CHAPTER - 3

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 CONCLUSION
Review of Literature 51

3.1 INTRODUCTION

A comprehensive review of literature has been done with respect to the

impact of tourism from the perceptions of host community in the tourist destination.
Both international and national studies have been analysed with a view to find out
the research gap necessitating the present study. More than two hundred reviews
have been made on the varied aspects of tourism which helped to design the
structure and content of the study. Out of the myriad group of literature reviewed,
only the most relevant and important specimen of literature are presented in this
chapter. These reviews are given as under:

1. Binca Biagi, Mariya Gabriela Ladu, and Vincente Royula1, (2015) have
analyzed whether and to what extent the relationship between tourism and
Human Development remains positive under different circumstances. The
study examined a selection of 63 countries from 1996 to 2008 and consider the
Human Development Index plus a composite indicator of the tourism market
as a whole. Findings confirm that, on average, tourism is positively associated
with human development, particularly education although the association may
be affected by circumstances. Findings, which are robust to the specification of
the composite tourism index and to estimation techniques, suggest that
investing in the tourism sector may have a strong and significant positive
effect for human development in the destination countries. The presence of a
temporary population, such as foreign visitors, with a high level of education,
high income, and an open-minded attitude may trigger changes in residents’
aspirations and perspective on life. These findings suggest the need for further
studies on the role of tourism in human development beyond the pure
economic growth effects. They also indicate the need to more deeply
investigate the role of tourism on residents’ quality of life using methodologies
other than the analysis of resident perceptions through questionnaires.

2. Fatemeh Shafaei, and Badaruddin Mohamed2, (2015) aim at demonstrating the

developmental stages of tourism social impacts assessment including model
development, instrument design, and instrument testing. The purpose of this
study is to investigate on the stages of development in tourism social impact
52 Chapter 3

assessment. In order to realize the aim of this study, a comprehensive review

on the most important models and approaches about social impacts of tourism
and their evaluation has been applied. It is found that it is very important to
adopt the planning policies which can reinforce positive impacts while reduce
negative impacts by involvement of communities in tourism industry. This will
result in further understanding of residents about tourism and their
participation in tourism decision making which will consequently lead them to
receive more benefits from the industry. These policies will let local people to
be involved in the industry in a positive way and undertake both positive and
negative impacts of tourism.

3. Maria Alina Radulescu3, (2014) attempts to make a contribution by examining

local residents’ perceptions and attitudes towards second home tourism
impacts and tourism development in Cheia (Romania), a mountainous village
that transformed into a second homes hotspot in the last twenty years. To
obtain a vivid picture of the second home phenomenon and to assess its
impacts, both quantitative and qualitative methods were employed to explore
local residents’ opinions and attitudes and to establish a profile of the second
home owners. The main findings are clustered around themes ranging from
positive to negative which reflect economic, socio-cultural and environmental
impacts.

4. Corinne Karlaganis and N. C. Narayanan4, (2014) focused on governance, in

particular on the linkage between investment in tourism and the environment
in Vembanad Lake, an official site of the International Ramsar Convention on
Wetlands. Tourism in houseboats and in resorts around the lake has grown
remarkably in the past two decades. The aim of this case study is to examine
the environmental regulations and challenges of implementation with a focus
on houseboat tourism in Vembanad Lake. The empirical investigations are
conducted in two destinations located in different parts of the lake. Data from
the Kerala State Pollution Control Board show that the lake is under severe
environmental stress due to biological (sewage), chemical (pesticides) and
physical (plastic) pollutants. The methodology involves analysis of secondary
environmental data and semi-structured interviews with various stakeholders.
Review of Literature 53

The problem of environmental degradation due to tourism is linked to boat

owners’ desire for short-term profit maximisation even though most of them
are aware that the sustainability of the industry is linked to the environmental
quality of the lake. Another problem is the lack of infrastructure. It is found
that the broader political ecological picture is the progressive ‘capitalisation’
of the Vembanad lake from the rice-centric economic interventions of the past
two centuries (that encroached upon it and privatised it) to the tourism-related
investments in land (resorts) and water (houseboats) that have triggered a dual
process of environmental degradation and a livelihood crisis for those directly
dependent on the wetland ecosystem. The structural reasons explained by
political ecology and its consequences are countered by the attraction of new
employment opportunities and entrepreneurial avenues that have been opened
up especially by the recent rise in tourism. The mismatch between short-term
economic gains and long-term sustainability of the environment, and thus
tourism activities, is due to the classical ‘prisoner’s dilemma’ situation of
competitive non-compliance. This study focused on the contribution of
pollution by the houseboat industry and did not put much emphasis on other
pollutants such as pesticides from agriculture, chemicals from other industries,
and sewage from towns and villages around the lake.

5. Ashish Varughese5, (2014) analyses the marketing activities, the various

problems faced by tourism service providers and the perception of tourists
towards backwater tourism in Kerala with the help of primary data. The
analysis by using Garrett's ranking shows that parking of boats, unhealthy
competition and lack of Government support were the first three main
problems faced by the houseboat operators. Tourist's satisfaction with the main
elements of tourism products was measured by using Likert's five point rating
scale. A majority of the tourists were satisfied with backwater tourism and
were dissatisfied with the lack of cleanliness of backwaters and hygiene
factors.

6. Dimitrios Stylidisa, Avital Biranb, Jason Sitb, Edith M. Szivas6, (2014) explain
that drawing on the triple bottom line approach for tourism impacts (economic,
socio cultural and environmental) and adopting a non-forced approach for
54 Chapter 3

measuring residents’ perception of these impacts, this study explores the role
of residents’ place image in shaping their support for tourism development.
The tested model proposes that residents’ place image affects their perceptions
of tourism impacts and in turn their support for tourism development. The
results stress the need for a more flexible and resident-oriented measurement
of tourism impacts, revealing that more favorable perceptions of the economic,
socio-cultural and environmental impacts lead to greater support. Moreover,
while residents’ place image has been largely neglected by tourism
development studies, the findings of this study reveal its significance in
shaping residents’ perception of tourism impacts as well as their level of
support. The practical implications of the findings for tourism planning and
development are also discussed.

7. Nargeskhatoon Bozorgaghideh, Resia Beegam. S7, (2014), give an overview of

tourism and poverty reduction and highlights major policy statements in ‘pro-
poor tourism’. It discusses various aspects that play a crucial role in tourism
development with a focus on poverty reduction, economic performance,
livelihoods, land and natural resources, food security, environmental
sustainability, climate change, etc. The key message of this study is initiatives
on pro-poor tourism taking in to account realities on the life of local people. It
also scans the effectiveness of Kerala’s tourism in the growth of the economy
of Kerala in particular and its contribution to stringing Indian economy.
Different types of tourism are influential in the alleviation of poverty. The
‘‘backwaters’’ region with an extensive network of interlocking rivers, lakes,
and canals that center on Alleppey, Kumarakom, and Punnamada also the city
of Kochi, also known as the ‘‘Queen of the Arabian Sea’‘ made Kerala as
important tourist’s destination in the world. There are many forms of
sustainable tourism such as: the ecological tourism (ecotourism), the green
tourism, the soft tourism, the rural tourism and agro tourism, community
tourism, equitable tourism, solidarity and responsible tourism etc. Kerala
Tourism also was piloting implementation Sustainable of Tourism practices at
4 destinations Kumarakom, Wayanad, Kovalam and Thekkady in triple bottom
line - economic, socio-cultural and environment responsibility- and could
Review of Literature 55

come out of a model which can be replicated to other destinations with active
participation of the tourism industry, local bodies The resulting income and
employment generation help to reduce poverty levels particularly income
poverty of the local residents including the poor.

