UNIT I

OVERVIEW OF MANAGEMENT
Definition - Management - Role of managers - Evolution of Management thought -
Organization and the environmental factors – Trends and Challenges of Management in
Global Scenario.

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 Management

- as how the mind controls the human body and its function similar
management (mind) controls the various activities ( human body) in the
Organisation
- Collection of physical equipments, 4 M’s in Organisation – Men, Machine,
Materials, Money, and leads to nothing. For efficient and profitable
functioning it is necessary that all these factors are put to work in a co-
ordinated manner.

Management Definition

Management is the art of getting things done through others. Harold Koontz
Def as “ Management is the process of designing and maintaining an environment in
which individuals, working together in groups efficiently to accomplish selected
aims”

• Managers carry out their managerial function

• Applies to any kind of Organisation
•Applies to managers at all Organisational levels
•Aim is to create a surplus
•Concerned with productivity, implies effectiveness and efficiency
•Mgt of 4 M’s in the Orgn – Men, Machine, Materials & money

Characteristics of Management
• Mgt is Universal
• Mgt is dynamic
• Mgt is a group of managers
• Mgt is Purposeful
• Mgt is goal oriented
• Mgt is integrative Function
• Mgt is a Social process
• Mgt is a Multi-faceted discipline
• Mgt is a continuous process
• Mgt is a system of authority
• Mgt is a resource
• Mgt is intangible

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 • Mgt is profession, an art as well as a science

ADMINISTRATION VS MANAGEMENT

Basis of Administration Management

Distinction

Policy and Determination of objectives Implementation of Policies

objectives & policies

Main Legislative & determination Executive Function

Functions function

Planning, Organising staffing Directing, Motivating,

Coordinating Controlling

Provides a sketch of the Provides the entire body

enterprise

Influence Influenced mainly by public Influenced mainly by

opinion & other outside force administrative function

Levels of Mainly top level function Mainly middle level function

Management involves thinking & planning involves doing and acting

Level of Owners/ Board of Directors MD, GM & Managers

Executives

Position Acts as a principal Acts as an agency

Knowledge Requires more admin ability Requires more technical

than technical ability ability than admin ability

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Management as an Art

The main elements of an art are –

• Personal Skills
• Practical know-how
• Application of knowledge
• Result orientation
• Creativity
• Constant practice aimed at perfection

Management is basically an art because of the following reasons –

• A manager applies his knowledge and skills to coordinate the efforts of his
people
• Mgt seeks to achieve concrete practical results
• Mgt is creative. It brings out new situation and converts into output
• Effective Mgt lead to realization of Organizational and other goals. Mastery in
Mgt requires a sufficiently long period of experience in, managing.

Management as Science

The essential elements of Science

• Systematised body of Knowledge
• Underlying principles and theories developed through continuous observation,
inquiry, experimentation and research.
• Universal truth and applicability.
• Organised body of knowledge can be taught and learnt in class room and
outside.
• Mgt is a social science. It contains all the essentials of science. It is an inexact
science.
• PERT, CPM, Cost A/C, Finance, MBO etc

Thus, the theory (Science) and practice (art) of Mgt go side by side for the
efficient functioning of an organisation.

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Management as a Profession

The essential attribute of a profession

• A well-defined and organised body of knowledge
• Learning and Experience
• Entry restricted by qualification
• Recognised national body
• Ethical code of conduct
• Dominance of service motive

Mgt is not a full fledged profession now due to the following shortcomings

• Skills not fully developed

• No uniform method of entry
•Objective is monetary rather than service
•Ethical code is not strict
•Associations are not statutory bodies

But in India it is developing into a profession and it will be achieved in due course.

Managerial Skills

• Conceptual skills
• Human Skills
• Technical Skills
• Design Skills – Decision making

Need for Management

1. To increase efficiency
2. To crystallize the nature of Mgt job
3. To improve research in Mgt
4. To attain social goals

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 Levels of Management

1. Top Level Mgt –

Board of Directors, MD, Owners, Chief Executives

• To analyse, evaluate and deal with th environmental forces
• To establish overall long term goals and broad policies of the
company including the master budget
• To appoint departmental and other key executives
• To represent the company to the outside world
• To coordinate the activities and efforts of different department

2. Middle Level Mgt –

Sales Executives, Production Executives, Production executives etc.

• To interpret and explain the policies framed by top management

• To compile and issue detailed instruction regarding operations
• To Cooperate among themselves so as to integrate various parts of the
division or a department
• To motivate supervisory personnel to work for Orgn goals
• To develop and train supervisory and operative personnel.

3. Supervisory / Operating / Lower Level Mgt –

Superintendents, Branch managers, General Foremen

• To plan day to day production within the goals lay down by higher
authority
• To assign jobs to workers and to make arrangement for their training and
development
• To supervise and control workers and to maintain personal contact with
them.

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Roles of a manager ( Mintzberg)

1. Interpersonal Role - Interacting with people inside and outside the Orgn
• Figurehead – as a symbolic head of an organisation, the manager performs
routine duties of a legal nature
•Leader – Hiring, Training, motivating and guiding subordinates
•Liason - Interacting with other managers outside the orgn to obtain favours
and information

2. Informational Role – Serving as a focal point for exchange of Information

•Monitor – Seeks and receive information concerning internal and external
events so as to gain understanding of the Orgn and its environment.
•Disseminator – Transmits information to subordinates, peers and superiors
within the Organisation
• Spokesperson – Speaking on behalf of the Orgn and transmitting
information on Orgn plans, policies and actions to outsiders.

3. Decisional Role – Makes important decision

•Entrepreneur – Initiating changes or improvements in the activities of the
Orgn
•Disturbance handler- Taking charge and corrective action when Orgn faces
unexpected crises
•Resource allocator – Distributing Orgn’s resources like money, time,
equipment and labour
•Negotiator – Representing the Orgn in bargaining and negotiations with
outsiders and insiders

Importance of Management
Management is the dynamic life –giving element in every business. Without it the
resources of production remain resources and never become production. Sound Management
provides the following benefits .
• Achievement of group goals
• Optimum utilization of resources
• Fulfillment of social obligations
• Economic growth

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 • Stability
• Human Development
• Meets the challenge of change

Classification of managerial Functions

Functions Sub Functions

Forecasting, decision making,
Planning strategy formulation, policy making,
programming, scheduling, budgeting,
problem-solving, innovation,
investigation and research.

Grouping of Functions,
Organising Departmentation, delegation,
decentralisation, activity analysis,
task allocation

Manpower planning, job analysis,

Staffing Recruitment, Selection, Training,
Placement, Compensation,
Promotion, appraisal, etc.

Supervision, Motivation,
Directing communication, Leadership, etc

Fixation of standard, recording,

Controlling measurement, reporting corrective
action.

Evolution of Management
Father of Management – Henry Fayol (1841 – 1925)
Henry Fayol contributed 14 principles to Mgt which is widely applied in all the Orgn
1. Division of Work
2. Authority and Responsibility
3. Discipline
4. Unity of Command
5. Unity of Direction

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 6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest
7. Remuneration of personnel
8. Centralisation
9. Scalar Chain
10.Order
11.Equity
12.Stability of Tenure of Personnel
13.Initiative
14.Esprit-de-corps

Critical Evaluation

• Too formal
• Not pay adequate attention to workers
• Vagueness
• His principle hinted but did not elaborate that mgt can and should be
taught.

- Despite these limitations, Fayol made a unique and outstanding

contribution to Mgt theory.

Scientific Management

Father of Scientific Management F.W. Taylor (1856 –1915)

“The art of knowing exactly what you want men to do and see that
they do it in the best and cheapest way.”
Mgt a Science based upon certain clearly defined principles

Principles of Scientific Management

♦Science not rule of thumb

♦Harmony not discord
♦Co-operation not individualism
♦Maximum output in place of restricted output
♦Development of each individual to his greatest efficiency and prosperity

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 ♦Mental Revolution – Workers and Management, Workmen towards their
work, their fellowmen and towards their employees. Mental attitude of the two
parties.

Techniques of Scientific Management

1. Time Study
2. Motion Study
3. Scientific task Planning
4. Standardization and simplification
5. Differential piece rate system
6. Functional foremanship – According to Taylor, one supervisor cannot be
an expert in all aspects of work supervision. In system of Functional
Foremanship in which eight supervisors supervise a workers job.
i. Route Clerk
ii. Instruction card clerk
iii. Time and cost clerk
iv. Shop disciplinarian
v. Gang boss
vi. Speed boss
vii. Repair boss
viii. Inspector

Critical Evaluation
• Mechanistic Approach
• Unrealistic Assumptions
• Narrow View
• Impracticable
• Exploitation of Labour

George Elton Mayo (1880 – 1949)

Hawthrone Experiments

1. Illumination Experiments ( illumination affected Productivity)

2. Relay assembly Test room Experiments ( Working conditions and
Productivity), piece work, rest pauses, shorter working hours,
3. Mass interviewing Programme ( Direct Questions), Grievances, deep rooted
disturbance, satifactory level

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Outcomes
• Workers working in a group develop bond of relationships
• Behaviour at workplace depens on their mental state, emotions and
prejudices
• Emotional factors play an important role in determining
• Human and liberal attitude of supervisor helps in improving
performance
• Managerial skills and technical skills are not necessary to be a
successful leader.

