DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 405 197 SE 059 766

AUTHOR Squire, Clayton R.

TITLE An Integrated Biology and Chemistry Curriculum.
PUB DATE 95
NOTE 108p.; Submitted for TA5587 Klingenstein Seminar,
Klingenstein Project, Teachers College, Columbia
University.
PUB TYPE Guides Classroom Use Teaching Guides (For
Teacher) (052)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage.

DESCRIPTORS *Biology; *Chemistry; Curriculum Development;
*Educational Strategies; Grade 9; Grade 10; High
Schools; Inquiry; *Integrated Curriculum;
Interdisciplinary Approach; Science Curriculum;
Teaching Methods

ABSTRACT
This document describes a two-year integrated biology
and chemistry curriculum for ninth and tenth grade students. The
first chapter outlines the rationale for integrating biology and
chemistry and presents the topic sequence for the integrated
curriculum. Chapter 2 discusses the developmental, cognitive, and
philosophical issues that form the theoretical framework for this
integrated curriculum. Chapter 3 includes lesson plans from the first
unit of the integrated curriculum which demonstrate how the
theoretical issues discussed in Chapter 2 can be applied in the
classroom. Chapter 4 details the curricular implementation process
over the past 2 years and indicates potential future directions.
Contains 79 references. (JRH)

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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.
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Th

An Integrated Biology and Chemistry Curriculum

Submitted for

TA5587 Klingenstein Seminar

Klingenstein Project

Professor Pearl Rock Kane

By

Clayton R. Squire

Spring 1995

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND Office of Educational Research and Improvement
DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL DUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
BY CENTER (ERIC)
document has been reproduced as
received from the person or organization
. originating it.
Minor changes have been made to
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TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES document do not necessarily represent
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 Table of Contents

Page

Acknowledgements 1

Chapter 1 - Introduction 2
Rationale
The Curriculum

Chapter 2 - The Theoretical Framework 10

Developmental/Cognitive Issues
Constructivism
Learning Cycle
Collaborative Learning
Gender Issues
Assessment/Evaluation

Chapter 3 - The First Unit 28

Goals of the Unit
Objectives of the Unit
The Lessons
Comparison of Objectives and Lessons

Chapter 4 - Implementation 58
Background on University High School
Curricular Change
General Comments on Implementation
Future Directions

Bibliography 75

Appendix 82
Application for Curriculum Approval
(University of California)

3
 Acknowledgements

This project is in partial fulfillment of the Esther A. and Joseph Klingenstein Fellows
Program, Teachers College Columbia University, New York, NY.

Thanks to the Board, Administration, Faculty, and Students of San Francisco

University High School for their support and encouragement during my year in New York. In
particular, I am indebted to Bill Bullard and Bodie Brizendine for their friendship and advice.
My science colleagues--Ray Boyington, Ann Pogrel, and Rob Spivack--will recognize their
words and wisdom laced throughout this document.

Thanks to Professor Pearl Kane and the other Klingenstein Fe llows--John Beall, Rich
Beaton, Jim Handrich, Alan James, Steve Kramer, John Leistler, Lynn Livingston, Mike
O'Toole, Teddy Reynolds, and Steve Thomas--for their inspiration and exhibition of
"wonderment" and "life-long learning." I will treasure my time with these educators.
 Chapter 1- Introduction

Most high school science curricula resemble the model below:

9th Grade Earth Science

10th Grade Biology
11th Grade Chemistry
12th Grade Physics

Described as the "layer cake" approach, it splits the study of science into separate disciplines,

allowing efficient learning as students progressively master closely related concepts (De Boer

1991, p.222; Jacobs 1989, p.7). This approach matches the National Education Association's

Committee of Ten recommendations for high school science education:

9th Grade Physical Geography

10th Grade Biology
1 1 th Grade Physics
12th Grade Chemistry

Minor changes have occurred--Physical Geography was reconfigured as Earth Science, and

chemistry and physics were transposed--but the layer cake approach has remained identical.

The surprising point here is that the Committee of Ten formulated their recommendations in

1893 (Krug 1964, p. 59).

The Committee of Ten--six college presidents, the U.S. Commissioner of Education,

and three high school principals--convened with the charge to address the transition between

high school and college and, specifically, to simplify the crowded high school curriculum.