8. Simao Diniz, Savio. P., Falleiro Maria. M. De. Baros8, (2014) examines the
impact of tourism on the moral and family values, culture, crime levels,
benefits and the adverse effects of tourism and tourism related businesses on
the locals in the coastal village of Cavelossim, Goa (India). The study was
undertaken to explore the gendered perception of the impact of tourism on the
psycho-social and economic life of the locals the study involved a sample of
232 households. Using Chi-square and Kruskal-Wallis H test, it was found that
across gender there was a significant difference in the perceived impact of
tourism on family values. Male and female household heads collectively
believed that the most popular benefit of tourism was an increase in income
and the most severe adverse effect was rise in the price of food. The paper
concludes with the plea that since it is the locals who are primarily affected by
tourism activities, stakeholders need to consider their views and perceptions
such that while accommodating and entertaining. The locals perceive that
tourism has led to the lowering of moral values and the destruction of the
unique Goan culture. Tourism activities have encouraged the use of alcohol
and drugs. It has increased sexual permissiveness among the locals and has
lead to prostitution, teenage pregnancies and a rise in abortions in the locality.
An increase in the employment of the females in the tourism industry and the
independence of the younger family members, there is a change in the family
dynamics. The change is such that there is lesser respect and concern for the
elders in the family. The locals perceive that the major benefit of tourism
activities was increase in income and employment for the locals. However the
locals also felt that the government was a bigger beneficiary of tourism
activities and that the local economy has not been stimulated enough by
tourism. The most popular - tourism related business was renting of rooms and
vehicles/taxis. The more severe adverse effects of tourism perceived by the
56 Chapter 3

locals were increase in the price of food, followed by increase in the price of
land, extinction of traditional occupations and scarcity of goods.

9. C. P. Ramamirtham, S. Muthusamy and L. R. Khambadkar9 (2014) The Paper

Estuarine Oceanography of The Vembanad Lake, Part I: The Region Between
Pallipuram (Vaikom) and Thevara, Gives The Results Pertaining to The
Region between Pallipuram (Vaikom) and Thevara (Cochin) of a detailed
estuarine-oceanographic study attempted on the Vembanad lake from
Pallipuram in the south to Azhikode in the north. The study was aimed
primarily at classifying to what type of estuary the lake belongs. As the two
factors almost equally influencing the lake, namely the incursion of salt water
from the Arabian Sea and fresh water from the rivers, both being by far
governed by the monsoon, the major classification was attempted on a
seasonal basis. This southern stretch of the lake, from Pallipuram to Thevara,
is found to be distinctly different in character from the northern stretch, from
Cochin to Azhikode, almost throughout the year, evidently due to its distinct
circulation pattern, induced in turn by the greater and varied river runoil
received into this region. During the monsoon, as a result, this region of the
lake is a highly stratified Saltwedge type of estuary; but during both the pre-
and postmonsoon periods it changes partly over to the partially mixed type and
partly to the vertically homogeneous type, the latter occurring at the shallowest
stations Perumbalam and Pallipuram. The incursion of upwelled waters into
this region and the mixing process like entrainment during monsoon. A future
line of work for continuous salinity and velocity measurements, which will be
highly helpful in understanding the mixing process, is indicated.

10. Nuray Türker, and Sevgi O Ztürk10, (2013) provide two main conclusions from
their research: first, residents had neutral or somewhat positive perceptions
towards tourism. Second, the location of the residents affected their perceived
impacts on tourism, with the residents living in Pınarbaşı perceiving higher
positive impacts of tourism compared to residents of Azdavay and Şenpazar.
The findings of the study identified that the residents have both positive and
negative perceptions towards tourism impacts in their community. From a
general point of view, it seems clear that the host community acknowledges
Review of Literature 57

the economic benefits of tourism. The cultural and social benefits are also
perceived as an advantage by residents, but to a low degree. At the same time,
it is recognized that tourism creates different problems, including traffic
congestion. If this is indeed the case, it appears that the community is looking
towards tourism as a mechanism that can, directly or indirectly, stimulate the
local economy and increase the standard of living. The overall positive
feelings of residents also identified some negative environmental impacts of
tourism such as traffic congestion and pollution. The findings show that there
was no difference in residents’ perceptions according to their gender, age
group, occupation and length of residency. One of the contributions of this
study is that little research is available which analyzes the perceptions of
residents on the impacts of tourism in protected areas as most of the similar
studies have conducted in holiday destinations where negative impacts of mass
tourism can be seen.

11. Dr. C.Kanagaraj, and T. Bindu11, (2013), conduct an exploratory attempt to

analyze the underlying reasons for Indian domestic travelers choosing Kerala
as a holiday destination. 34 push motives and 32 pull motives for domestic
tourists to Kerala have been analyzed. The study was conducted through
structured questionnaires collected from respondents in South India who had
undertaken a Holiday in Kerala in January 2013. Factor analysis found nine
underlying push motivations and six pull motivations amongst domestic
tourists. As tourism is the most important sector in Kerala, it can be assumed
that this study has major managerial implications as an understanding of travel
motivations to Kerala would enable the destination planners in designing and
positioning the destination’s competitive advantage and image.

12. Brent D. Moyle, Betty Weiler, and Glen Croy12, (2013), ascertain that tourism
can have positive and negative economic, environmental and socio-cultural
impacts. Previous research has focused on residents’ perceptions of these
impacts with little emphasis on those of the visitor, resulting in a lack of
theorizing and empirical investigation into how visitors perceive and evaluate
their impacts. Based on the premise that a better understanding of the visitor
perspective can underpin the proactive management of some tourism impacts,
58 Chapter 3

this study uses Social Exchange Theory to explore visitors’ perceptions on

tourism impacts on two Australian islands. Overall, visitors recognized that
tourism activity increases impacts and evaluated these as mostly positive for
the island communities. While visitors were aware of a range of positive and
negative impacts, they judged their own impact to be more positive than that of
tourism collectively. The findings point to how research can be used to
underpin visitor-focused management and mitigation strategies of island
destinations.

13. Nurhazani Mohd Shariff, Azlan Zainol Abidin13, (2013) developed a Standard
Instrument to measure Community Attitude Towards Tourism Impacts The
procedure involved five major stages beginning with the identification of 68
items represented tourism impacts. It was then followed by 50 items tested for
validity and verification by the panel experts. The next procedure involved a
test of scale purification on the remaining 49 items. Finally, the last step of the
procedure derived with 36 items and six new tourism impact domains
presented in the instrument. The findings eventually indicate new attitudinal
instrument developed in a different cultural context of tourism destination
research which in this case referred to Malaysia. Theoretically, the study
contributes toward the understanding of tourism impact items in the case of
Malaysian tourism development. Most importantly, the study provides tourism
planners, decision makers and marketers with greater confidence that it will
effectively measure all aspects of the community’s attitudes towards tourism
impacts in Malaysia. Finally, the study could be utilized by the tourism
marketers in providing tool of measurement which eventually can be used to
segment the community support toward tourism development. Overall, this
explains that the Malaysian community has strong awareness towards tourism
development. The study has achieved the purpose of developing a standard
instrument to measure community attitudes towards impact of tourism
development in Malaysia. MACTIAS involves five major stages and consists
of 36 tourism impact items within six factors namely Factor 1: Amenity
Services, Economic and Socio-cultural Impact, Factor 2: Negative Socio-
cultural Impact, Factor 3: Financial and Socio-economic Impact, Factor
Review of Literature 59

4: Historical and Cultural Impact, Factor 5: Socio-cultural and Community

Impact and Factor 6: Service Impact. Even though these factors are named
differently comparing to other studies, all items in the instrument strongly
represent the overall tourism impact items in the case of Malaysia particularly
covering the economic, environmental and socio-cultural aspects.