HENRY LAURENCE GANTT (1861 -1919)

• Contribution was famous, Gantt Chart, used for scheduling and control
of work.
• Task and Bonus plan ( Minimum wages is guaranteed to all workers
irrespective of output, Extra wages are paid for extra work)

FRANK BUNKER GILBRETH (1868 – 1924)

• Motion study, time study

• Fatigue Study
• Work Simplification – 3 positional promotion plan ( present position,
the position to be held before promotion to his present position and the
next higher position)

APPROACHES TO MANAGEMENT

Modern management has developed through several stages or approaches.

These approaches to the study of management may be classified as under:
1. Classical Approach
2. Behavioral Approach

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 3. Management Science Approach
4. System Approach
5. Contingency Approach

ENVIRONMENT

INPUTS TRANSFORMATION OUTPUTS

Money
Manpower Goods & services
Machinery Employment
Material Taxes
Method Others
FEEDBACK

Systems approach is an improvement over classical and neoclassical theories

as it is closer to reality. The traditional theorists viewed organization as a closed
system while modern theorists treat it as open system. The system approach
highlights the multidimensional and multidisciplinary nature of management. It
takes much wider and overall perspective of organizational functioning.

SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND ETHICS

SOCIAL RESPONSIVENESS – The ability of a corporation to elate its operations

and policies to the social environment in ways that are mutually beneficial to the
company and to society.
- Reaction or proaction
- The role of government
- The influence of values and performance
- Criteria on behaviour

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Def . Peter Drucker “ Social Responsibility requires managers to consider whether
their action is likely to promote the public good, to advance the basic beliefs of our
society, to contribute to its stability, strength and harmony.”

The Social Audit

The Social audit has been defined as “ a commitment to systematic assessment of
and reporting on some meaningful;, definable domain of company’s activities that
have social impact.”

Society has become increasingly aware of the interdependence between the

business and its environment. As business grow in size and power, society expects
more from them several forces have led to the development of the concept of social
Responsibility. Some of the forces are -
• Consumerism
• Trade Union
• Public Opinion
• Enlightened Self Interest
• Professionalisation
• Trusteeship

Responsibility of business to perform its basic economic function of producing

and supplying products and services in the most efficient manner so as to
maximize profits.

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Social Responsibility of Business

Ethics in Managing
- Ethics is defined as the discipline dealing with what is good and bad, with moral
duty and obligation.

- Personal Ethics has been referred to as “ the rules by which an individual lives his
or her personal life.

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- Accounting ethics pertains to the code that guides the Professional conduct of
accountants.

Business Ethics is concerned with truth and justice and has a variety of aspects such
as expectations of society, fair competition, advertising, public relations, Social
responsibilities, Consumer autonomy and Corporate behaviour in the home country
as well as abroad.

Ethical Theories
- Utilitarian Theory suggests that plans and actions should be evaluated by their
consequences.
- Theory based on rights holds that all people have basic rights.
- Theory of justice demands that decision makers be guided by fairness and equity,
as well as impartiality.

Institutionalizing Ethics
This means applying and integrating ethical concepts into daily action. This can be
accomplished in 3 ways-
1. By establishing appropriate company policy or a code of Ethics
2. By using a formally appointed ethics committee
3. By teaching ethics in Management development programs

A code is a statement of Policies, principles, or rules that guide behaviour.

The functions of Ethics Committee includes-
1. holding regular meeting to discuss ethical issues
2. dealing with gray areas
3. Communicating the code to all members of the Organization
4. Checking for possible violations of the Code
5. Enforcing the Code
6. Rewarding compliance and punishing violations
7. Reviewing and updating the code
8. reporting activities of the committee to the board of directors

Factors that raise Ethical Standards

1. Public disclosure and publicity
2. The increased concern of a well informed public.

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Globalisation

Globalization means covering or affecting the whole world. It means integration of

the domestic economy of a country with the international economy. Recent
developments in information and communication technology have accelerated the
pace of globalization.

• Globalisation means the internationalization of trade. Particularly

product transaction and the integrating of economic and capital markets
throughout the world.
• The integration takes place when trade exists freely among the different
countries, thus the world economy becomes a single market or single
economy.
• In globalization there is no restriction of quota, license, tariff and other
administrative barrier for trade.

The term globalization has four parameters:

• Reduction of trade barriers, so as to permit free flow of goods across national
frontiers.
• Free flow of capital among nations.
• Free flow of technology among nations.
• Free movement of labour among different countries of the world.

Benefits of Globalisation
• Improves efficiency
• Improves factor Income
• Improves finance
• Gains from Migrations

Drawbacks of Globalisation
• Globalisation increases the problems of unemployment
• Domestic Industries finds difficulty in survival.

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 • Only group of people who participate in the process of
Globalization will be benefited, this creates income inequality
within the country
• Control on domestic economy becomes more difficult
• Developing country suffers from the problem of brain-drain

International Business
- Involves commercial activities that cross national frontiers
- It is a process of Entrepreneur conducting business activities across
national boundaries
- It consist of Exporting, Importing, licensing, opening of Sales office
- The activities necessary for ascertaining the need and want of target
consumer often takes place in more than one country. When an
Entrepreneur executes his or her business model in more than one country
International Business Occurring.

Entry into International Business

The method of entering or engaging in International Business can be divided
into three categories
1. Exporting
• Indirect Exporting
• Direct Exporting
2. Non Equity arrangement – Doing international business through an
arrangement that does not involve any investments.
- Licensing - allowing someone else to use something of the
company’s in return for the payment of royalty
- Turn key Projects – A foreign Entrepreneur build a factory or other
facility, training the workers, train the management and then turn it
over to the local owners once the operation is completed, hence the
name turn key operation
- Management Contracts – Contracting management techniques and
skills. The management contracts allow the purchasing country to
gain foreign expertise without giving ownership of its resources to a
foreigner.
3. Direct Foreign Investments – preferred mode of ownership
- Minority Interest – Having less than 50% Ownership Position
- Joint Ventures – Merger of two companies.

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Globalization in India
Some major aspects of the policy of globalization in India are:

i)Liberalisation of imports:
Most imports has been put under open general licence (OGL) where
automatic permission is granted to import goods.Export oriented units (EOUs)
have been allowed to import freely all types of goods require by the unit for
manufacturing, production or processing. The Government in it’s trade policy
announced on 31st August 2004 has permitted import of second hand capital
goods without any age restrictions.

ii) Export promotion through rationalization of tariff structure:

Tariff structure refers to the pattern of custom duties levied on the
imports of various commodity groups. The government initiated the process of
tariff reduction in 1991, to bring our tariff rates in line with the other
developing countries: making Indian goods competitive in the world market.
High quality and low cost goods can offer competition in the world market
and improve India’s exports.

iii) Foreign direct investment:

iv) Foreign technology:

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 UNIT II
PLANNING
Nature and purpose of planning - Planning process - Types of plans – Objectives - -
Managing by objective (MBO) Strategies - Types of strategies - Policies - Decision
Making - Types of decision - Decision Making Process - Rational Decision Making
Process - Decision Making under different conditions.

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PLANNING

- Deciding in advance what to do, how to do, when to do and who is to do it.
- Bridges the gap between where we are to where we want to go.
- Thinking before doing.
- Intellectual demanding process.

Nature of Planning

1. It’s contribution to purpose and objectives.

2. Primacy of functions – Planning & control are inseparable
3. Pervasiveness of planning – it is a function of all managers. Varies from
level to level
4. Efficiency of plans – Pans are efficient if they achieve their purpose at a
reasonable cost

Types (scope) of plans

I Purposes or missions:
- Meaningful existence – special task
- Elements are primary market, profitability, management philosophy
and corporate image
Eg. 1. Distribution of goods & services
- ITC “ Satisfaction”
- Dupont “better things through chemistry”
- Hallmark “The social expression business”
- GEC / USH “We are in energy business”

II Objectives:
- Ends towards which all activities are directed
- They are the most basic plan and all other plans are based on the
objectives
- They are multiple in nature.
- MBO
- Objectives and goals are interchangeable
- They have hierarchy.
- They are verifiable
- They form a network.
- They differ in time span. Some are long term and short term.

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- Objectives may be general or specific.
- Classified into
External institutional objectives (to develop high degree of
corporate image – TATA)
Internal Objectives (profit/maximum rate of return)

III Strategies:

- General program of action and deployment of resources to attain

Comprehensive objectives.
- SWOT analysis
Eg 1. rural marketing
2. Extension of Distribution width & Length
3. Pester power strategy, social marketing, co-branding,
co-marketing.
- Contingent plan to meet the demands of a difficult situation.
- Mainly the job of the top management.