Throughout the 1800's, America shifted from an agrarian to an industrial society and

increasing numbers of students attended high school. To accommodate new interests and
2
abilities, schools offered a wider variety of courses than the classic curriculum of Greek,

Latin, and mathematics. In their study of 40 secondary schools, the Committee of Ten found

that schools offered over 40 different science courses of variable length. Some courses were

taught for such a short time that they were thought to be of little value (Andersen 1994, p.49).

Among its final recommendations, the Committee of Ten suggested that high schools focus on

only the four science courses listed above.

Although enrollment had increased, high school remained an education for the elite. In

1900, less than 10% of the available population (ages fourteen to seventeen) attended high

school (Powell et al. 1985, p.339). This elitism is clear in the language used by the Yale

Report of 1828 that commented on the intrusion of so-called modern subjects.

The study of classics is useful, not only as it lays the foundation of a correct taste, and
furnishes the student with those elementary ideas which are found in the literature of modern
times, and which he no where so well acquires as in their original sources;but also as the study
itself forms the efficient discipline of the mental faculties... Every faculty of the mind is
employed; not only the memory, judgement, and reasoning powers, but the taste and fancy are
occupied and improved...
The proper question is,what course of discipline affords the best mental culture, leads
to the most thorough knowledge of our own literature, and lays the best foundation for
professional study. The ancient languages have here a decided advantage (Yale Report of 1828,
in De Boer 1991, p.4-5).

As we know, science did ultimately find a place in the curriculum. The Committee of

Ten secured its place by promoting science education since it, too, could train the mind (Krug

1964, p.87). The effect of the Committee of Ten recommendations was to formalize the order

and placement of the scientific disciplines into separate, sequential boxes.

While there have been calls for educational reform in every decade of the twentieth century

(Lieberman 1994), they have resulted in incremental changes within the discipline boxes, but

3
little fundamental restructuring of the boxes themselves. As science and technology have

undergone exponential growth over the past century, educators changed the content--mostly the

addition of content--but left the broad structure of science education intact.

In this document, I will describe a project of fundamental change taking place at

University High School (UHS) in San Francisco, CA where I am the science department chair.

Over the past two years, four science teachers (Ray Boyington, Ann Pogrel, Rob Spivack, and

I) have been developing a two-year integrated biology and chemistry curriculum for ninth and

tenth grade students. We will implement the first year of this program in the fall of 1995. In

the remainder of this chapter, I will outline my rationale for integrating biology and chemistry,

and present the topic sequence for our integrated curriculum on page 9. In Chapter 2, I will

discuss the developmental, cognitive, and philosophical issues that comprise the theoretical

framework for this integrated curriculum. In Chapter 3, I have written eleven lesson plans,

the first unit of the integrated curriculum, which demonstrate how these theoretical issues can

be applied in the classroom. As we endeavored to change the curriculum, we realized that we

should also consider changes in our methods of instruction, i.e., making each class more

student-centered and inquiry-based and less teacher-centered and fact-transmission. Chapter 4

details the curricular implementation process over the past two years and indicates potential

future directions.

4
 Rationale

To the young mind everything is individual, stands by itself. By and by, it fords how to
join two things and see in them one nature; then three, then three thousand; and so ... it goes on
tying things together, diminishing anomalies, discovering roots running underground whereby
contrary and remote things cohere and flower out of one stem... The astronomer discovers that
geometry, a pure abstraction of the human mind, is the measure of planetary motion. The
chemist finds proportions and intelligible method throughout matter; and science is nothing but
the finding of analogy, identity, in the most remote parts.
Ralph Waldo Emerson, The American Scholar
Harvard Commencement 1837

We require students at UHS to take two years of laboratory science: one year of natural

science (biology) and one year of physical science (chemistry or physics). This requirement

matches the University of California admissions policy where approximately 30%-40% of our

graduates enroll each year (see Appendix - Application for Curriculum Approval). I will

explore three factors in my rationale for integrating biology and chemistry; 1) the disciplines

of biology and chemistry increasingly overlap, 2) the rapid of growth of knowledge within the

fields of biology and chemistry, and 3) the increasing diversity of the students.