14. Emmanuel Dodzi K. Havi, Patrick Enu14, (2013) examine the impact of
tourism on economic performance using Johansen's cointegration approach. It
was found that all the variables, nominal gross domestic product per capita,
domestic tourism per capita and international tourism per capita were
integrated at first order. The results of Johansen's cointegration test indicated
that there exist only short run relationships among all the variables being
considered. The study found out that previous record of the international
tourism had a positive impact on nominal gross domestic product per capita
and this impact is elastic. As a result, improvement in international tourism
will lead to increase in nominal gross domestic product per capita. The
Granger Causality test also showed that was unilateral causality between
international tourism and nominal gross domestic product per capita and
domestic tourism as well as international tourism.

15. Chiun Lo, Abang Azlan Mohamad, Peter Songan and Alvin W. Yeo15, (2012)
conduct an analysis based on the existing tourism industry in Bario by
examining the impact of economics, environmental, social and cultural factor
of the tourism industry on the local communities in Bario. To assess the model
developed we used the mart PLS 2.0 (M3) which is based on path modelling
and then the bootstrapping with 200 re-samples were used to generate the
standard error of the estimate and t-values. It has been propounded that, the
progress of research on rural tourism has been slow but steady. Hence, it is
timely to understand the importance of the dimensionalities affecting the local
rural tourism industry as it can be extremely useful for tourism studies. This
study has added to the growing body of research in tourism research by
examining the perspective of local communities on positioning strategy of a
rural tourism destination. Ultimately, local community and the industry players
in particular will benefit from this study
60 Chapter 3

16. Sajad Alipour Eshliki and Mahdi Kaboudi16, (2012) explore and analyze the
relationship between effects of tourism on the quality of local community
members’ life and the extent of their participation in tourism quality
improvement programs. The results of analyzing data showed that a portion of
community members have a disinclination to tourism effects... The negative
effects of tourism on community cause a lower society inclination to
participate in tourism development programs, though its positive affects results
in increasing their support and reaching projects’ goals. Knowing how tourism
effects on society and supporting community’s cooperation have an important
impact on reinforcing the strengths and improving the weakness of tourism
planning .To obtain this goal, it is necessary to provide an effective
communication between planners and community in order to gain support
from society.

17. Vincy M.V., Brilliant Rajan and Pradeep Kumar A. P.17 (2012). Conducted a
study on backwater tourism in Kerala and found that degradation and loss have
reduced the capacity of wetlands to provide sufficient amounts and quality of
water. The continued degradation of wetlands, and more specifically the
continued decline in water quantity and quality, will result in further
impoverishment of human health especially for vulnerable people in developing
countries. The waterborne pollutants (chemical and microbiological) have a
major effect on human health and chemical pollutants accumulate in the food
chain to the point where they harm people. As a result, many new tourism
facilities (like resorts and hotels) are being built without concern for either the
natural wetland system or the areas culture and heritage. Variables analysed
included air and water temperature, TDS, pH, EC, DO, BOD, total alkalinity,
salinity, nitrate phosphate, hardness, sodium, potassium, calcium, and silicate.
The acceptable level of water quality is a minimum requisite for tourism
activities in all tourism destinations. The continued degradation of wetlands
specifically the continued decline in water quality will result in
impoverishment of human health, especially for vulnerable people in
developing countries. That river water of study area was moderately polluted
in respect to analyzed parameters. pH, total hardness, chloride and fluoride
Review of Literature 61

were found within permissible limit but the higher values of BOD in present
study attributed river water was not fit for drinking purpose. It needs to aware
local villagers to safeguard the precious river and its surrounding.

18. Juan Carlos Monterrubio, Gregory S. Gullette, M. Marivel Mendoza-Ontiveros

María José Fernández, Ana C. Luque18, (2012) examine the ways in which
local residents perceive the social effects of regional tourism development. In
the state-planned tourism destination of Huatulco, Oaxaca, Mexico,. Field-
tested questionnaire data and ethnographic fieldwork indicate that among
Huatulco residents tourism is not viewed as positively associated with
increasing rates of crime, prostitution, or drugs. However, increasing variables
such as traffic, noise, littering, or population size are associated with
Huatulco’s tourism economy. Huatulco residents’ views on population
mobility are mixed. Collected data in the case of Huatulco’s tourism
development illustrate several complications as perceived by residents within
the tourism zone, and both quantitative and qualitative findings support and
challenge existing research on tourism’s social impacts. First, contrary to the
assertion that tourism is positively associated with understandings on
increasing crime, drugs, or prostitution, it was found that these activities, to
what degree they occur within Huatulco, are not associated exclusively with
tourists. Second, it is perhaps unsurprising that, as suggested by the Social
Exchange Theory, as economic dependency increases on tourism related
activities, one would more favourably view tourism growth. While this is the
case in Huatulco, as seen in these data sets and ethnographic data collected by
Gullette (2004, 2009), such residents simultaneously hold critical opinions of
tourism and the way in which local governments promote the industry.

19. Farid Golzardi, Shabnam Sarvaramini, Kamal sadatasilan and Mahsa

Sarvaramini19 (2011) infer that tourism is an increasingly important source of
income, employment and wealth in many countries. Its rapid expansion has,
however, had detrimental environmental (and socio- cultural) impacts in many
regions. The current study investigates the perceptions of residents in a Niasar,
where tourism is not well developed although the area has great potential for
further development. The result of factor analysis showed that four factors
62 Chapter 3

named as Economic impacts, Social and cultural impacts, Environmental

impacts, Developmental and other issues explained 76.21% of variance of
perceptions of residents. Results showed that Responder have positive
perception to tourism. Results of this study indicated that residents have
positive perception toward tourism. Regression analysis indicated that 76% of
variation in Residents attitudes towards tourism development was determined
by the four variables of age, income, education and length of residence.
Residents of Niasar express support for local tourism development. Residents
also expressed some concerns for the negative impacts of tourism on the
environment. These concerns do not come as a surprise since an environmental
awareness, associated with tourism activity, stands in a high degree in many
local communities. However, the local authorities are necessary to make more
efforts in order to inform local residents and visitors on the environmental.

20. Erik Lund berg20, (2011) develops and applies a framework based on
sustainable tourism development in order to evaluate economic, socio cultural
and environmental impacts. The Triple Bottom Line-model (TBL) is chosen as
the most suitable framework. Adapting and developing this framework and
linking it to other theoretical concepts such as Carrying Capacities and Capital
constructs is one of the thesis’ contribution. The results show that TBL is a
step forward when doing more holistic evaluations of tourism impacts, but
more research is needed in order to find ways of comparing the results of the
different impact dimensions. Being able to measure, describe and understand
tourism impacts, other than economic, also helps destinations and tourism
developers plan and execute steps in tourism development which is more
sustainable.