IV Policies:

- General statements or understandings which guide or channel

thinking and take actions in decision making.
- Guidelines for decision making
- All policies are statements, sometimes it is only practices
(implied)
- Allows for some discretion otherwise it becomes rules
- It is a means of encouraging discretion and initiative, but within
limits.
- Policies are developed with the active participation of the
entire top level executives.
- Policy is in writing. They take concrete shape when they
are put in writing. This will ensure uniformity in
application, continuity and greater conformity.

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 Advantages:

i. Top management provides guidelines to lower level managers.

ii. Gives managers to act at all levels without the need to consult the
superiors every time.
iii. Better Administrative control. Provides rational basis for
evaluating the results.
iv. By setting up of policies, the management ensures that the
decisions made will be in tune with the objectives and interests of
the organization.
v. They save time and effort by pre-deciding problems in repetitive
situations. They save the management from the botheration of
repeating the expensive analysis required to take the policy
decision every time.

Limitations:

- Policy is formulated under particular preset conditions which do not

remain the same for all problems.
- Requires constant review and revision.
- No formula for all problems
- Serve as guides for thinking and action and do not provide solutions
to problems.
- They are not substitute for human judgment. They only point out the
limits within which the judgment is to be taken.
- They may stifle individual initiative and creativity.

Types of Policies:

a) Organizational and functional policies.

b) Originated, Appealed and Imposed policies
c) General and Specific policies.
d) Written and Implied policies.

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V Procedures:

- It establishes a required method of handling future activities.

- They are guides to action, rather than to thinking.
- Provides details of certain activity, the exact manner in which it
must be achieved.
- Chronological order. (stated in steps)
- Found in every level of an organization.

Advantages:
- Minimizes the burden of decision making
- Leads to simplification of work flow
- Elimination of unnecessary steps.
- Developed after careful analysis of various operations which are
necessary to bring co-ordination in organization.
- Uniformity and conformity of action
- Aid to communication – steps to be followed to complete a
particular work.
- Medium of control to evaluate the performance of the subordinate

Limitations
- Rigidity- discourages improvement
- Fixed way of doing a particular job
- Need to be reviewed and updated constantly

VI Rules:
- Rules spell out specific required action or non action, allowing no
scope for discretion.
- Rules Vs Procedures Vs Policies
- Rules – no time sequence – “No smoking”
- Sequence of rules.
- Detailed recorded instructions
- Uniform handling of events
- To avoid repeated approval from higher levels for routine
matters.
- Offers definite direction to planning process

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 VII Programs:
- Combination of goals, policies, procedures, task assignments,
steps to be taken resources to be employed to carry out a given
course of action.
- Time element is introduced
- Planning for future events and establishing a sequence of required
actions.
- Supported by budgets.
- Primary program & supporting programs.

VIII Budgets:
- Statement of expected results expressed in quantitative terms.
- Expected income and expenditure under different heads.
- Gives clarity, direction and purpose in an organization.
- Control device.
- Fixed or variable (flexible) budget.
- Functional budgets.

Steps in Planning:
1. Being aware of opportunities.
- SWOT analysis
2. Establishing objectives.
3. Developing premises
- Planning premises are forecasts, applicable basic
policies, and existing company plans.
- They are assumptions about the environment in which
plan is to be carried out.
- Forecasting is important for premising.
- Premises should be make practical what volume of
sales? What price?
4. Determining alternative courses of action
5. Evaluating alternative course of action
- Operation Research – Decision tree
6. Selecting a course of action
- Decision making
7. Formulating Derivative plans
- Supporting plans for basic plan
8. Numerating plans by budgeting
- Income and expenses

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 Kinds of planning

1. Short term and long term planning

2. Financial & non financial planning
3. Formal &informal planning
4. Specific or Routine planning
5. Corporate planning and strategic planning

Objectives / Importance / Advantages of Planning

1. Focuses attention on objectives & results

2. Reduces uncertainity and risk
3. Provides sense of direction
4. Encourages innovation & creativity
5. Helps in coordination
6. Guides decision making
7. Provides a basis for decentralization
8. Provides efficiency in operation
9. Facilitates control

Features of a good plan

1. Based on clearly defined objectives

2. Simple, easily understandable
3. Flexible or adaptable to changing conditions
4. must be balanced in all respects
5. must provide standards for the evaluation of performance and actions
6. It should be economical
7. It should be practicable
8. Prepared with the consultation of concerned persons
9. Should be clear, specific and logical
10.Should be capable of being controlled

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Types of Planning (Time limit)

1. Long term plans (Above 5 yrs)

2. Medium term plans (Between 2 to 5 Yrs)
3. Short term plans ( Less than 2 yrs)

Planning can be classified as –

1. Corporate Planning
2. Divisional Planning
3. Strategic Planning

S.No Strategic Planning Operational Planning

1 Lays down major goals and Decides the use of resources in
Policies of the Organisation day to day operations
2 Done at higher levels of Done at lower level of
Management Management
3 Long term in nature Short term in nature
4 Broad and general Detailed and specific
5 Based on long term forecast and Based on past experience
appraisal of Environment

Obstacles of Effective Planning

1. Inadequate inputs
2. Lack of ability
3. Sudden emergencies
4. Need for creativity
5. Resistance to Change

Ways to Overcome the Obstacles

1. Clear cut Objectives
2. Develop a sound Management Information System
3. Create carefully planning premises
4. Develop a dynamic outlook away manages
5. keep plans flexible
6. provide required resources
7. Undertake a cost benefit analysis of all plans

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Management by Objectives (MBO)

“ MBO is a comprehensive managerial system that integrates many key

managerial activities in a systematic manner and that is consciously directed towards
the effective and efficient achievement of Organisation and individual Objectives.”
- Where superiors and subordinates jointly identify the goals of the
Organisation

Process of MBO

1. Setting preliminary Objectives

2. Clarifying Organisational roles
3. Setting subordinates Objectives
4. Recycling Objectives

How to set Objectives

1. Quantitative & Qualitative

2. Setting Objectives in Govt
3. Guidelines for setting Objectives

Benefits of MBO

 Improvement of managing
 Clarification of Organisation
 Encouragement of Personal commitment
 Development of Effective control

Weakness of MBO

 Failure to teach the philosophy of MBO

 Failure to give guidelines to goal setters
 Difficulty of setting goals
 Emphasis on short run goals
 Danger of Inflexibility

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Planning Premises

- A plan is based on certain assumptions called premises

- Assumptions or premises are for a future setting or happenings
- Assumptions based upon certain intuition or scientific forecasting
- The assumptions about future derived from forecasting and used in
Planning are known as planning premises

Def – Koontz O’Donnell

“Planning premises are the anticipated environment in which plans are

expected to operate. They include assumptions or forecast of the future and known
conditions tht will affect the operations of plans. Eg as prevailing policies and
existing company plans that control the basic nature of supporting plans.

- Purpose of premises is to facilitate the planning process by guiding,

directing, simplifying and reducing the degree of uncertainty in it.
Premises guide planning.

Planning Premises Classification

1. External & Internal

EXTERNAL
Economic Environment
• Includes the type of economic system that exist in the economy
• The nature and structure of the economy, the business cycle,the
fiscal, monetary and financial policies of the govt, foreign trade
and foreign investment policies of the govt.
• The type of economic system, that is socialist, capitalist or
mixed provides institutional framework with in which business
firm have to work.

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SOCIAL AND CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT
- Members of a society wields important influence over business
firms.
- Activities of business firm may harm the physical environment and
impose heavy social costs.
- Business should consider the social implication of their decisions.
- Social responsiveness ‘the ability of a corporate firm to relate its
operations and policies to social environment in way that are
mutually beneficial to the company and society at large..
- Social responsibility / social responsiveness related to ethics.

POLITICAL AND LEGAL ENVIRONMENT

• Closely related to government.
• Political philosophy of the govt yields a great influences over
business policies.

TECHNOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT

• The nature of technology used for production of goods and

services in an important factor responsible for the success of a
business firm.
• The improvements in technology raises total factor
productivity of a firm and reduces unit cost of output.
• Technological environment affects the success of firms and
the need for technological advancement cannot be ignored.

DEMOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT
• Includes the size and growth of population, life expectancy of
the people rural urban distribution of population the
technological skills and educational levels of labour force.
• Since new workers are recruited from outside the firm,
demographic factors are considered as parts of external
environment.
• The skills and ability of a firms workers determine to a large
extent how well the orgn can achieve its mission.

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 NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
• In the ultimate source of many inputs such as raw materials,
energy which business firms use in their productive activity.
• Availability of natural resources in a region a country is a basic
factor in determining business activity in it.
• It includes geographical and ecological factors such as minerals
and oil reserves, water and forest resources wealth and climatic
conditions, port facilities are all highly significant for various
business activities.
• Not the availability of natural resources alone but also the
technology and ability to being them in use that determines the
growth of business and the economy.

INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
• Internal factors are to a good extent controllable factors because
the firm can change or modify these factors to improve its
efficiency.

VALUE SYSTEMS
• Means the ethical beliefs that guides the organization in achieving
its mission and objective.
• The value system of a business orgn makes an important
contribution to its success and its prestige in the world of business.
• Value system of a business firm has an important bearing on its
corporate culture and determines its behavior towards its
employees, shareholders and society at large.
• Infosys “Our corporate culture is to achieve our objectives in
environment of fairness, honesty, transparency and courtesy
towards our customers employees, vendors and society at large”

30
MISSION AND OBJECTIVES

• The objectives of all firms are assured to be maximisation of long

– run profits.
• Mission is def as the overall purpose or reason for its existence
which guide and influences its business decision and economic
activities.
• The choice of business domain, direction of its development,
choice of business strategy and policies are all guided by the
overall mission of the company.
• Reliance Industries Mission “To become a world class company
and to achieve global dominance. Ranbaxy laboratories – to
become a research based international pharma company.

ORGANISATION STRUCTURE

Means such things as composition of board of directors, the number

of independent directors, the extent of professional management and
share holding pattern.Significant influence over decision making
process in an organization.

QUALITY OF HUMAN RESOURCES

• Quality of employees of a firm in an important factor of internal

environment of a firm
• The Success of a business organization depends to a great extent
on the skills, capabilities, attitudes and commitment of its
employees.

31
 • Due to importance of HR for the success of a company these days
there is a special course for managers how to select and manage
efficiently HR of a company.

LABOUR UNIONS

• Unions collectively bargain with top managers regarding wages,

working conditions of different categories of employees.
• Smooth working of a business organization requires that there
should be good relations between mgt & labour union.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES AND TECHNOLOGY CAPABILITIES

• Physical resources such as plant and equipment and technological

capabilities of a firm determine its competitive strength which is
an important factor determining its efficiency and unit cost of
production.
• R& D capabilities of a company determine its ability to introduce
innovation which enhances productivity of works.

2. Tangible and Intangible premises

Tangible – those which can be quantified. Eg – Money, Units of

Production, etc

Intangible Premises – refers to the qualitative factors like Public

relations, company reputation, Employee morale, etc.

3. Controllable and Uncontrollable Factors

Controllable – entirely within the control and realm of management

Eg- Policies, programmes, rules of the enterprises

32
Uncontrollable Factors – Enterprises has absolutely no control are uncontrollable
premises. Eg – War, natural calamities, new invention, population trends.

Effective premises

1. Selection of premises which bear materially on the programs

2. Development of alternative premises for contingency planning
3. Verification of the consistency of premises
4. Communication of the premises.

SWOT Analysis or / TOWS Matrix

Internal Factors Internal Strengths (S) Internal

Eg. Strength in mgt, Weaknesses(W) Eg.
operation, Finance, Weaknesses in areas
Marketing, R&D shown in the box of
External Factors Engineering strength.

External SO strategy Maxi – WO Strategy Mini –

Opportunities (O) Maxi. Potentially the Maxi Eg.
Consider risk also. Eg most successful Developmental strategy
Current and future strategy, utilizing the to overcome weakness
Economic condition, Organisation strength to in order to take
political and social take advantage of advantage of
changes, New product opportunities oppirtunities
services and
Technology

External Threats (T) ST Strategy Maxi – WT strategy Mini

Eg Lack of energy, Mini Eg. Use of Mini Eg. Retrenchment,
competition and areas strengths to cope with Liquidation , Joint
similar to those shown threats to avoid threats venture.

33
in Opportunity box

Forecasting

- Process of predicting future conditions, that will influence and guide the
activities, behaviour and performance of the Organisation.
Def – “ Forecasting is the formal process of predicting future events that will
significantly affect the functioning of the enterprises.

Features

 Involvement of Future events

 Depends upon past and present events
 Happening of future events
 Make use of forecasting techniques

Process
 Developing the ground work
 Estimating the future trends
 Comparing actual with estimated results
 Refining the forecast

Importance

 Key to planning
 Means of coordination
 Basis for control
 Executive development
 Facing Environmental challenges

Forecasting Techniques

- Qualitative ( use of Statistical tools) and Quantitative ( employ human

judgments to predict future)

34
 1. Time series Analysis – involves decomposition of historical series into its
various components. Viz – trend, seasonal variations, cyclical variations and
random variations. A trend can be known over the period of time and
projections can be made about future.
2. Historical Analogy – past history records
3. Correlation – to find the relationship between two variables. Eg. Between
advertising expenditure and sales volume, Future sales estimated on basis of
change in adv expenditure
4. Regression – To measure the relationship between two variables. To find the
relative movements of two or more interrelated series.
5. Delphi Technique – the minds of the experts in the concerned areas are
probed systematically.
6. Input output analysis

Types of Forecast

- Demand forecast / sales forecast

- Economic Forecast
- Technological Forecast

Comparison of Planning and Forecasting

S.No Planning Forecasting

1 Planning is more Forecasting is the estimate
comprehensive, it involves of future events and
many sub processes and provides parameters to the
elements in order to arrive at planning
decision
2 Requires several decision
Forecasting does not
making involve decision making
3 For planning top management Forecasting is usually
level is involved carried by middle or lower
level management
4 Commitment of action is the Forecasting does not require
basic motive of planning any commitment but helps
planning for future actions

35
Decision Making

- is the process of choosing a course of action from available alternatives

- Def . Haynes & Massie “ Decision making is a process of selection from
a set of alternative courses of action which is thought to fulfills the
objective of the decision – problem more satisfactorily than others.”

Types of Managerial Decisions

1. Organizational and Personal Decisions
2. Routine and Strategic Decisions
3. Programmed and Non programmed Decision
4. Policy and Operating Decision
5. Individual and Group decision

Decision making Process

1. Defining the problem
2. Analysing the problem
3. Developing alternative solutions
4. Evaluating the Alternatives
5. Selecting the best alternatives
6. Implementing the decision

Factors involved in Decision Making

1. Tangible Factors - things which can be measured, Fixed cost, operating cost,
profits, machine, etc
2. Intangible factors – Unmeasurable elements. Eg. Employee morale, quality
of labour relations, Consumer behaviour, etc. – Personal values & Orgn
Culture, Group decision making, Creative and innovation

Problems of Decision Making

1. Indecisiveness
2. Time pressure
3. Lack of Information

36
 4. confusing symptoms with causes
5. Failure to evaluate correctly
6. Lack of follow through

Key to success in Decision Making

1. Be problem oriented not just solution oriented

2. Set decision making goals
3. Always check the accuracy of the information
4. Don’t be afraid to develop innovative alternatives
5. Be flexible
6. Gain commitment for decision at an early stage
7. Evaluate and follow up the decision

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 UNIT III
ORGANIZING
Nature and purpose of organizing - Organization structure - Formal and informal groups I
organization - Line and Staff authority - Departmentation - Span of control -
Centralization and Decentralization - Delegation of authority - Staffing - Selection and
Recruitment - Orientation - Career Development - Career stages – Training - -
Performance Appraisal.

38
ORGANIZING
Definitions
Allen defines Organising as “ the process of identifying and grouping of the work to
be performed, defining and delegating responsibility and authority and establishing
relationships for the purpose of enabling people to work most effectively together in
accomplishing their objectives.”

Koontz and O’Donnell defines as “ Organisation is the establishment of authority

and relationships with provision for coordination between them, both vertically and
horizontally in the enterprise structure.

- Organising is the task of mobilizing resources

- A structure involving a large number of people engaging themselves in
multiplicity of tasks, a systematic and rational relationship with authority and
responsibility between individuals and groups.

Process of organizing
- the manager differentiates and intergrates the activities of his Organisation
- Differentiation - the process of departmentalization or segmentation of
activities on the basis of some similarity
- Integration – Process of achieving unity of effort among the various
departments

1. Establishing Enterprise Objectives

2. Formulating Supporting objectives, policies and Plans
3. Identifying and classifying the necessary to accomplish
4. Grouping the activities in the light of human and material resources available
5. Delegating to the head of each group the activity necessary to perform
6. Tying the groups together horizontally and vertically through authority
relationship and information flows.

Principles of Organising
1. Objectives
2. Specialisation
3. Span of Control
4. Exception – the higher level have limited time, only exceptionally complex
problem should be referred to them and routine matters be dealt by the
subordinates at the lower levels
5. Scalar Principle / Chain of command – line of authority

39
 6. Unity of Command
7. Delegation
8. Responsibility
9. Authority
10.Efficiency
11.Simplicity
12.Flexibility
13.Unity of Direction
14.Personal ability

Span of Management

Factors governing Span of Management

- Appropriate span of Management must be determined by the specific of the
manager particular situation.