1) Biology and chemistry increasingly overlap. The argument for studying the

disciplines separately now applies to integrating biology and chemistry; the two fields

increasingly use similar and/or related concepts. For example, understanding the importance

of the molecule, DNA, requires the study of topics traditionally taught in biology such as

genetics, evolution, cells, and organelles, as well as the study of chemical topics such as

molecular structure, bonding, and atomic theory. An integrated biology and chemistry course

would gain synergistic benefit from both disciplines. On the one hand, chemistry provides the

conceptual underpinnings for many biological phenomena, such as the energy pyramid or

5
molecular genetics. Biology teachers often must resort to unsatisfactory, superficial

"handwaving" explanations, and the near-apology "you'll learn more about this next year ..."

Without proper chemical foundation, we compel biology students to memorize material. On

the other hand, biology provides meaningful context for chemical concepts such as kinetics and

the atomic theory. The level of abstraction in chemistry can make it one of the most difficult

(and frankly, boring) courses for high school students. This integrated course offers a logical

presentation of the material that takes advantage of this synergistic relationship. Many

complex issues in science--such as ecological problems or biotechnological advances--are

appearing on ballot initiatives and in front page newspaper stories. If students are to

understand, and soon make informed decisions on these issues, they must possess an integrated

understanding of the sciences. In the words of Emerson cited at the beginning of this section,

an integrated curriculum will help students find those "roots running underground whereby

contrary and remote things cohere and flower out of one stem."

2) The growth of knowledge The issue of biotechnology points out the rapid pace of

scientific advance; biotechnology did not exist 25 years ago. There exist over 70,000

scientific journals publishing new research findings weekly, monthly, or quarterly. 29,000 of

these journals are new since 1970 (Hurd 1995, p.6). We cannot continue to simply add new

discoveries on top of an already crowded curriculum. These discoveries bring with them new

technical terms--most are "words students have never seen before today's assignment, have

never heard pronounced, and will likely never use in a conversation the rest of their lives.

Science textbooks, of necessity, have had to increase in size to accommodate these new terms

6
and today are considered as among our most beautifully illustrated dictionaries" (Hurd 1995,

p.4). We can no longer try to teach everything (if we ever could). Students must understand

underlying concepts if they are to make sense out of the voluminous information. An

integrated course with its emphasis on the connectedness of knowledge, rather than the amount

of knowledge, can provide students with this understanding.

3) The increasing diversity of students. Although my arguments in this paragraph could

equally apply to the changing demographics and increasing multiculturality of American

society as well as to gender issues in science (which I will address in Chapter 2), I will focus

instead on the historical perspective of science education raised in the introduction. After

science found a place in the curriculum at the end of the last century, science instruction

adopted many of the same styles and techniques used in the instruction of the classics; the

classroom was teacher-centered, the teacher style was authoritarian, and students relied on rote

memorization. The best science students may have survived such a regime, but most students

were left out.

Now, what I want is, Facts. Teach these boys and girls nothing but Facts. Facts alone
are wanted in life. Plant nothing else, and root out everything else. You can only form the
minds of reasoning animals upon Facts: nothing else will ever be of any service to them. This is
the principle on which I bring up my own children, and this is the principle on which I bring up
these children. Stick to the Facts, sir!
Charles Dickins, Hard Times (in NSTA 1993, p.1)

Unfortunately, the approach of Dickens' schoolmaster is familiar to far too many science

students today. As another century comes to a close and America (and the world) changes

from an industrial to an information era, all students will need to be scientifically literate. We

can no longer teach the sciences to an elite. To achieve the goal of Science for All Americans

7
(title of 1989 report by the American Association for the Advancement of Science), we need to

tailor the approach of science education to a more diverse student body. An integrated

curriculum better meets developmental needs of all students than can separate courses; topics

can be sequenced by their cognitive demands, rather than by their discipline placement. This

last part of the rationale will be developed further in the theoretical framework.