21. Fariborz Aref21 (2011) reveals that tourism has the positive effect on quality of
life of residents. According to the survey, the strongest tourism impacts are
found to be linked with emotional wellbeing, community well-being, and
income and employment. While health and safety well-being are found to be
the least favorable in terms of the effect of tourism on quality of life. The
findings of this study will aid in the planning of strategic development
programs for tourist destinations. The results of this study provided some
Review of Literature 63

explanation of tourism effect on quality of life. The results showed that

respondents strongly agree that tourism has many effects on their quality of
life. The findings help to understanding relationship between tourism impacts
and level of quality of life with support for tourism development. The findings
of this investigation can assist tourism stakeholders and community developers
in the implementation of tourism development strategies based on residents’
attitudes towards tourism impacts on quality of life in tourism destination.

22. Latha Bhaskar22 (2011) identifies that due to prolonged anthropogenic

interventions in the name of development, the Vembanad wetland is facing
increasing deterioration. Protection, conservation and management of the lake
and its resources, through coordinated efforts of all stakeholders, are vital for
restoring this fragile ecosystem. Recently, Union Minister for Environment
and Forests Jairam Ramesh during his visit to the State announced that
Vembanad Lake would be included in the National Wetland Conservation
Plan, with 100 per cent assistance from MoEF. He allotted Rs. 10 crore for
preliminary works and promised to put up the project for external assistance
amounting to $20 million (Rs. 90 crore). The Kerala government has also
decided to establish Vembanad Eco-development Authority for the restoration
and regeneration of the Vembanad Lake.

23. Rajul Jain, and E Jackson23, (2011) examine the concept of perceived
authenticity in the context of travel and tourism identifying its linkage with a
destination’s image and relationship with visitors. Focus group and interviews
were conducted with 11 public relations practitioners of a cultural and eco-
archaeological theme park in Mexico to understand their role and
responsibilities in developing and promoting the park’s image that fosters
perceptions of an authentic tourism experience. Additionally, the study
analyzed survey data collected from 545 tourists and in-depth interviews with
16 visitors to evaluate their attitudes and opinions about the park’s image and
authenticity. Variations in perceived authenticity with demographics, visit
characteristics, and information sources were also examined. Findings revealed
that a destination’s image is a significant predictor of its perceived
authenticity, which in turn positively influences visitors’ trust, satisfaction, and
64 Chapter 3

commitment with the destination. Findings imply the value of public relations,
which could lead to supporting behavioral intentions towards a destination.
Finally, this study did not use a random sampling procedure to collect survey
responses. While sample bias is a concern related to intercept surveys, it can be
addressed by collecting data at varying times to ensure that the variability
within the population of interest is represented. For this study, data was
collected over a five-day period in an attempt to collect a range of responses
from the visitors of the park on cultivating relationship with tourists on
different days.

24. Ping Tsan Ho24, (2011). Proposes a systematic approach to evaluate residents
attitude to tourism impact management strategies. Research results showed
that local residents were most concerned about negative changes in
environmental conditions, but welcomed positive outcomes of economic
improvement. This study further examined resident perceptions of management
strategies for concerned tourism impacts. The findings revealed that local
residents preferred indirect management strategies to avoid offending visitors
by direct regulations and rules. Finally, some critical factors, which might
influence the perceptions of tourism impacts and the acceptances of impact
management strategies, were examined to provide insight explanations for
tourism impact management In order to achieve destination sustainability,
evaluation of various impact management strategies is essential. Residents’
perceptions towards tourism impact management strategies provide an
important reference for policy making. The indirect management strategy was
more welcomed than direct management strategies. This study also
investigated the factors influencing residents’ perception of tourism impact
management strategies. The finding suggested that occupation in demographic
variables had an impact upon perceived management strategies.

25. Tyson Matthew and David Stockton25, (2011) explored Morro Bay residents’
attitudes toward tourism and knowledge about tourism in the three major
tourism impact categories. Morro Bay residents had slightly positive attitudes
toward tourism in their community. The mean attitude score was 3.27 on a 5-
point Likert type scale. The subjects had a relatively low level of tourism
Review of Literature 65

knowledge. The mean total indirect tourism knowledge score was 2.98 on a 5-
point Likert-type scale. Residents’ total direct tourism knowledge score was
0.33 on a scale of zero to one. The two most significant variables were
economic tourism knowledge and environmental tourism knowledge. Future
research should test the effectiveness of different methods to increase
residents’ tourism knowledge. In short, it is reasonable to assume direct
tourism knowledge can be used to influence residents’ attitude toward tourism.
It is recommended that a social marketing campaign be conducted in Morro
Bay to increase the level of tourism knowledge and increase support of
tourism.

26. Ritanjali Dash26 (2011) tried to find out the contribution that tourism makes for
the development of a backward region like Orissa, through its linkage with
other sectors. To study the contribution of tourism to the state; direct, indirect
and induced effect of tourism income has been estimated in this study. To
collect information relevant for the study, domestic and foreign tourists,
hoteliers, service providers, retailers, wholesalers and others directly and
indirectly associated with tourism activity were interviewed time and again
following a structured questionnaire. From this exercise, it was found out that
tourism not only benefits those who are directly associated with it but also
those who are indirectly associated with it by contributing to their income. It
was also observed that Induced effect of tourism on income is also
significantly high. But this contribution could have been much higher had
there been no leakages. This happens as the state depends on other states for
meeting most of its tourist requirements.

27. Berit Branth and Marit S Haugen27 (2011) dealt with how diversification and
transformation of farming into tourism may influence the social identity of
farmers. Based on a study of 19 farmers run by couples engaged in
agritourism, it shows how the development of tourism on the farms can be
understood in a perspective of repear santization; and how the couples draw on
their farm resources, culture and place to sustain the farm. As hosts offering
local food, stories and various activities, they mediate a strong farm identity.
The study also explores how farm identities change through three processes by
66 Chapter 3

which the ‘new’ work of tourism destabilizes identities. One is a shift in the
meaning of farmer identity. Another is the gradual change towards a new
master identity, and thirdly there is a multiplicity of identities that shift as they
relate to various social memberships and settings.

28. Susanne Kytzia, ArianeWalz and MattiaWegmann28 (2011) found that many
successful tourist destinations face the problem of approaching the limit of
their growth potential. Solutions to this problem commonly refer to the idea of
“smart growth” based on increasing efficiency in the use of nature for
economic production (eco-efficiency). In this paper, they showed how eco-
efficiency can be used to evaluate tourism strategies on local scale based on an
augmented regional input–output model that delivers information on economic
performance, land use (as indicator for environmental pressure), and
employment.

29. Jie Yang, Xuehui Zeng, And Yingkang Gu29 (2010) examine residents’
perceptions of the impact of tourism and identify different groups of residents.
A survey using a 42-item impact scale was conducted in a tourist destination.
The results showed that there were five factors of positive impacts and three of
negative impacts. The majority of respondents perceived the impacts of
tourism positively, particularly those who were employed in the industries
closely related to city image enhancement and consolidation. Based on their
different perceptions, residents were classified into three groups: Favorers,
Realists, and Haters. This study contributes to the existing body of knowledge
in an attempt to understand local residents’ perceptions of a mega-event in
different economic and cultural settings. The main purpose of this study is to
investigate Shanghai residents’ perceptions of the impact of tourism and to
identify different groups of residents based on their different perceptions. The
results of the factor analysis revealed that there were five dimensions of
positive impacts among these Shanghai residents, including “city image
enhancement and consolidation,” “tourism infrastructure development,”
“economic benefits,” “culture exchange,” and “environmental and culture
preservation,” and three dimensions of negative impacts, such as “economic
costs,” “social and environmental problems,” and “culture conflicts.” These
Review of Literature 67

findings are thematically similar to those reported in the previous research.