1. Ability of the manager

2. Ability of the Employees
3. Type of work
4. Well defined authority & Responsibility
5. Geographic locations
6. Level of Management
7. Economic Consideration

Orgn with Narrow span – superior with less number of subordinate to monitor
Advatages
- Close supervision
- Close control
- Fast Communication, between communication between subordinates &
superiors

Disadvantages
- Superiors tend to get too involved in subordinate work
- Many levels of Management
- High cost due to many levels
- Excessive distance between lowest level and top level

Orgn with wide span - superior with more number of subordinate to monitor

40
Advantages
- Superiors are forced to delegate
- Clear policies must be made
- Subordinates must be carefully selected

Disadvantages
- Tendency of overloaded superiors to become decision bottlenecks
- Danger of superiors loss of control
- Requires exceptional quality of managers

Organisation Chart
“ An Organisation chart is a graphic of the various positions in the enter[prise
and the formal relationships among them”.
- It is a blueprint of the company organization structure.
- George Terry “ An Organisational Chart is a diagrammatical form, which
shows important aspects of an Organisation including the major functions and
the respective relationships, the channels of supervision and the relative
authority of each employee who is in change of each respective function.

Characteristics
1. a diagrammatical presentation
2. represent the formal Organisation structure
3. it shows the main lines of authority in the Organisation
4. indicates inter-play of various functions & relationships
5. indicates the channel of communication

Types of organization Chart

1. Vertical Chart – lines of command proceeding from top to bottom in vertical

lines

2. Horizontal Chart – Highest position shown in left

3. Concentric or Circular Chart

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Contents of Organisation Chart

1. Basic Organisation structure & flow of authority

2. Authority & Responsibility of various executives
3. Name of components of Organisation
4. Positions of various office personnel
5. Total number of person working in an Organisation
6. Ways of Promotions and salary particulars

Pfiffner and Sherwood classifies into 3 categories

1. Skeleton – a graphical presentation of the framework

- arranged in levels connected by various lines representing different
types of authority
2. Functional – consists of subunits wherin boxes represent divisions and
sections
3. Personal Chart – some process of functional chart is used
 but the boxes here contain personnel information
 Eg- Job title, name of the position holder

Organisation Manual
An Organisation Manual is a small handbook or booklet contained detailed
information about the Objectives, Policies, Procedures, rules, etc of the enterprise
- It often includes Job descriptions which are factual statements of job contents
in terms of duties and responsibilities.

Contents of organizational Manual

1. Introductory
 Name of the Organisation
 Nature of the Organisation
 Objectives of the Organisation
 Location of the Organisation
 Purpose of the manual
2. Administrative
 Organisation Structure – major diision, departments, chain of command
 Job descriptions
 Organisation Chart
 Policies of the Management

42
  Rules & regulations
3. Procedural
 Office procedures and practices
 Specimen form to be used
 Standard instructions regarding the performance of different jobs
 Methods relating to accounting, budgeting, etc.

Types of Organisation Manual

1. Policy Manual
2. Company Organisation Manual – describes the duties and responsibilities of
various departments
- Outlines the formal chain of command and lines of promotion in the company
3. Operation Manual – describes the established standards, procedures and
methods for various jobs.
4. Department Practice Manual – detailed information about the Organisation
5. Rules & Regulation Manual – prescribes rules regarding hours of work,
timing, leave cafeteria, library, recreation, etc.

Departmentation
- As the process of grouping individual jobs in department. It involves grouping
of activities and employees into departments so as to facilitate the
accomplishment of Organisation Objectives.

Need & Importance of Department

1. Specialisation
2. Expansion
3. Autonomy
4. Fixation of responsibility
5. Appraisal
6. Management development
7. Administrative control

Choosing a basis for Departmentation

1. Specialisation
2. Coordination
3. Control
4. Economy
5. Attention

43
 6. Human Consideration

Basis of Departmentation
1. Departmentation by Functional Basis – Grouping of activities in accordance
with the function of an enterprise. Each major function of the enterprise is
grouped into a department.

Merits
o It is a logical and time proven method
o It follows the principles of specialization
o Authority and responsibility can be clearly defined and fixed
o Since the top managers are responsible for the end results control shall
become effective
Demerits
 This type of departmentation shall develop a loyalty towards the
functions and not towards the enterprise as whole.
 Co-ordination of different function shall become difficult
 Only the departmental heads are held responsible for defective work

2. Departmentation by Territorial basis – A company may have separate

departments to serve the southern region, northern region etc. It has the
advantage of the intimate knowledge of local conditions.
Merits
 It motivates each regional head to achieve high performance
 Provides each regional head an opportunity to adapt to his local
situation and customer need with speed and accuracy.
 It affords valuable top-management training and experience to
middle level executives]enables the organization to take
advantage of locational factors, such as availability of raw
materials, labour, market, etc.
 Enables the Organisation to compare regional performances and
invest more resources in profitable regions and withdraw
resources from unprofitable ones.
Demerits
 May give rise to duplication of various activities. Many routine
and service functions performed by all the regional units can be
performed centrally b the head office very economically

44
  Various regional units may become so engrossed in short run
competition among themselves that they may forget the overall
interest of the total organization.

3. Departmentation by Process basis – is done on the basis of several discrete

stages in the process or technologies involved in the manufacture of a product.
A cotton textile mill have separate departments for ginning, spinning,
weaving, dyeing and printing and packing and sales.
Merits
 Facilitates the use of heavy and costly equipment in an efficient
manner.
 It follows the priniciple of specialization – each dept is engaged
in doing a special type of work. This increases efficiency.
 It is suitable for Organisation which are engaged in the
manufacture of those product which involve a number of
processes.

Demerits
 Difficult to compare the performance of different process based
departments
4. Departmentation by Product basis – suited for a large organization
manufacturing a variety of products. For each major product a semi-
autonomous department is created and is put under the charge of a manager
who may also be made responsible for producing a profit of a given
magnitude. Product dept is the logical pattern to follow when each product
requires raw materials, manufacturing, technology and marketing methods and
that are markedly different from those used by other products in the
Organisation. Eg HLL manufacturing detergents, toiletries, Clearasil cream
and soap.
Merits
 Relieves top management of operating task responsibility. It can
therefore better concentrate on such centralized activities like
finance, R& D and control
 Enables the top management to compare the performance of
different products and invest more resources in profitable
products and withdraw resources from unprofitable ones.
 Those who work within a department derive greater satisfaction
from identification with a recognizable goal.
Demerits

45
  Results in duplication of staff and facilities
 Employment of large number of managerial personnel is required.
 Equipment in each product department may not be fully used
5. Departmentation by Customer basis – An enterprise may be divided into a
number of departments on the basis of the customers that it services. For Eg.
An educational institution may have separate departments for day, evening
and correspondence course to impart education to full time students, locally
employed students and autstation students respectively.
Merits
 It ensures full attention to major customer groups and helps the
company to earn goodwill.
Demerits
 It may result in under utilization of resources and facilities in
some department.
 There may be duplication of facilities

Authority
- Power to take decision
- Right to get orders and obey orders
- Power – Ability of individual to influence the action of other person
- Authority – right in a position to exercise discretion in making decision
affecting others.

Bases of Power
1. Legitimate
2. Expertness
3. Referrant
4. Reward
5. Coercive

Def “ Authority may be defined as legitimate right to give orders and to get orders
obeyed. It denotes certain rights to take decision and get them executed by their
subordinates.

3 types of Authority
Line authority – are those that have direct impact on the accomplishment of the
objectives of the enterprises

46
 - is the direct authority which a superior exercises over his subordinates to carry
out orders and instructions.
- The flow of line authority is always downward, that is from a superior to a
subordinate
- Creates a direct relationship between a superior and his subordinate
- Line authority is the direct authority which a superior exercises over his
subordinates to carry out orders and inspections such authority delegated top
those positions or elements of the organization which have direct
responsibility for accomplishing the primary objectives.
- Line relationship performs the following roles
a. as a chain of command
b. as a carrier of accountability (subordinate is answerable to his
superior)
c. as a channel of communication

Staff authority – Staff refers to those elements of the Organisation which help
the line to work most effectively in accomplishing the primary objectives of the
enterprises.
- are those that help the line person work most effectively in accomplishing the
objectives.

Difference between Line and Staff Authority

S.No Line Authority Staff Authority

1 Right to decide and command Right to provide advice,
assistance and information
2 Contributes directly to the Assist line in the effective
accomplishment of Organisational accomplishment of Organisation
objectives objectives
3 Relatively unlimited and general Relatively restricted to a
particular function
4 Flow downward from a superior to May flow in any direction
subordinate depending upon the need of
advice
5 Creates superior and subordinate Extension of line and support
relation line
6 Exercise control Investigates and reports
7 Makes operating decision Provides idea for decision
8 Bears final responsibility for Does not bear final responsibility

47
 results
9 Doing functions Thinking function
10 Provides channel of No channel of communication is
communication created

Functional authority - is the right which an individual or department has delegated

to it over specialized processes, practices, policies or other matters relating to
activities undertaken by personnel in department other than its own.