This general argument also fits the specific situation of science education at my school,

University High School (UHS). Most students at UHS (90%) had taken biology in the ninth

grade. We had advised the remaining five to 10 ninth grade students to defer taking biology

when we felt that they might anticipate difficulty with the more abstract material and larger

concepts. However, these deferred students understandably felt stigmatized, labeling

themselves as not "science people." Our good intentions systematically excluded a segment of

the student body from pursuing further science courses. We want to eliminate this tracking of

students and include all ninth grade students in science education. I feel that an integrated

curriculum will be more inclusive by postponing the more abstract material to the second year

when students might be developmentally ready.

8
 The Curriculum

Topics in Biology Topics in Chemistry listed in italics

Integrated Biology and Chemistry I - Ninth Grade

A. What is science?/What is life?

B.Introduce Human Biology/Respiratory System
C. Gases composition/combustion products
pressure-volume relationship
D. Diffusion particle model
C. Osmosis/Circulatory System
F. Combustion /Qualitative Energetics
G. Descriptive Kinetics
H.Digestive System/Excretory System
I.Reproductive System
J. Diversity of Life (Five Kingdoms)
K Chemical Separations
L. Ecology

Integrated Biology and Chemistry 11 - Tenth Grade

M Atomic-molecular theory
NElectronic structure of atoms
0. Molecular structure
P. Physical properties
Q. Chemistry of organic functional groups
R.Biomolecules - Carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, proteins
S. Stoichiometry
T.Energetics - quantitative
U. Aqueous solutions
V.Kinetics - quantitative
W.Cells/organelles
X Acid/base
Y. Equilibrium - quantitative
ZReduction/oxidation reactions
A' .Tools of Biotechnology
B'.Genetics
C'.Evolution/History of Life

9
 Chapter 2 - The Theoretical Framework

While this two-year integrated curriculum "covers" most of the topics typically found

in separate one-year biology and chemistry courses, the philosophy behind this curriculum is to

"uncover" student interest and student questions. The curriculum emphasis is the process of

learning (how we know) rather than the products of learning (what we know).

In this chapter, I will provide the theoretical framework for integrating biology and

chemistry and, in addition, I will segue from the general curriculum on page 9 to specific

lesson plans detailed in Chapter 3. The first section of this chapter describes the match

between the topic progression of this integrated curriculum and the developmental and

cognitive needs of a diverse student body--the third point of my rationale. The second section

examines issues to related cognitive development described by the philosophy of

constructivism. In the third section, I will discuss the learning cycle and collaborative learning

as pedagogical applications of constructivism and I close this chapter with my approach to

assessment and evaluation.

10
 Developmental/Cognitive Issues

Just emerging from childhood, trying earnestly to steer toward the fog-enshrouded
world of adulthood, young people of this age are vulnerable but highly responsive to
environmental challenge. This time provides an exceptional chance for constructive interventions
that can have lifelong influence.
David Hamburg (1989, p.4)
Carnegie Task Force on Education of Young Adolescents

Although the Carnegie Task Force study focused on middle schools, Hamburg's

observations on 'young people of this age' can easily apply to ninth and tenth grade students.

Students' experiences in these grades have a powerful influence over their feelings about

school, about specific subjects such as science, and about themselves as learners. Thus,

schools, and by extension the curricula, should challenge students while remaining sensitive to

their cognitive needs.

In the development of this integrated curriculum, I and other members of the science

department at UHS drew upon the work of Jean Piaget whose theories have dominated the

field of cognitive development since the 1950s. Although Piaget devoted little attention to

educational practice, his theories can help curriculum development (Ginsburg and Opper 1988,

p.237). In particular, we referred to his description of adolescent cognitive growth in terms of

abstract reasoning, i.e., suggesting transitions from concrete to formal reasoning. Concrete

reasoning students focus on the reality of a situation; their thought is limited to the information

available to immediate perception. By contrast, formal reasoning students can imagine the

possibilities inherent in a situation; their thought is flexibly adapting to unexpected results

(Keating 1990, p.58). Our students are in the midst of this transition.

Piaget outlined three factors that he believed influenced the transition from concrete to

formal thinking: 1) the brain maturation occurring at the time of puberty, 2) an individual's

experiences with the environment and his/her response(s) to these experiences and, 3) the

social environment--an aspect of the individual's environment worthy of separate note

(Ginsburg and Opper 1988, p.205). The Russian psychologist, Lev Vygotsky, further

elaborated on the importance of social interactions in cognitive development (Vygotsky 1978).