The three negative impact factors, residents reported that they experienced a
high level of the “economic costs,” while “social and environmental problems”
and “culture conflicts” were not perceived to be as large problems.

30. Dimitrios Stylidis, Dr. Edith Szivas, Dr. Avital Biran30, (2010) investigate how
residents of a tourist destination perceive the economic impacts of tourism on
their community and examines whether residents' socio-demographic
characteristics influence these perceptions. The findings of the study indicate
that respondents attribute to tourism both positive and negative economic
effects. A number of statistical tests performed revealed differences in
residents' perceptions due to socio-demographic factors. Among them, there is
evidence that a potential economic benefit and the level of attachment to the
place influence residents' evaluation of tourism. On the other hand, the
outcomes of this study confirmed the role of residents' economic gain from
tourism as a significant factor determining their perception of tourism. In
accordance with past research, citizens of Kavala who gain financially from
tourism were more positive in their evaluation of all six economic impacts than
those who do not gain from tourism. A second major finding of this study is
the role that residents' attachment to Kavala plays in their evaluation of
tourism impacts. Along with the responses given, those who felt emotionally
attached to the city rated higher the economic impacts of tourism than those
who felt less attached. This study offers a practical implication by providing to
those responsible for tourism, information regarding the factors that influence
residents' perceptions of tourism in Kavala.

31. Kathleen L. Andereck1 and Gyan P. Nyaupane131, (2010) conduct research on

the precept that tourism influences people’s quality of life (QOL). Few studies,
however, have directly investigated residents’ perception of the impact tourism
has on their QOL, and relationships between QOL perceptions and support for
tourism in the community. This study is an attempt to go beyond attitude
research and explicitly consider tourism’s influence on QOL. A mail survey
was conducted with a random sample of residents throughout Arizona. The
questionnaire included three sets of scales combined into an index to measure
68 Chapter 3

perceived QOL impacts of tourism. Eight QOL domains were developed. In

addition, further analysis found that perceived personal benefit derived from
tourism mediated the effect of the economic aspects of QOL, contact with
tourists, and employment in tourism on the perceptions of the role of tourism
in the local economy. This study has extended traditional resident attitudes
research which has implicitly connected attitude perceptions to QOL effects’
by developing QOL indicators rather than only considering attitudes. Although
the indicators require further development, testing, and refinement, this is a
first step toward more precise measurement and understanding of the way
tourism is perceived as influencing QOL in a community by its residents.

32. Amy Diedrich and Esther Garcı´a-Buades32,(2009) explore the role of

resident’s perceptions of impacts as indicators of tourism destination decline
using data collected from five coastal communities in Belize, each
experiencing a different level of tourism development. The concept of a tourist
area cycle of evolution and implications for management of resources is
proposed, drawing on additional well-established theories from the tourism
and social science literature. Next, the proposed relationship is tested using
resident perception data collected in the Belizean communities. The data are
used to predict the position of the study communities which, based on the
proposed model, range from the late exploration to late development stage.
This study supports the use of local perceptions as indicators of destination
decline. It also highlights the importance of incorporating local reactions to
tourism as an element in monitoring programs for tourism management. The
findings highlight social carrying capacity, quality of life changes and local
satisfactions as indicators for incorporation into an early warning system for
identifying declining tourism destinations. In addition, the study also suggests
the use of indicators for determining the stage of development and hence
predicting the movement into decline. Interestingly, the study finds local
opposition to tourism to be a leading indicator of decline because they were
found to manifest in the development stage yet, negative local attitudes
towards tourism would be likely to appear in the consolidation stage.
Review of Literature 69

33. Gopakumar & Kaoru Takara33, (2009) find in Vembanad wetlands a number of
artificial interventions, such as large-scale reclamation of water bodies to form
fields for rice cultivation, and unscientific construction activities have led to
the degradation of the environmental status of the Vembanad Wetlands of
Kerala State in India. Increased flood proneness is one of the many major
environmental issues faced in the region during the recent decades. A dynamic
view of spatial changes in the wetland and knowledge on its relation to the
various environmental issues are essential for scientifically planning the land
and water resources management of the wetlands. In this study, through the
development of geographic data sets and their analysis in GIS, benchmarks are
established for the extent of Vembanad Lake and its changes due to
reclamation during the 20th century, the bathymetry of the lake and its area–
elevation– capacity relationship, the wetland topography and its water holding
capacity at different elevations.

34. According to Leena Mary Sebastian and Prema Rajagopalan34 (2009) the lack
of benefits from tourism, backwater pollution by houseboats and hotels and the
socio-cultural and livelihood challenges triggered by tourism have generated
anti-tourism attitude in Kumarakom. The construction of accommodation
establishments on the banks of the Vembanad Lake rendered backwater
inaccessible to the Fisherman and Shell collectors. The conversion of paddy
fields for tourism purposes further undermined the villagers’ livelihoods. The
upward mobility of a few members through land scale widened the gap
between the wealthy and the poor. The incomplete agricultural intervention
such as the bund, which has adversely affected their occupation, might have
influenced the residents’ perceptions.

35. Mark S Rosentraub and MijinJoo35 (2009) analyse the return for the tourism
industry and for economic development from different amenity packages.
Investment in amusements and sports attractions were associated with higher
levels of employment in the tourism sector. Amusement and sports attraction
had a statistically significant relationship with increasing household income
(regional economic development) and were also related to the number of
business in an area. If a region is considering the use of public funds to
70 Chapter 3

develop amenities associated with economic development the most productive

return may well lie with investment in sports and amusement facilities.

36. Milan Ambro36, (2008) focuses on the attitudes of local residents toward
tourism development in some tourist areas in Slovenia. Based on the place
attachment model, this study seeks to propose an integral approach to
management of the local residents’ attitudes towards tourism development.
The findings confirm the proposed hypothesis that attitudes of local residents
toward a tourism development are influenced by place attachment, the
perception of tourism impacts and by the perceived and desired type of
tourism. One important contribution of this study to the understanding of the
obstacles to tourism development is the finding that length of residency
strongly influences the development process. Local residents are deeply
concerned about the quality of their life and for the quality of their
environment. Managers and planners should be aware that tourism
development activities could evoke strong emotional responses of some groups
of local residents. To avoid conflicts, local residents should be actively
involved in the decision making process of tourism development. The major
findings of this study have some significant tourism development implications.
The study shows what local residents know about and believe about tourism,
including perceptions and impacts. The study also embraces future
development tourism in the places in this study and reveals some facts for the
control and development and other relations to the other aspects of social and
community life. Flexible attitudes toward tourism development along with the
belief that tourism will bring prosperity to the area are a solid basis for the
tourism development.

37. Prasanth Narayanan & Lalitha Vijayan37, (2007) study the status of breeding
waterbirds in the Kumarakom Heronry in the KTDC Tourist Complex,
Kumarakom, Kerala, southern India, during the period June to August 2004.
Ten species of waterbirds belonging to the families Anhingidae,
Phalacrocoracidae, Ardeidae and Threskiornithidae were breeding in the study
area. The Little Cormorant Phalacrocorax niger was the most numerous
species during the period of this study, and the Little Egret Egretta garzetta the
Review of Literature 71

least numerous. The Black-crowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax was

present in reduced numbers compared with earlier reports. At one stage during
the study, the numbers of Oriental Darters Anhinga melanogaster comprised
about 8% of the South Asian population of this near threatened species. The
Black-headed Ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus was found nesting in this area
for the first time. Major factors having a detrimental effect on the ecosystem
were a lack of regeneration of mangroves, uncontrolled growth of exotic
weeds and the release of sewage water into the area. Increases in the
populations of the two cormorant species and Oriental Darter and the decrease
in the Black-crowned Night Heron population could be related to the
construction of Thanneermukkom Saltwater Barrier across Vembanad Lake
and resulting changes in the ecology of the southern portion of the lake.
Because of its importance for breeding waterbirds and other migratory birds,
the Kumarakom area has the potential for the establishment of a Waterbird
Sanctuary.