- generally relates to laying down systems and procedures. For Eg. The
personnel manager may lay down the grievances procedure to be followed in
all departments
- granted to a staff specialist to issue instruction to line executives directly in a
specific and limited area of operation.

Delegation of authority
- To delegate means to entrust authority to a subordinate
- Assigns some part of his work to his subordinate and also gives the necessary
authority to make decision within the area of their assigned duties

Def . Koontz and O’Donnel, “ The entire process of delegation involves the
determination of results expected, the assignment of tasks, the delegation of authority
for accomplishment of these tasks, and the exaction of responsibility for their
accomplishments.”

Types of delegation
1. General or Specific
2. Formal or Informal
3. Written or oral
4. Downward and sideward

Process of Delegation
1. Determination of results expected
2. Assignment of duties
3. Granting of authority
4. creating accountability for performance

48
 Accountability – is the obligation to carry out responsibility and exercise
authority in terms of performance standard established by the superior
- Once a subordinate is assigned a duty and given the necessary authority to
complete it, he becomes answerable for the results. Thus accountability is a
derivative of responsibility.

Principles of Delegation
1. Delegation to conform to desired objectives
2. Responsibility not delegatable
3. Authority to match duties
4. Unity of command
5. Limits to authority to well-defined

Merits
1. Basis of effective functioning
2. Reduction in managerial load
3. Benefits of specialized service
4. Efficient running of branches
5. Aid to employee development
6. Aid to expansion and diversification of business

Effective Delegation
1. Define assignments and delegate authority in the light of results expected
2. Select the person in the light of the job
3. Maintain open lines communication
4. Establish proper control
5. Reward effective and successful assumption of authority

Staffing
- Filling and keeping filled, positions in the Organisation structure.
- Def – Koontz and O’Donnell “ The managerial functions of staffing
involves manning the Organisational structure through proper and effective
selection, appraisal and development of personnel to fill the roles designed
into structure.

Functions of Staffing
1. Procurement
– Job analysis

49
 – Man power planning
– Recruitment
– Selection
– Placement

2. Development
- Performance appraisal
- Training
- Management Development
- Career Planning & Development
- Promotion

3. Compensation
– Job evaluation
– Wage and Salary administration
– Incentives
– Fringe Benefits
– Social security measures

4. Human Relations
- is an area of management in integrating people into work situation in a way
that motivates them to work together productively, co-operatively and with
economic, psychological and social satisfaction.

Sequence of activity in Staffing

Preemployment activities - Requisitioning, Recruiting & Selecting

Post employment activities - Training, appraising, Promoting and

Compensating, Providing miscellaneous services.

Purpose and Importance

1. Increasing size of Organisation
2. Advancement of technology
3. Long range needs of manpower
4. High wage bill
5. Trade unionism
6. Human relations movement

50
Recruitment & Selection
- 1st Stage, continues with selection and stops with the placement of the
candidate
- +ve it stimulates people to apply for jobs to increase the hiring ration. i.e.
the number of applicants for a job
- Goal of Recruitment is to create a large pool of persons available and
wiling to work.
- Selecting the person overall
- Def.- Edwin & Flippo – “ Recruitment is the process of searching for
prospective employees and stimulating them to apply for jobs in the Orgn.

Sources of Recruitment
1. Internal sources – It includes personnel already on the payroll of an
Organisation, presenting working force.

Merits
- Less expense
- Builds loyalty
- Ensures stability
- Sense of security
- Lower level to look forward to rising to higher levels
- Morale of the employees (Shows more Enthusiasm)

Demerits
- Promotion based on seniority, inefficient people may also be promoted this
will ultimately ruin the prospects of the firm.
- There will not be any any creativity
- Lack of Technical skills

2. External Sources – Fresh flood should be injected so as to make it more

dyanamic
- freshers from college
- unemployed with a wide range of skills and abilities
- retired experienced person

Merits
- required skills

51
 - Do objective selections (since people are recruited from a large market, the
best selection can be made without any distinctions of caste, colour,
gender)
- May b economical in the long run (training is not required)

Demerits
-Brain Drain – Experienced persons or raided or hunted by other concerns

Methods or Techniques of Recruitment

1. Direct Method – campus recruitment
2. Indirect Method – use advertisements for recruitment in newspaper, journal,
etc
- Blind advertisement – without company name the advertisement been
made
3. Third Party method
a. Private Employment agency
b. Public Employment agency
c. Head hunters (Professional Recruiting agencies)
d. Employee Referrals (Recommendations)
e. Trade Unions
f. Applicant at the gate
g. Voluntary Organisation
h. Computer data bank

Recruitment Policy 5 Elements

1. Identification of Recruitment needs
2. Preferred sources of Recruitment
3. Criteria of selection and selection techniques
4. Cost of Recruitment
5. Role, if any assigned to the union in the formulation and implementation of
recruitment and selection policies.

Selection
- Process of discovering the most suitable and promising candidates to fll up
the vacancies
- The goal of selection is to sort out or eliminate those judged unqualified to
meet the job and organizational requirements
- -ve action, after receiving the application select a particular person

52
 - Recruitment is a method while selection is a procedure.
- Successive hurdles techniques

Steps in Selection

- A process of rejecting the unwanted applicant

1. Receiving application
2. Preliminary screening / Interview
3. Application blank
4. Psychological test
5. Interview
6. Reference check
7. Physical Examination
8. Final Interview

Interview

The Interview is the most frequent method of selection. The Interview is a face
to face conversation between an applicant and the employer. The purpose of
Interview is to collect information on behaviour, attitudes, opinions, maturity,
emotional stability, enthusiasm, confidence, response and other commercial
behaviour.

Factors considered in Interview

 Initiative
 Response
 Behaviour
 Work Experience
 Opinion
 Attitude
 Maturity
 Emotional Stability
 Enthusiasm
 Confidence

53
Types of Interview

1. Structured Interview – is also called as patterned interview. The interviewers

are trained in the process to be used. A list of questions on analysis of the job
specification is prepared. The Interviewing process attempts to predict how
candidates will perform in the work situations.
2. Group or Discussion Interview – The interviewees are given certain
problems and are asked to reach a specific decision within a particular time
limit. The applicants enter into group discussion, knowing that the interview is
a test, but do not know which qualities are being measured or tested. The
object is to see how individuals perform on a particular task or in a particular
situations
3. Panel or Board Interview – Candidate is interviewed by a number of
interviewers. Questions may be asked in turn or asked in random order as
they arise on any topic.
4. Stress Interview – The Interview assumes a hostile role toward the applicant.
He deliberately puts him on the defensive by trying to any, embarrass or
frustrate him. The purpose is to find out how a candidate behaves in a stress
situation whether he loses his temper, gets confused or frightened.

PLACEMENT

The Placement of the individual on the new job and orienting him to the
Organisation. Placement may be defined as the determination of the job to which an
accepted candidate is to be assigned to that job. A proper placement of a worker
reduces Employee turnover, absenteeism and accident rates and improve morale.
After the selection, the employee is generally put on a probationary period
ranging from one to two years after his employment to regularized, provided that
during this period, his work has been found to be satisfactory.
 Orientation
 Training
 Executive Development

54
Orientation / Induction / Indoctrination
Induction is a technique by which a new employee is rehabilitated into the
changed surroundings and introduced to the practices, policies and purposes of the
Organisation

The Main Objects of Orientation

1. Clarifying the job

2. Developing realistic expectation about the Organisation
3. Reducing the amount of stress of new employee
4. Reducing startup costs
5. Strengthening the relationships between new employee, his superiors and
peers

A formal orientation programme generally provides information regarding the

following :
1. The history of the Organisation
2. Products and services of the Company
3. Organisation structure of the enterprise
4. Location of departments and Units
5. Personnel policies and practices
6. Employees facilities and services
7. Rules and Regulations
8. Grievance procedures
9. Safety Measures

TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT

Training
- Training is an organized process for increasing the knowledge and skills of
people for definite purpose.
Training & Education
- Training and Education is concerned with imparting specific skills for
particular purpose
- Purpose of Training is to bring about improvement in the Performance of
work

55
 - Includes the learning of such skills as are required to do a specific job in a
better way
Training & Development
- Development involves the growth of the individual in all respects
- Training is job centered whereas development is career bound
- Aims at increasing the capacity for further tasks of greater difficulty
- Contents and techniques of employee training may differ from those of
Management Development.
Training & Development Process
1. Determining Training Needs
a. Organizational analysis – ( analyzing the present and future needs of the
total Organization)
b. Operational analysis – (need of a specific group of jobs)
c. Individual analysis – (analyzing the need of the specific Employee)
2. Deciding the purpose of Training
3. Choosing Training method
4. Evaluating Training Effectiveness

Need for Training arises on the account of following reasons –

1. New Environment
2. Lack of Trained Personnel
3. Advancement in Technology
4. Faculty Methods
5. Prevention of accidents
6. Career Development.