Piaget's emphasis on brain maturation, which he believed was the foundational basis for

formal thought, explains why his theories were not initially applied to education. What role

could educators play in a process that developed naturally? Piaget second and third influences,

which were less emphasized, do fall under the domain of education. In the remainder of this

section, I will discuss curriculum development in light of Piaget's second influence on

cognitive growth, the ordering of students' experiences. I defer discussion of his third

influence, the effect of socialization on learning, to a later section on collaborative learning.

I will argue that the topic order in this integrated biology and chemistry curriculum

better matches the cognitive development of young adolescents than that of separate courses.

As I introduced earlier, topics in an integrated curriculum can be sequenced based on their

cognitive demands, rather than their discipline placement. Before proceeding, I begin with a

caution--gauging the cognitive demands or the abstraction of a concept remains intuitive at best

and inexact at least (White 1994, p.257). I will use one author's suggestion of the

12
characteristic of perceptibility as a useful measure of abstraction (Herron 1978, p.168).

Concepts that are perceptible, such as solids and liquids, may be thought of as concrete; while

those that are imperceptible, such as atomic theory, are abstract.

This integrated curriculum begins with observable phenomena. The biological topics

(left column on page 9) progress from the macroscopic (organisms and ecosystems) to the

microscopic (cells and molecules), while the chemical topics (right column on page 9, in

italics) progress from the descriptive and qualitative to the theoretical and quantitative.

Specifically, we begin with the study of the organism most familiar to the studentsHomo

sapiens. The more abstract, less perceptible biological concepts, such as molecular genetics,

are moved back into the second year of the curriculum, while the descriptive elements of

chemistry, such as gases, are moved forward into the first year. Unfortunately, most

textbooks are organized in the reverse order from the one suggested here. Biology texts begin

a superficial treatment of chemical principles, build up to cells, and end with organisms and

ecosystems. Chemistry texts begin with the atomic theory and end with descriptive chemistry

(Herron 1984, p.852). This organizational scheme makes sense to the mature adult mind, not

to the novice (De Boer 1991, p.160; Bunce 1995).

In the first year, biological topics dominate this integrated curriculum. As students

study biological phenomena, they uncover "a need to know" the underlying concepts in

chemistry. For example, as students study the mechanics of breathing, they discover the

relationship between gas volume and gas pressure (called Boyle's law). When the diaphragm

13
moves down and the volume of the chest cavity increases, the pressure in the chest cavity

decreases and air rushes in the only available opening ---the nose and/or mouthto inflate the

lungs. In contrast, traditional courses segregate the study of these topics to different years, the

study of the lungs in biology and the study of Boyle's law in chemistry.

In the second year, chemical principles drive the curriculum. Topics introduced

qualitatively in the first year (kinetics and energetics) are revisited quantitatively in greater

depth and with greater rigor - -a 'spiral approach' as suggested by Bruner (1960, p.52). This

approach takes advantage of the spacing effect. Studies have shown that spaced presentations

yield substantially better learning than do massed presentations (Dempster 1988). In addition,

this approach guards against the students' developing a "vaccination theory" of educationas

in, "we've had that, we don't need to know it anymore" (Fogarty 1991, p.5). Dewey (1938)

used a similar teacher-as-physician metaphor when he referred to students receiving their

prescribed "dose" of learning (p.46).

The "spiral curriculum." If one respects the ways of thought of the growing child, if
one is courteous enough to translate material into his [or her] logical forms and challenging
enough to tempt him to advance, then it is possible to introduce him [or her] at an early age to the
ideas and styles that in later life make an educated [person]. We might ask, as a criterion for any
subject taught in primary school, whether, when fully developed, it is worth an adult's knowing,
and whether having known it as a child makes a person a better adult. If the answer to both
questions is negative or ambiguous, then the material is cluttering the curriculum.
Jerome Bruner (1960, p.52) The Process of Education

In a spiral curriculum, students come to have a deeper understanding of concepts, as they see

long-term relevance and utility to their learning. "Cognitive growth occurs when an individual

revisits and reformulates a current perspective" (Brooks and Brooks 1993, p.112). This

integrated curriculum ends with units on biotechnology, genetics, evolution, and the history of

14
life (see bottom of page 9) which provide an appropriate closure--students must synthesize

their understanding of both biology and chemistry to explore these topics.