38. Kamal Banskota38 Dr (2007) discovers tourism cannot provide employment

and income to all the people in a destination and hence it cannot be a panacea
for economic development. The result clearly indicates local areas adjacent to
tourism destinations appear to have a comparative advantage in vegetable
production and should gradually move to specialize in this activity. There is
also scope to develop the livestock industry to supply larger quantities of fresh
meat and eggs. Although not examined by the present study, it can be said that
tourism can also provide income and employment opportunities in other
sectors e.g., public transport, wildlife safari, elephant rides, tour guides,
restaurants, furniture, and various types of shops etc. In many places local
people are able to perform cultural shows, and besides earning incomes some
are able to promote their local culture as well. Tourism can help the poor
improve their livelihoods, but this will require concerted efforts – strategies
that help establish strong linkages with the tourism sector. Overall, the study
results clearly indicate that tourism contributes to the local economy providing
direct employment and indirectly by purchasing food and nonfood items from
local producers.
72 Chapter 3

39. Naser Ali Azimi39, (2007) provides the first social impact research on such an
historic city in Iran by measuring the host community's attitudes towards
tourism development. The primary goal here is to establish a theoretical and
empirical study for the city of Esfahan, enabling future comparative analyses
of host attitudes. The aim of this study was to examine the attitudes of local
residents towards economically-inspired tourism development in the historic
city of Esfahan. As stated above, this is the first study to consider specifically
the social impacts of tourism development in Iran in an historic city with such
a large population size. This study has been shown to support our prediction
that those residents who gain economic benefits are more supportive of this
industry than others and they support further development. Those with lower
incomes will more easily accept to see their city becoming a more major
destination for the flow of tourism and this finding is in the line with social
exchange theory. It has also been seen that, if wages in the tourism industry
begin to fall relative to wages in the rest of the city’s economic activities, then
we will see even those currently benefiting from this industry will develop a
resentment towards tourism.

40. Riera Javier Capo Parrilla, Antoni Font and Jaume Rosello Nadal40 (2007)
explored whether specializing in tourism guarantees long-term growth using an
accounting model in an attempt to measure the contribution of different
production factors and of productivity to economic development. The
Balearics and the Canary Islands of Spain are used as cases providing evidence
that the continuous orientation of the structures towards tourism activities has
been the driving force in the transformation of the economies and societies in
both regions, as this meant very significant growth in the level of income.
However, the decreasing contribution over time of the output can result in
lower long-term growth in production.

41. Azucena Quan-Novelo, Jair Santoya and Rasiel Vellos41, (2007) analyse the
direct economic impact of cruise tourism in Belize by measuring direct
payments from cruise ships and cruise visitors to domestic providers of goods
and services, direct employment and government tax earnings. This assessment
also looks at the distribution of the first round of spending among the various
Review of Literature 73

domestic suppliers selling directly to cruise ships and tourists. The study found
evidence of market concentration where the majority of revenues accrued to
the minority of tour operators and shop owners. The paper estimated direct
employment in the cruise industry during the peak season and showed that the
tax base was very modest. This paper is a first step towards developing
multipliers for the local cruise industry so the indirect and induced effects of
cruise tourism can be estimated The direct economic impact of the cruise
industry for 2006 indicated that foreign exchange earnings were an estimated
$92.1 million (5.9% of the total exports of goods and services), approximately
1,750 jobs (12.5% of tourism employment) during its peak season were
supported and central government’s taxes, excluding import taxes, amounted
to $6.6 million (1.3% of government’s gross tax revenue) or 7.2% of total
inflows. Tour spending and non-tour visitor spending were heavily skewed in
favor of the minority, indicating a need for policies that would re-direct a
greater share of direct spending to small tour operators and the small
businesses that operate outside the gates of the tourism village and other areas
that cruise tourists visit. While it is recognized that businesses with greater
resources are best positioned to capture a larger share of the market,
government should provide the facilities and infrastructural support to afford
the small entrepreneurs the best opportunity possible to do business to the full
extent of their capacity.

42. Richard Shapley and Adrian Vass42 (2006) focused farm-based tourism as a
long tradition, particularly within Europe, farm diversification into tourism
has, in recent years, become more widely seen as an effective means of
addressing the socio-economic problems of rural areas in general and the
agricultural sector in particular. Accordingly, not only has there been
significant growth in the supply of farm-based tourism in many countries (and
evidence of rural development policies supporting such growth), but also
increasing academic attention has been paid to the phenomenon. However,
although a number of studies consider specific issues related to farm
diversification into tourism, such as marketing or financial challenges, little or
no research has been undertaken into the attitudes of farming families that
74 Chapter 3

have diversified. The purpose of this paper is to address this omission in the
tourism literature. Based on a survey of farms in north-eastern England, it
explores farmers’ attitudes to a variety of issues related to diversification into
tourism, including the socio-cultural context within which it occurs. In doing
so, it both confirms and challenges previously held assumptions regarding the
problems of diversification. In particular, however, it identifies a widespread
desire amongst farmers to maintain a distinction between the farm/farming
businesses, suggesting that the development of farm tourism enterprises is an
employment, as opposed to diversification, issue. It concludes, therefore, that
the role of public sector agencies in the support of farm tourism should be
reassessed.

43. Abby Liu and Geoffrey Wall43 (2006) argued that tourism planning should be
about planning for residents as well as for visitors. If tourism is to be a positive
force in the lives of local residents, it is contingent upon local response,
involvement and support. Many tourism plans for developing area destinations
give inadequate attention to human resources development. Furthermore, many
tourism plans espose forms of tourism that do not fit well with existing human
resources capabilities so that local people find it difficult to participate in
tourism and, in consequence, benefit less than might otherwise be the case.
Human resources development often focuses on the employment needs of
large international companies, especially in hospitality, to the neglect of the
employment requirements and opportunities in tourism more broadly
conceived. In an attempt to expand perspectives on human resources
development in tourism planning, a policy–industry–locality framework is
proposed together with associated research questions and data requirements.

44. Janet Chang, Geoffrey Wall, Shi-Ting (Tim) Chu44, (2006) examine
motivations of tourists visiting aboriginal cultural villages through
administration and analysis of a survey at two sites in Taiwan. . Tourists were
successfully classified on the bases of differences in preferred activity and
social contact dimensions of behavior. No differences were found between
package and self-guided tourists, perhaps because activities are constrained by
the site attributes and because almost all visiting these aboriginal sites are
Review of Literature 75

novelty-seekers. This research replicated Lee and Crompton’s (1992) novelty-

seeking scale in segmenting the market to aboriginal sites in Taiwan. Lee and
Crompton’s scale was found to have high validity after the cross-cultural
replication, despite the fact that their time frame of long-range study differed
from the short-range emphasis of this study and that of Jeong and Park (1997).
Results of discriminant analysis, with a correct rate of prediction of 99.1%, are
further validation of the scale. Of course, there is a danger that scales
developed in one culture may be inappropriate for use in another culture:
hence the need to test them in different situations. Such approaches, with
frequent concerns regarding identity and power, are providing detailed insights
into complex situations but often at the expense of generalization.
Furthermore, such studies are difficult to undertake in the absence of ‘‘texts’’
to deconstruct or discourses to analyze, and they are difficult to replicate.
However, the contacts between aboriginal peoples and tourists are replete with
stereotypes and power imbalances.

