'm alone! Till a hundred of years shall have fled,    And
then I shall meet his embraces.  Through the long winter nights I am burdened with fears,   
Through the long summer days I am lonely;  But when time shall have counted its hundreds of
years    I then shall be his--and his only!
CHINESE POETS
1. LI BAI
Li Bai (701-762) was one of the greatest romantic poets of the Tang Dynasty. The Tang era was
a golden age of Chinese poetry.
Li Bai is one of the most famous and well respected poets of the era.
He wrote about common things such as natural places and cities he saw, romance, war and
death and things like this.
There is only one known piece of work that survives today which was written by Li Bais own
hand. This surviving poem is named Shangyangtai which means Going Up to the Sun Terrace.
This important piece shows us that Li Bai was a gifted calligrapher. This manuscript can be
found in Beijing, China at the Palace Museum.
2. DU FU
Du Fu (杜甫,712-770) was a famous Realist poet who lived during the Tang Dynasty Era (618-
907). That era is generally thought to be the era of the best ancient poetry. The poems were
simple and about common topics people experience and can relate to.
He is thought of as one of the greatest realist poets of China. His poems reflect the hard
realities of war, people dying next to rich rulers, and primitive rural life. It is thought that he
lived in a simple hut near the end of his life where he wrote many of his best realist poems.
3. WANG WEI
The Chinese poet and painter Wang Wei (699-759) was one of the greatest poets of the golden
age of Chinese poetry, the T'ang dynasty, 618-907. He was also regarded by later critics as the
founder of the Southern school of landscape painting.
One of Wang Wei's famous poems is "One-hearted"(Xiang Si 相思)
Weis poetry likewise embodied Zen Buddhist ideals of detachment and simplicity; in his poems,
he uses details sparingly, frequently narrating natural phenomena such as water and mist
rather than human presence.
His poetry is widely anthologized, and he is frequently mentioned alongside other poets of the
Tang dynasty, such as Li Po and Tu Fu.
4. QU YUAN
Living in the latter part of the Warring States Period (476 BC - 221 BC), Qu Yuan was the earliest
great patriotic poet as well as a great statesman, ideologist, diplomat and reformer in ancient
China. He has the reputation of being one of the world four great cultural celebrities.
Nowadays, on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month the Dragon Boat Festival is celebrated
annually by eating Zongzi and holding dragon boat races to commemorate Qu Yuan. And other
countries like Korea, Japan, Burma, Vietnam, and Malaysia etc.
Among the greatest Quyuan poems are Li Sao (The Lament), Tian Wen (Asking Questions of
Heaven), Jiu Ge (Nine Songs), and Huai Sha (Embracing the Sand).
His masterpiece Li Sao has been translated into many languages and his portrait displayed in
libraries in many countries.
5. LI HE
Li He (c. 790–791 – c. 816–817) was a Chinese poet of the mid-Tang dynasty. His courtesy name
was Changji, and he is also known as Guicai and Shigui.
He started composing poetry at the age of 7, and by around 15 he was being compared to
the yuefu master Li Yi.
There are two extant anthologies of his poems: the Collected Songs and Verses of Li He.
6. HANSHAN
The phoneticized Chinese words Han Shanmean Cold Mountain. The poet Han Shan was a
Chinese Buddhist monk (c. 750) who named himself after the mountain where he lived his life
after age thirty in Chan (Zen) meditation. His real name, as well as his place and date of birth,
are unknown.
He ranks as one of the most eccentric and mysterious figures of Chinese literature.
Little is known of his work, since he was a recluse living in a remote region and his poems were
written on rocks in the mountains he called home.
7. DU MU
Du Mu was a famous late Tang Dynasty poet and essayist. He  was born in 803 to a wealthy and
distinguished family in the Duling section of the capital city of Changan (Xian). 
One of his best-known poems is "Qingming Festival"(Qingming Festival is a day of remembrance
for the dead when people visit the graves of their ancestors to pay respect.)
8. XUE TAO
Xue Tao was a Chinese poet and courtesan of the Tang dynasty.[4] She was one of the most
famous women poets of Tang poetry. 
As an entertainer and official government hostess, she met, and impressed, many of the most
talented and powerful figures of her day.
Some 450 poems by Xue were gathered in The Brocade River Collection that survived until the
14th century. About 100 of her poems are known nowadays, which is more than of any other
Tang dynasty woman

What is Confucianism?

 Confucianism also known as Ruism, is system of thought and behavior originating in

ancient China. Variously describe as:
- Tradition
- A philosophy
- A humanistic or rationalistic religion
- A way of governing
- Simply a way of life
Many of us have heard the biblical phrase,’ Do unto others as you have them do unto you’ The
Chinese philosophy of Confucianism puts in this way .’ Do not do to others what you would
have them not do to you.

Unlike Christianity ,Confucianism is technically not religion. Bu it does share the

Christian approach of loving others. Confucianism is based entirely on kindness, mutual respect
and an appreciation for character virtues. It is founded on the belief that society can flourish
only when people learn to interact positively with each other.

Confucianism was developed in china by Master Kong in 551-479 BC who was given the
name Confucius by Jesuit missionaries. However the fundamental principles of Confucianism
began before his birth, during the Zhou Dynasty
 At the time the ideas of respect and the well-being to others were prevalent ,but there
was also an emphasis on spiritual matter specially, the goodness of he divine and the mandate
to rule given to those in power .These ideas were meant to unite the people ,create stability
and prevent rebellion.

Confucius believed his philosophy was also a route toward a civil society .He shifted
attention away from ruling authorities ,the divine or one’s future after death, focusing instead
on the importance of daily life and human interaction.