Need for Training

1. To improve job related skills

2. To update Knowledge and skills
3. To prepare for higher responsibilities and task
4. To develop proper job related attitudes
5. To inject motivation and morale
6. To mould personnel to adapt and adjust to Organizational change

Advantages of Training

56
1. Increased productivity
2. Job Satisfaction
3. Reduction in accidents
4. Better use of Resources
5. Reduced Supervision
6. Greater Flexibility
7. Management by Exception
8. Stability and Growth

57
Essential of a good Training Programme

A good training programme must satisfy the following conditions

1. Clear Purpose
2. Training Needs
3. Relevance
4. Individual Differences
5. Appropriate incentives
6. Management Support
7. Balance between theory and practice.

Training Procedure
1. Preparing the Instructor
- know the job or subject he is attempting to teach
- Have the aptitude and ability to teach
- Have willingness towards the profession
- Pleasing Personality and capacity for leadership
- Knowledge of teaching Principles and methods
2. Preparing the Trainee
3. Getting ready to teach
4. Presenting the Operation
5. Try out the Trainee’s performance
6. Follow - up

Methods and Techniques of Training

1. On the Job Training
a. Coaching
b. Understudy
c. Job Rotation
2. Vestibule Training – ( Dummy Machine set up )
3. Apprenticeship Training
4. Classroom Training

Executive Development / Management Development

“ Developing a manager is a progressive process in the same sense that educating a

person it. Neither development nor Education should be thought of as something that
can ever be completed, for there are no known limits to the degree to which one may
be developed or educated”

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Methods of Executive Development

1. On the Job Method

a. Coaching and Understudy
b. Position rotation
c. Special projects and task forces
d. Committee assignments
e. Multiple Management

2. Off the Job Method

a. Special courses
b. Conferences and Seminars
c. Case study
d. Selective Readings
e. Brain Storming
f. Simulation , role Playing and Management Games
g. Sensitivity Training

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 UNIT IV
DIRECTING
Creativity and Innovation - Motivation and Satisfaction - Motivation Theories -
Leadership Styles - Leadership theories - Communication - Barriers to effective
communication - Organization Culture - Elements and types of culture - Managing
cultural diversity.

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DIRECTING

Directing concerns the total manner in which a manager influences the actions of
subordinates. It is the final action of a manager in getting others to act after all
preparations have been completed. It consist of the following elements:
1. issuing orders and instructions
2. continuing guidance and supervision of subordinates
3. motivating subordinates to work hard for meeting the expectation of
management.
4. maintaining discipline and rewarding those who perform well
5. providing leadership to subordinates

CHARACTERISTICS
1. Elements of Management
2. Continuing Function
3. Pervasive Function
4. Creative Function
5. Linking function
6. Management of Human Factor

SIGNIFICANCE OF DIRECTING
1. Initiates action
2. Ensures coordination
3. Improves efficiency
4. Facilitates change
5. Assists stability and growth

PRINCIPLES
1. Harmony of objectives
2. Maximum individual contribution
3. Unity of command
4. Appropriate techniques
5. Direct Supervision
6. Strategic use of Informal Organization
7. Managerial Communication
8. Effective Leadership
9. Principle of Follow up through

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TECHNIQUES OF DIRECTING
1. Delegation
2. Supervision
3. Orders and instructions
4. Motivation
5. Leadership
6. Communication

SUPERVISION
Supervision implies exert overseeing of people at work in order to ensure
compliance with established plans and procedures. Every executive has to
supervise the work of his subordinates. At the operating level, supervision is the
most significant part of the manager job. The supervisor is in direct touch with
the workers. He teaches proper work methods, maintains discipline and work
standards and solve workers grievances or problems.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF A SUPERVISOR
1. To schedule work so as to ensure an even and steady flow.
2. To assign work to different individuals
3. To provide proper working conditions
4. To issue orders and instructions
5. To prescribe work methods and procedures
6. To guide, train and inspire workers in the efficient performance of work.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD SUPERVISOR

1. Knowledge of Work
2. Knowledge of the Organization
3. Communication Skill
4. Human Relation of Skill
5. Decisiveness

FUNCTIONS
1. Planning the work
2. Organising the Resources
3. Staffing the units
4. Maintaining discipline
5. Enforcing safety measures
6. Handling Grievances
7. Appraising performance

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FUNDAMENTALS OF EFFECTIVE SUPERVISION
1. Planning the work
2. Time management and delegation
3. Organising the resources
4. Staffing the Units
5. Trianing and development of Employees
6. Disciplining the Workers
7. Appraising the performance of Employees
8. Controlling the results
9. Labour relations and Grievance procedures

LEADERSHIP

Definition

Leadership is defined as influence, the art or process of influencing people so that

they will strive willingly and enthusiastically toward the achievement of group goals.

- Leaders act to help a group attain objectives through the maximum

application of its capabilities.
- Leaders must instill values – whether it be concern for quality, honesty and
calculated risk taking or for employees and customers.

SKILLS

1. The ability to use power effectively and in a responsible manner

2. The ability to comprehend that human beings have different motivation forces
at different times and in different situations
3. The ability to inspire
4. The ability to act in a manner that will develop a climate conductive to
responding to and arousing motivations.
5. Fundamental understanding of People
6. ability to inspire followers to apply their full capabilities to a project

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Leadership Styles
1. Autocratic Leader –Commands and expects compliance, is dogmatic and
positive, and leads by the ability to withhold or give rewards and punishment.
2. Democratic or Participative – consults with subordinates on proposed
actions and decision and encourage participation from there
3. Free-rein leader / laissez-faire Leadership – uses his or her power very
little, giving a high degree of Interdepence in their operations. Leaders depend
largely on subordinates to set their own goals and the means of achieving
them, and they see their role as one of aiding the operation of followers by
furnishing them with information and acting primarily as a contact with the
groups external Environment.
4. Paternalistic Leadership – Serves as the head of the family and treats his
followers like his family members. He assumes a paternal or fatherly role to
help, guide and protect the followers.

Functions
1. Goal Determination
2. Motivating Followers
3. Direction
4. Coordination
5. Representation

Importance of Leadership

1. Aid to authority
2. Motive power to group efforts
3. Basis for co operation
4. Integration of Formal and Informal Organization.

Theories
1. Trait Theory – A Leader is a one who has got a enthusiastic look, courageous
look – describes the external qualities of a person
2. Behavioral Theory – A person who intend to be leader, they do not have any
qualities like Trait Theory
3. Contigency Theory –
a. Fiedler Model
b. Likert Model
c. Managerial Grid Theory

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Fiedler Model - Leaders can be classified as two -
a. Relationship Oriented
b. Task Oriented
3 Situations been given to find the performance of two types of Leader-
– Leader member Relationships
- Task Structure
- Position Power
Employees under Relationship oriented Leader seems to achieve more performance
than the other.

Likerts Model

System 1 – Exploitive Autocratic Leader (oriented towards task alone)

System 2 – Benevolent Autocratic Leader (task oriented but has the quality of
opposing if things are good)
System 3 – Participative Leader (concerns the employees for a particular kind of
work, though he concern decision will be taken only by him.
System 4 – Democratic Leader

3 Situations
1. Confidence / Trust in Employees
2. Subordinates feeling of freedom
3. Managers seeking involvement with Subordinates
Ratings of the Leaders by their employees at different situations

Managerial Grid Theory

Proposed by Blake and Mounton

2 Kinds of Leader
1. Leaders concerned for People
2. Leader concerned for production / Task

Leader styles
1. Task Manager Eg Defence , Concerned only on task
2. Team Builders – leaders high concern for production as well as people
3. Impoverished Style – Unfit for Leadership qualities, less concern for people as
well as production
4. Country club Manager Eg – Trade union, high concern for people than
production.

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 COMMUNICATION

Communication is derived from the Latin word Communis which implies

common. Communication is the interchange of thoughts and information.

ELEMENTS
1. Sender
2. Message – The Subject matter of Communication
3. Encoding – act of translating he msg into words, pictures, symbols
4. Channel – Media used
5. Receiver –
6. Decoding – interprets the msg to draw meaning from it. He converts symbols,
signs or pictures into meaning
7. Feedback –

Sound Communication provides the following advantage

1. Improves Mangerial Performance
2. Facilitates Leadership
3. Increases job Satisfaction
4. Reduces time and efforts
5. Enhances coordination
6. Help public relations

CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
1. Formal Communication – follows the route formally laid down in the
organization structure
a. Downward Communication – flow of communication from superior
to subordinate
b. Upward Communication - flow of communication from subordinate
to superior
c. Horizontal Communication – transmission of information among the
positions at the same level of he Organization.

2. Informal Communication or Grapevine – Communication among people

through informal contacts or relations.