45. Joe Ying Chin Yang45, (2006) conducts a study on Nature-based tourism
(NBT) which is an emerging industry in Taiwan. In Taiwan’s export-import
oriented economy, I-Lan County has served as a leader – promoting NBT since
the 1980s. Based on I-Lan’s experience in NBT, this dissertation reports on
research that examines the tourism business owners’ perceptions of the social,
economic, and environmental impacts nature-based tourism has had on I-Lan
County. The framework of this study uses social exchange theory to examine
perceptions of costs/benefits. Perceptions of NBT impacts were assessed
through examination of participants’ socio-demographic characteristics and
type and level of involvement in tourism planning. Results indicate that 83%
of respondents were raised in I-Lan and 41% operated their business between 2
to 6 years. The findings show that social/cultural benefits are the most apparent
in I-Lan and these perceptions were likely shaped by I-Lan’s strong
commitment to NBT over the last several decades. The reviving of cultural
identity and cultural recognition in the region symbolizes the struggle of local
culture versus the influence of Chinese culture, which has been the mainstream
culture in Taiwan since 1950s. Another major finding in this study is that
76 Chapter 3

participants’ perception of the government is more important in determining

perceptions of benefits than actual interaction with the government. The
county can also alleviate its own financial burden by releasing some of tourism
activities to private sectors and use private sectors resources for sustainable
nature-based tourism development in I-Lan. The results of this study indicate
that with a better understanding of business owners’ perceived impacts, county
tourism planners can improve the collaborative management of nature-based
tourism in I-Lan. In addition, the findings of this study might provide an
implication for tourism development in other countries, where regional
communities seek for tourism as an alternative for their economic development
without falling into traditional manufacturing type of development.

46. Scarlett Cornelissen46 (2005) considered the structural dimensions of a

country's tourism sector, and in particular the spatial structure of tourism
production and consumption, relate closely to the nature and extent of the
impact that tourism can have. The researcher examines the spatial
characteristics of tourism in the Western Cape Province, one of South Africa's
foremost international tourist regions, and where its government seeks to use
tourism as an instrument of development and socio-economic transformation.
To understand how this could be effected it is necessary to understand the
spatial distributional effects of tourism, and the underlying reasons for it. To
this end the article examines the spatial structure of the provincial
accommodation sector as evidenced in patterns of accommodation supply and
tourist usage (demand); and trends in the nature, direction and distribution of
public and private-sector tourism investments. The central argument is that
tourism is geographically focused, with tourist activities concentrated in a few
locales and sub-regions. This follows the general demographic and economic
contours of the province. Yet trends in capital investments tend to reinforce the
spatial concentration of tourism. Attempts by the government to spread
tourism's benefits have not been too successful due to institutional and capacity
deficiencies. Greater emphasis should be placed on dev eloping domestic
tourism.
Review of Literature 77

47. A. J. Haley, Tim Snaith, Graham Miller47, (2004) identify and examine the
attitudes of residents in Bath, United Kingdom, towards tourism development.
This study believes that research conducted on hosts’ perceptions of the
impacts of tourism is predominantly descriptive and lacking in a consistent
approach to measurement. A sample was secured from the residents, factor
analysis and regression analyses were conducted to ascertain whether there
were any underlying dimensions regarding their attitudes to tourism
development, and if socioeconomic and demographic characteristics were
useful predictors of residents' attitudes. This research has also identified a
paradox between the needs to disseminate research findings in a manner that
promotes reliable and valid measurement techniques and the need for
practitioners to be able to learn the lessons of social impact studies. If true
evaluations of residents' attitudes towards tourism development, and the
conduct of future planning and management are sought, then the requisite/
constituent questions should be more specific and reflective of their
destinations' experiences. In response to this, the focus of the next social
impact research phase should feature integrating the strategic objectives and
actions of tourism officers with the attitudes of the local community toward
these officially-stated objectives and actions.

48. Rebecca Torres48 (2003) analyzed the linkage between tourism and agriculture
in Quintana Roo. He points out that agricultural development had been
integrated into the initial Master Integral plan and overall planned Tourism
Development Process. Enhancing tourism and agricultural linkages represent
an important potential mechanism for stimulating local production, retaining
tourism earning in the region and improving the distribution of tourism
benefits to rural people, converting Farmers and rural in habitants into
economic stakeholder and beneficiaries of tourism represents an important
opportunity to improve the quality of life for Quintana Roo’s poorest and most
marginalized population.

49. Paris Tsartas49 (2003) analysed two issues that have characterized tourism
development in Greek insular and coastal areas in the period 1970–2000. The
first issue concerns the socioeconomic and cultural changes that have taken
78 Chapter 3

place in these areas and led to rapid and usually unplanned tourism
development. The second issue consists of the policies for tourism and tourism
development at local, regional and national level. The analysis focuses on the
role of the family, social mobility issues, the social role of specific groups, and
consequences for the manners, customs and traditions of the local population.
It also examines the views and reactions of local communities regarding
tourism and tourists. There is consideration of the new productive structures in
these areas, including the downgrading of agriculture, the dependence of many
economic sectors on tourism, and the large increase in multi-activity and the
black economy. Another focus is on the characteristics of mass tourism, and on
the related problems and criticisms of current tourism policies. These issues
contributed to a model of tourism development that integrates the productive,
environmental and cultural characteristics of each region. Finally, the
procedures and problems encountered in sustainable development programs
aiming at protecting the environment are considered.

50. Kyungmi Kim50, (2002), investigates how tourism affects the quality of life
(QOL) of residents in tourism destinations that vary in the stage of
development. The proposed model in this study structurally depicts that
satisfaction with life in general derives from the satisfaction with particular life
domains. Overall life satisfaction is derived from material well-being, which
includes the consumer’s sense of well being as it is related to material
possessions, community well-being, emotional well-being, and health and
safety wellbeing domains. The model also posits that residents’ perception of
tourism impacts (economic, social, cultural, and environmental) affects their
satisfaction of particular life domains. Lastly, this study investigates that
tourism development stages moderate the relationship between residents’
perception of tourism impacts and their satisfaction with particular life
domains. Accordingly, the study proposed four major hypotheses: (1)
residents’ perception of tourism impacts affects their QOL in the community,
(2) residents’ satisfaction with particular life domains is affected by the
perception of particular tourism impact dimensions, (3) residents’ satisfaction
with particular life domains affects residents’ life satisfaction in general, and
Review of Literature 79

(4) the relationship between residents’ perception of tourism impacts and their
satisfaction with particulate life domains is moderated by tourism development
stages.

51. Laszlo Puczko and Tamara Ratz51 (2000) presented the characteristics of
tourism development with special emphasis on the physical environment, and
discusses how the residents' and the tourists' perceptions of the physical
impacts of tourism development affect the sustainability of tourism in the
region. The methodology used to gather information on tourism's physical
impacts included structured interviews with residents and tourists, unstructured
interviews with the representatives of the tourist industry, a Delphi survey and
a Tourism Impact Matrix. The research shows that due to the characteristics of
tourism development in the region, only a certain form of mass tourism can be
sustained, though in a better managed way. Both residents and tourists
perceived both positive and negative impacts of tourism development –
economic benefits being considered as the most significant impacts of tourism
by residents. Even though local people could also identify unfavourable
impacts of tourism, the support for the expansion of the tourism industry was
strong. Thus regional organisations have to deal with managing the impacts of
tourism and changing the local population's short-term approach at the same
time.