What are the basic beliefs of Confucianism?

The worldly concern of Confucianism rest upon the beliefs that human beings are:

 Fundamentally good and teachable

 Improvable and perfectible through personal and communal endeavor especially,
especially self-cultivation and self-creation.

The 5 important beliefs in Confucianism:

1. Chung- loyalty to the state
2. Li- includes ritual, propriety etiquette
3. Hsiao- love with in the family, love of parents for their children ,and love of children for
their parents.
4. Jen- benevolence, humanness, toward one another
5. Virtue

There are four main symbols that represent the belief and views of Confucianism

 Confucius – represent the man who began the religion, as he is one of, if not the most
important person to come from this religion. He was very interested in the moral
conduct of people in society.
 Chinese character of water—is made for water is one of the five elements of Chinese
philosophy. Water is viewed as life of source ,which most likely comes from it’s
importance in the natural world in sustaining life.
 Chinese character of scholar—is made for the importance of knowledge and self-
awareness. Confucius believe one could never have too much knowledge, and the idea
of education has become very important in Chinese culture today.
  Yin Yang—is common in other religion and has different meaning. The general meaning
is that the circle represents the whole, while halves and dots depict opposites,
interactions or balance.

There are two main groups of sacred writings that people of the Confucianism follow. One
of the is ANALECTS.

The Analects of Confucius were written about 500 BC and attribute to Confucius. Much of
the actual text was written by his students over a time period spanning 30 to 50 years
following his death. The exact publication is not known. The version that is most well known
today is combination of Lu and Qi .These were compiled by Zhang Yu, a teacher of Emperor
Cheng,This version came to known as the Marquis Zhang Analects.

The Analects have greatly influenced the moral and philosophical values of China
and other country in Eastern Asia. The text remained a fundamental course of study for any
would be Chinese scholar for over two thousand years.

The Analects of Confucius is an anthology of brief passages that present the word of
Confucius and his disciples, describe Confucius as a man, and recount some of the events of
his life. The Analects includes twenty books, each generally features a series of chapters
that encompass quotes from Confucius which were compiled by his disciples after his
death.

Book 1- addresses the question of education, and why it is important becoming a man of
complete virtue. A man has complete virtue when he:

 takes no discomposure even when other men take note of him.

 Flowery words and an insinuating appearance are not true virtue
 A man with complete virtue is not gluttonous and he is in earnest with everything he
does,he loves to learn and frequents the company of men of principles.
Book 2-focuses on exercising government in virtue. If the common people are led only by a
virtuous leader ,the common people will instead look upward and mirror that virtue. Virtue in a
city or nation requires “filial piety” which means following the propriety obligation of children
to their parent.

Book 3- is obscure,focusing on a controversy surrounding a sacrifice to a mountain which

Confucius find to be lacking virtue . In addition the book contains Confucius review of musical
performance
Book 4- concerns the “ virtue of manners” which constitute a neighborhood. Thus far the text
has addressed learning, as the perfect virtue of an individual, and progress to the virtuous ruler
of a city,. The superior man clings to virtue, and he cares not for riches or power if they are not
attained in the proper way. Virtue does not stand alone, it must have neighbors . His goal is to
cultivate noble citizens, for the purpose of a great empire.

Book 5- details an odd exchanges between the Master and Kung-ye Ch’ang , Nan Yung.Tsze-
chien and Tsze-kung. Confucius concludes the exchanges by announcing some of his friends
and followers to be virtuous but none is more surpassing in their love of learning.

Book 6- Confucius plays a somewhat muted role. It details regional political squabbles.

Book 7- about the character qualities of Confucius aphorisms.

Book 8- The Book of Poetry and the Book of Rites, are variously alluded to in the Analects.

Book 9- Confucius’s followers list his saying regarding profitableness, the appointments of
heaven and perfect virtue ,among other topics.

Book 10 -most consequential section of the Analects. Confucius is described, he dressed simple
and sincere is his village, spoke cautiously in political situation, he spoke respectfully to his
ruler. When he came away from audience he appeared relaxed.

Book 11- Confucius is clearly identifies himself as conservative. He contrasts the people of
former times( the rustics) with the current people (self-proclaimed gentleman), and he says he
stands with the people of former times Confucius list the great men he respects and how he
behaved toward them.

Book 12- one of the Master’s followers ask him about “perfect virtue”.Confucius further
describes the process of acting in accordance with perfect virtue: Government is also discussed
in this boom

Book 13- Confucius advises certain government officials of the Chi family.

Book 14 -Shamefulness discussed in this book. Much of the text is opaque and unclear. It reads
as odd and particular to ancient China

Book 15- Confucius declines to advise a Duke on military tactics. Perhaps he does not wish see
the city in motion in same way that Socrates did. Confucius continue his aphorism about the
Superior Man

Book 16 a leader of Chi family wishes to make war but Confucius discusses right principles:
“When right people prevail in the kingdom government will not Be in the hands of the great
officers

Book 17- Confucius discuss wisdom and lack of wisdom with an admirer .The book continues
with an obscure conversation of particular issues pertaining to ancient Chinaamong and
between his disciples.

Book 18- list of royal families, their employees musician and so on. It consist very little of
Confucius, but, no doubt, provides modern scholars and anthropologist with fruitful supply of
information to examine the ancient Chinese aristocracy.

Book 19-Confucius is wholly absent from this book. It contains discussion among other
teachers and followers.

Book 20- point to several doctrines that are later expounded upon by Confucianism -the
doctrine of the Mean, the ordinance of heaven (which require to rule a state justly) and
Propriety. The closing word of the text are

“without knowing the force of words, it is impossible to know men”.