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 Distinguish between Downward and Upward Communication
Down ward Upward
From higher to lower levels From lower to higher levels
Flow is downward Flow is upward
Directive in nature Non-directive
Purpose is to get plans implemented Purpose is to provide feedback on
results
Travels fast Travels slowly
Orders, instructions, lectures, Reports, suggestions, grievances,
manuals, handbooks, etc are the main protests, surveys are the main
examples examples.

Distinction between Formal and Informal Communication

Formal Communication Informal Communication
Official Channel Unofficial Channel
Deliberately Planned and Systematic Unplanned and Spontaneous
Part of Organization Structure Cuts across formal relationships
Oriented towards goals and task of Directed towards goals and need
the enterprises satisfaction of individuals
Impersonal Personal and social
Stable and rigid Flexible and instable
Slow and Structured Fast and Unstructured

Grapevine Merits and Demerits

Merits Demerits
Useful for developing group Based on rumors
cohesiveness
Serves as an emotional safety value Misleads People
Effective source of knowledge May breed against particular
feelings and attitudes of Employees executives
Supplements the channels of official May lead to more talk and less work
communication
Tells mgt when to be firm and when May distort official channels of
to yield communication

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MEDIA OR METHODS OF COMMUNICATION
1. Oral Communication
2. Written Communication
3. Gestural Communication

ORAL COMMUNICATION
Oral Communication involves exchange of messages through spoken words. It may
take place. i) by face- to face contacts ii) through mechanical devices like
telephone.

Merits
Oral or Verbal communication offers the following advantages:
1. Economical
2. Personal touch
3. Speed
4. Flexibility
5. Quick response

Demerits
Oral Communication suffers from the following weaknesses-
1. Lack of record
2. Time Consuming
3. Lengthy message
4. Physical distance
5. Misunderstanding

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Written Communication is transmitted through written words in the form of letter,
circular, memos, bulletins, instruction cards, manuals, handbooks, reports, returns,

Merits
1. Effectiveness
2. Lengthy messages
3. Economical
4. Repetition
5. Permanent record
6. Better response

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Demerits

1. Time Consuming
2. Expensive
3. Inflexibility
4. Little secrecy
5. Lack of personal touch
6. Misunderstanding

COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

1. Circle Network
2. Chain Network
3. Wheel Network
4. All Channel Network

BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

a. Organisational Barriers

1. Ambiguous policies, rules and procedures

2. Status patterns
3. Long chain of Command
4. Inadequate Facilities

b.Mechanical Barriers

1. Overloading
2. Semantic barriers
3. Noise

c.Personal Barriers

1. Lack of attention or interest

2. Failure to Communicate
3. Hasty Conclusion
4. Distrust of communicator
5. Improper state of mind.

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MAKING COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVE

1. Sound Organization Structure

2. Clear messages
3. Two-way Communication
4. Multiple Channels
5. Good Listening
6. Effective Control
7. Modern Instrument
8. Human Relations attitude

ESSENTIALS OF GOOD COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

1. Clarity of messages
2. Completeness of message
3. Consistency of message
4. proper timing
5. Credibility
6. Empathy
7. Follow-up
8. Economy

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 UNIT V
CONTROLLING
Process of controlling - Types of control - Budgetary and non-budgetary control
techniques - Managing Productivity - Cost Control - Purchase Control - Maintenance
Control - Quality Control - Planning operations.

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Controlling

Definition
- as the process of analyzing actual operations and seeing that actual
performance is guided towards expected performance.
- Comparing operating results with plans and taking corrective actin when
results deviate from plans
- Def. Koontz and O’Donnell “ The managerial function of controlling is the
measurement and correction of the performance of activities of
subordinates in order to make sure that enterprise objectives and the plans
devised to attain them are being accomplished.

Nature & Purpose of Control

1. Control is an essential function of management
2. Control is an ongoing process
3. Control is forward – working because pas cannot be controlled
4. Control involves measurement
5. The essence of control is action
6. Control is an integrated system

Elements of Control
1. Planning
2. Information Feedback
3. Delegation of Authority
4. Remedial action

Control Process
1. Fixation of Standard
2. Measurement of Performance
3. Comparing performance with standards
4. Correction of Deviations

Problems in the Control Process

 Magnitude of Change
 Time rate of Change
 Erroneous standard ( Mistakes in setting standard)
 Workers Resistance
 Communication Problems

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Characteristic of an ideal Control system

 Suitable
 Flexible
 Economical
 Simple
 Objective
 Prompt
 Forward looking
 Suggestive
 Strategic point control
 Motivational

Techniques of Managerial Control

Traditional Techniques

1. Personal Observation ( For Eg. A Factory manager goes around the plant,
observes the performance of Employees and Machines)
2. Good Organisation Structure
3. Unity of Plans
4. Statistical Control Reports
5. Budgetary control – Statement expressed in financial terms
a. Master budget
b. Functional Budget - Sales budget, Production budget, Material
budget, Labour budget, Cash budget, Administrative Overhead
budget,
c. Capital & Revenue budget
d. Fixed and Flexible Budget
e. Zero base budgeting ( the budget proposals are considered from
the ground up ( zero base) or from scratch

Objectives of Budgetary Control

a. Planning
b. Coordination
c. Control
d. Motivation
e. Efficiency

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 Merits
 Optimum use of resources
 Fixation of Responsibility
 Effective coordination
 Planned approach
6. Profit & loss control
7. External audit Control
8. Overall Control criteria ( BEP Analysis)
9. Return on Investment Control

10.Management Audit
 Organisation Structure
 Executive appraisal
 Functioning of the management board
 Soundness of Earning
 Economic Functioning
 Service to stock holders
 R&D
 Fiscal Policy
 Production Efficiency

11.Responsibility accounting
 Cost centre
 Profit centre
 Investment centre

Techniques of Management
 MBO
 MBE
 MBP – Management by Participation implies the mental and emotional
involvement of employees, share holders, investors, consumers and
other stake holders in the decision making process.

Forms
1. Work Committee
2. Joint Management Councils

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 3. Worker Directors
4. Co-partnership

Productivity & Operations Management

 Productivity which accounts for profitable operations of an enterprises
and provides opportunities to an enterprise for remaining competitive
and successful in an area of global competition
 Output – input ratio, within a given time period & with due
consideration for quality of Performance

Problems in Measuring Productivity of Knowledge workers

- Measurement of the productivity of skill workers is easier but it becomes
more difficult to measure the productivity of knowledge workers
- Greatest scope for increasing productivity lies in the work performed by
knowledge workers Eg. Managers, Engineers, Cost accountant, etc.

Operation Management
- is the design and operation of systems. Working of Operation Management.

Input Transformation / Output

Conversion process

Information
Technology
Raw Materials
Main Power Planning, operating & Product
Management Controlling production Services
Physical Factors ( like land, System
Building, Machines, etc)

Feedback External Environment

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Developing Excellent Managers – The key to preventive control

a. Efforts required on the part of managers themselves

 Willingness to learn
 Planning for Innovation & Inventions
 Tailoring Information
b. Efforts required on the part of the Organisation
 Acceleration of Managerial Development programmes
 Measuring Managerial programmes and rewarding it
 Need for management R & D
 Need for Intellectual Leadership

Globalisation

 Globalisation means the internationalization of trade. Particularly

product transaction and the integrating of economic and capital markets
throughout the world.
 The integration takes place when trade exists freely among the different
countries, thus the world economy becomes a single market or single
economy.
 In globalization there is no restriction of quota, license, tariff and other
administrative barrier for trade.

Benefits of Globalisation

 Improves efficiency
 Improves factor Income
 Improves finance
 Gains from Migrations

Drawbacks of Globalisation

Globalisation increases the problems of unemployment

1. Domestic Industries finds difficulty in survival

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 Only group of people who participate in the process of Globalization will be
benifitted, this creates income inequality within the country
2. Control on domestic economy becomes more difficult
3. Developing country suffers from the problem of brain-drain

International Business
- Involves commercial activities that cross national frontiers
- It is a process of Entrepreneur conducting business activities across
national boundaries
- It consist of Exporting, Importing, lIcensing, opening of Sales office
- The activities necessary for ascertaining the need and want of target
consumer often takes place in more than one country. When an
Entrepreneur executes his or her business model in more than one country
International Business Occuring.

Entry into International Business

The method of entering or engaging in International Business can be divided
into three categories
Exporting
o Indirect Exporting
o Direct Exporting
Non Equity arrangement – Doing international business through an
arrangement that does not involve any investments.
- Licensing - allowing someone else to use something of
the company’s in return for the payment of royalty
- Turn key Projects – A foreign Entrepreneur build a
factory or other facility, training the workers, train the
management and then turn it over to the local owners
once the operation is completed, hence the name turn
key operation
- Management Contracts – Contracting management
techniques and skills. The management contracts allows
the purchasing country to gain foreign expertise without
giving ownership of its resources to a foreigner.
Direct Foreign Investments – preferred mode of ownership
a. Minority Interest – Having less than 50% Ownership Position
b. Joint Ventures – Merger of two companies

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