52. Matthew J Walpole and Harold J Goodwin52 (2000) consider ecotourism in

protected areas as a sustainable alternative to mass tourism and as a means of
providing benefits to local communities which bear the greatest opportunity
costs of protection. However, these ideals have rarely been tested. This study
used small-scale survey methods to examine the magnitude and distribution of
tourism employment and revenue generation in communities in an Indonesian
park. Results suggest that distributional inequalities favor external operators
and urban gateway residents rather than rural villagers. Just as the local
economy remains peripheral to regional and national centers, so core-periphery
relations also exist within the local context. Development around the park has
yet to re-orient itself to the goals of ecotourism.
80 Chapter 3

53. Terry Davies and Sarah Cahill53, (2000) use a framework developed from the
industrial ecology literature to assess the impacts of the tourism industry on the
environment. Three categories of impact are discussed: direct impacts,
including impacts from the travel to a destination, the tourist activities in and
of themselves at that destination, such as hiking or boating, and from the
creation, operation, and maintenance of facilities that cater to the tourist;
“upstream” impacts, resulting from travel service providers’ ability to
influence suppliers; and “downstream” impacts, where service providers can
influence the behavior or consumption patterns of customers. This identified
impacts from tourist-related transportation, including aircraft, automobiles, and
recreational land and marine vehicles; tourist-related development, tourist
activities, and direct impacts of the lodging and cruise industries. Tourist-
related development can also have significant cumulative impacts on water
quality and the aesthetics of host communities. Educational efforts to promote
environmentally responsible tourism seem more promising than regulation for
several reasons. The dispersed nature of the tourism industry makes integrated
and effective regulation difficult.

54. Carolin Ashley, CahrlotteBoyel and Herold Goodwin54 (2000) observe that
Tourism development can change poor people’s access to assets and to related
livelihood options. On the positive side, it can generate funds for investment in
health, education and other assets, provide infrastructure, simulate
development of social capital, strengthen sustainable management of natural
resources and create a demand for improved assets (especially education). On
the negative side, tourism can reduce local access to natural resources, draw
heavily upon local infrastructure and disrupt social networks.

55. Irmgard Bauer55 (1999) observed that tourism is the fastest growing industry
internationally. Popular areas of study are the economic, environmental and
socio cultural impacts of tourism in developing countries. Very few studies
have been conducted on the impact of tourism on the hosts’ health status.
Nowadays, the emergence of new infectious diseases or the re-emergence of
diseases are causing concern and travel is a major contributor to their spread.
The objectives of this study were: to review literature related to the topic as a
Review of Literature 81

background for future research; to explore if findings from a field trip to Easter
Island/Chile and Peru support the hypotheses derived from the analysis of
publications; to recommend a range of research topics based on the outcome of
this study; and to propose elements of a framework for the assessment of
health impacts of tourism. The findings suggest that there are considerable
gaps in the current knowledge on tourism’s health impacts. Potential indirect
and direct health impacts have been identified. Workplace health and safety
concerns in relation to local tourism employees have been raised. A wide range
of research topics has been suggested based on these findings. Finally,
elements of a possible framework for understanding tourism’s health impacts
and their interrelationships have been identified.

56. Paul Brunt, Paul Courtney56, (1999), investigates community perceptions of

the socio cultural impacts of tourism and examines the extent to which they
coincide with their classifications made by academic writers. A literature
review revealed a range of socio cultural impacts related to tourism
development, the tourist host interaction, and resulting. A resident survey was
undertaken which showed that perceived impacts reported by informants
coincided with the majority of those identified in the literature. This suggested
that the general analyses of the socio cultural impacts of tourism could be
applied to the perceptions of residents of a small British coastal tourist resort.
The literature review identified three main themes: tourism development,
tourist host interaction, and culture. Four main conclusions can be drawn from
the results of the study. First, tourism has altered the structure of the town's
community, with consequential effects on the attitudes of the residents. The
second conclusion relates to the change in emphasis from hotel based
(serviced) accommodation to self catering having a significant bearing on the
host perception of tourism impacts. Third conclusion, that the cultural impacts
of tourism in Dawlish are not perceived as being of any great importance. This
may well be a reflection of the fact that South Devon culture is not perceived
as being particularly strong anyway, but can also be attributed to the fact that
tourism development is still only perceived as being moderate, and in the
interests in of local arts and crafts. Finally, it can be seen that the perceived
82 Chapter 3

socio cultural impacts of tourism identified by the informants who took part in
the study coincided with many of the key impacts which were identified at the
outset.

57. Deying Zhou, John F Yanagida, Ujjayant Chakravorty and PingSun Leung57
(1997) have traditionally used input-output (IO) analysis to examine the
impacts of tourism on the economy of a region. This study introduces a
relatively new and alternative technique, computable general equilibrium
(CGE). The two approaches are compared and then used to analyze, as an
illustration, the impacts on Hawaii's economy from a reduction in visitor
expenditure. The study concludes that the results of the IO model are similar in
magnitude to those of the CGE model but generally higher and that sectors
closely associated with tourism exhibit the largest effects. The ability to
account for inter-sectoral resource flows is a major advantage of CGE models
and explains differences in IO and CGE results.

58. According to Praveen Sethi58 (1996) economic benefit of tourism over an

entire region can be maximized by providing the best interlinkages of tourism
to other sectors of regional economy. In such a process the various categories
and the scale of tourist production and consumption pattern are adjusted to and
integrated within, the regional production system. Depending on a region’s
specific geographic and socio-economic characteristics, as well as its resource
endowment, the entire resource potential should be analyzed and explored
before making choices and designing appropriate sectoral interlink ages or
integrates activity complexes for sustainable development.

59. Jie Zhang and Charlotte R. Rassing60 (1994) explain that experience has shown
that tourism has been able to safeguard and create jobs in marginal regions,
which have little prospect of attracting alternative industries. Tourism plays a
more important role on Bornholm compared with other regions in Denmark
and Jie Zhang and Charlotte Rassing show how this role can be measured
either from the share of the tourism related sector in gross regional production,
or from tourist expenditure. The technique used is one of tourism multiplier
analysis, which recognises the economic linkages between one industry and
Review of Literature 83

another, where the expansion of sales by one industry requires inputs to be

purchased from other sectors of the economy in order to support that same
expansion. The value of the multiplier is standardised so as to measure the
impact of an additional unit of expenditure introduced into the economy. The
higher the value of the multiplier, the greater is the intensity of the economic
linkages, and therefore dependency, between one industry and another. This
implies that regions with high multiplier values are more able to meet the
demands of tourists within their own production capabilities, than those with
low multiplier values. This report shows that both income and employment
multipliers are relatively high on Bornholm, which is a reflection of the
structure of the tourism industry on the island: it is dominated by small, often
family-run businesses that are self-reliant and use local suppliers as much as
possible.

3.2 CONCLUSION

To conclude, it can be stated that different perceptions of the impact of

tourism on the local residents of the tourist destinations can be assessed with a view
to arrive at a conceptual and theoretical framework for facilitating the study after
locating the research gap. It is also possible to design the measurement scale from
the literature survey. Although only a limited number of reviews are presented here,
a vast number of references are made to facilitate and complete the study
84 Chapter 3

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