One might question whether this integrated curriculum is a better learning experience

for all students--What about those students who achieved success in traditional courses? I

would respond that an integrated curriculum, with topics sequenced from concrete to abstract,

also provides a better learning experience for advanced science students, those that have

achieved formal reasoning. Piaget argued that everyone reverts to concrete thought when

facing new situations (Herron 1978, p.167). By initially providing concrete representations of

a concept, students are given something to "fall back on" when they cannot formally deduce a

relationship. An illustrative anecdote: The Massachusetts College of Pharmacy recently

instituted a coordinated biology and chemistry curriculum. In discussing thermodynamics- -a

particularly difficult, mathematics-intensive concept - -Yin LoPresti commented, "You know, I

could apply the rules quantitatively, but I never learned it qualitatively until ... this

coordinated course." He had learned to apply algorithms, but had not understood the idea in a

'deep' sense. Significantly, LoPresti is not a student in this course; he is the chemistry

professor. The words that I left out of his quotation were "until I taught this coordinated

course" (Garafalo and LoPresti 1993; LoPresti and Garofalo 1987; Garafalo and LoPresti

1986). Connecting topics in biology and chemistry is a better approach to learning and

teaching the material. "Teaching must not miss opportunities for encouraging students to

perceive links between topics. Apart from the deeper understanding that will follow,

connectedness is at the heart of science. Without connectedness, science is not a system

15
capable of further advance, but a collection of eclectic trivia" (White 1994, p.261).

Constructivism

Connectedness also lies at the heart of a branch of epistemological philosophy called

constructivism, an outgrowth of the work by Piaget. Although he is often identified as a

psychologist and his theories are now popular within educational circles, Piaget began his

career interested in epistemology. He studied children because he believed that an

understanding of human knowledge could only result from study of its formation and evolution

(Ginsburg and Opper 1988, chapter 1). In 1971, Piaget wrote:

The current state of knowledge is a moment in history, changing just as rapidly as

knowledge in the past has changed, and, in many instances, more rapidly. Scientific thought,
then, is not momentary; it is not a static instance; it is a process. More specifically, it is a
process of continual construction and reorganization (Brooks and Brooks 1993, p.25).

For the individual, this process of construction depends on connecting new experiences with

prior knowledge.

Contrast this constructivist view of knowledge with objectivist epistemology, the legacy

of seventeenth century philosophers Isaac Newton and Francis Bacon (De Boer 1991, p.198).

To the objectivist, knowledge exists independently of the knower and can be experienced

objectively. By this view, absolutely true discoveries can be made by suitably trained

observers. Applying this to education leads to a classroom experience that is likely familiar to

most readers (Brooks and Brooks 1993, p.6-7). Most teachers (the trainers) use the teaching-

16
as-telling approach (Good lad 1984, Chapter 4) and rely heavily on textbooks. Harms and

Yager (1981) found that over 90% of the science teachers use a textbook 95% of the time

(described in Groves 1995). Given that science texts contain more new terminology than first

year foreign language courses (Groves 1995), it is not surprising that students (the trainees)

adopt a "mimetic" approach to learning, a process that involves students repeating, or miming,

newly presented information on tests and quizzes (Brooks and Brooks 1993, p.15). Paulo

Freire (1993, Chapter 2) called this the "banking model" of education. The teller-clerk

teacher deposits knowledge into the students' heads and later withdraws it on tests.

Before I address this authoritarian form of education, I call into question the objectivist

contention that one can objectively gather information from the environment. Our sense

organs can only provide partial information about the environment. For example, what we see

as a simple white flower, a bee sees as brilliantly patterned, because we cannot see the

ultraviolet light that the bee can. Even among stimuli that we can perceive, our brain focuses

on some information and selectively filters out other information. As Karl Popper pointed out:

we never just look, we always look for something (Matthews 1994, p.228). As you sit there

reading this document, you are unaware of the fabric of your clothing pressing against your

skin (until now); our brain selectively filters out that information. Our brain then processes or

constructs patterns from the information that passes through the filter. These constructs or

conceptions empower and limit our understanding of the environment. As an example of a

limiting construct, I perform a sleight-of-hand coin trick for my students. I appear to throw a

coin from my right hand into my left. The coin "disappears" from my left hand and reappears

17
when I pull the coin out of my ear with my right hand. Significantly, these constructs depend

on our prior experience. I could not fool my two-year-old niece with my legerdemain; she had

not learned that a vigorous forward motion of the hand means "throw." The delight in these

tricks for the adult mind lies in the contradiction; intellectually, you know that the coin never

leaves my right hand, yet the motion plays into a pattern learned and usefully applied. Most

throwing motions do indeed result in objects being thrown.

The application for education is that students arrive, not as blank slates, but with a

variety of conceptions and misconceptions (or naive conceptions) about how the world

operates. These misconceptions can prove remarkably resistant to instruction (Gardner 1991).

For example, graduating students of Harvard University were asked to explain why it is hotter

in the summer and colder during the winter. Although all the students had studied this topic in

their schooling, many offered an erroneous explanation--winters are colder because the Earth

is farther from the sun (Perkins 1992, p.24). The correction explanation: in winter, the sun's

rays must pass through more of the Earth's atmosphere because the Northern hemisphere is

tilted away from the sun. One may criticize the student's lack of learning, but first one must

acknowledge the usefulness of the students' naive conception--in situations on Earth, you get

colder as you move away from a heating source.

With these ideas in mind, meaningful instruction should engage students actively in the

learning process to determine and confront their prior conceptions. Howard Gardner has

termed these confrontations, "Christopherian encounters" in honor of Christopher Columbus,

18
"the first human being to demonstrate unequivocally to naive observers that the intuitive

impression that the earth is flat had to yield to the alternate conception of the earth as

spherical" (Gardner 1991, p.229). Students must be given experiences that highlight the

inconsistencies of their naive conceptions. To arrange these experiences, teachers must

understand student thinking on a topic. The implications of constructivist theory have led one

science instructor to rethink "the portion of the time I spend telling students what I think

versus the portion I spend asking them what they think" (Herron 1984, p.851). "The educator

cannot start with knowledge already organized and proceed to ladle it out in doses... as an

ideal the active process of organizing facts and ideas is an ever-present educational process"

(Dewey 1938, p.82).

In their inquiry into student thinking, teachers can avoid the "correct answer

compromise" in which students learn to mime answers to specific questions (Gardner 1991,

p.141). The correct answer compromise is part of an efficiency model of education that

allows rapid coverage of material. However, "trying to cover every important idea leads to

the trivialization of them all" (Wiggins 1987, p.10). Inquiry-based teaching encourages

students to construct their understanding in which new information is connected to previously

understood concepts. Students come to a deeper understanding when they are allowed to

discover the connectedness of knowledge. "To understand something is to know relationships.

Knowledge is stored in clusters and organized into schemata that people use both to interpret

familiar situations and to reason about new ones. Bits of information isolated from these

structures are forgotten or become inaccessible to memory" (Resnick 1983, p.478). As John

19

22
Dewey admonished in Experience and Education (1938), "isolation in all forms is the thing to

be avoided; connectedness is what we should strive for."

... there comes to mind the story told about John Dewey. There was a young man, it is said,
who kept pestering John Dewey, asking: " What is the purpose of your philosophy?" ...finally,
Dewey told the young man to sit down and when he did, he said: "The purpose of my
philosophy is to climb a mountain."
"To climb a mountain?" questioned the young man, somewhat surprised.
"Yes, to climb a mountain."
"And when you get to the top?"
"You'll see another mountain." said John Dewey.
"And then?"
"You'll climb that," said Dewey.
"And then?"
"You'll see another mountain." said Dewey.
"And then?"
"You'll climb that," said Dewey.
"And what will happen when there will be no more mountains?"
"When you see no more mountains," said John Dewey, "it will be time to die."

The whole purpose of school is to help children climb mountains, their own mountains
And the teacher should be there by their side to lend support, comfort, and encouragement while
they struggle (Tenenbaum 1967, p.352).

The Learning Cycle

One pedagogical application of constructivist philosophy is the learning cycle. First

developed for elementary science programs (Atkin and Karplus 1962), Edmund Marek and his

colleagues at the University of Oklahoma (Marek et al. 1994b) have successfully extended the

learning cycle for use in secondary and college science instruction. The process of instruction

and learning includes cycles of exploration, concept invention (definition), and concept

application (Karplus 1967, p.173).

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23
 Exploration Most classes begin with a lab or an activity that encourages student

exploration of ideas or phenomena. This phase fosters a "need to know" in the students. As

they pursue and question observations, students wonder, "Why does this happen? What does

this mean?" They begin looking for relationships between observations. The teacher acts as

facilitator and guide--"principled understanding rarely arises as a result of unguided discovery"

(Linn and Songer 1991, p.410). Rather than immediately answering students' questions, the

teacher refocuses the students on their observations and encourages exchange among

classmates. In this way, the class constructs a collective knowledge as students share their

observations and hypotheses (Vygotsky 1978, p.163). Thus, students not only coordinate their

thinking with their own observation, but also coordinate their thinking with that of other

individuals through dialogue (Ziedler 1995). As Werner Heisenberg pointed out, "Science is

rooted in conversations. The cooperation of different people may culminate in scientific

results of the upmost importance" (Senge 1990, p.238). During this student-centered,

exploratory phase, teachers can interact with students one-on-one to determine the conceptions

and misconceptions that students bring to the classroom (Gardner 1991, p.85).

Invention - "To understand," as Piaget wrote in 1973, "is to invent" (Ginsburg and

Opper 1988, p.260). The second phase involves a teacher-directed group discussion that leads

to the concept invention. The term "invention" indicates that the learner invents the concept

for him/herself. The teacher first brings out all observations and develops group consensus.

All observations should be brought out--not only so that all students feel involved, but also the

more observations that are brought out, the more likely that a pattern will emerge for the

21
students. Too often, teachers move quickly to define a concept after eliciting one or two

observations. With scant evidence, students have a difficult time distinguishing the theory

from the observations that it explains. An exhaustive list of observations elicits the question

from students, "how can we bring meaning and organization to what we have been

experiencing and observing?" At this point, the teacher introduces related terminology and the

name of the concept that accounts for the students' observations. Contrast this with more

traditional instruction in which the teacher introduces terminology and the concept at the

beginning of the lesson. Wiggins (1987, p.12) likened this teacher to "the boorish friend who

wants to reveal how the mystery movie turns out before one has seen it."

Application - In the last phase, students apply the concept in a new context. This

application allows the student to generalize the concept and connect it to other concepts within

the student's mental framework. Students have multiple access to the concepts for later

learning as connected concepts are more likely to be internalized and retained (Gardner 1991,

p. 244). Students are empowered to learn as they can view education as effort-centered rather

than ability-centered (Perkins 1992, p.61).

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 Collaborative Learning

There is often a discrepancy between how science is practiced and how science is taught.
When it is practiced, science often involves working collaboratively with colleagues while
attempting to validate opposing hypotheses. Science education often involves reading a textbook,
listening to lectures, and working by oneself.
Johnson et al. 1985, p.207

Although collaborative learning activities have long been part of the repertoire of good

teaching, there has been an upsurge of research into the effectiveness of collaborative learning

since the 1970s. At that time, newly desegregated schools looked for techniques and

approaches to improve race relations (Aronson et al. 1978, p.23). Research demonstrated that

collaborative learning positively affected social relations (in particular, race relations), self-

esteem and, as a result, educational achievement (Slavin 1987, p.1161). Collaborative

learning changes the structure of the classroom from one expert and many listeners to many

sources of information and greater interaction. As the Johnson quotation above suggests,

collaboration in science class would also better match the practice of science. "Nearly all

contemporary scientific research is done by teams of researchers working as a unit. The 12

most cited science research papers published in 1991 had an average of 6.6 authors per paper.

A recent issue of Science carried research reports by author teams of 14, 17, and 27

individuals. The record is 134 authors for a study of world ecological imbalances" (Hurd

1995, p.7).

From a developmental perspective, Piaget suggested that social interaction facilitates

cognitive development (Ginsburg and Opper 1988, p.219), specifically the transition from

23
concrete to formal thinking (discussed on page 12). In positing a Zone of Proximal

Development (ZPD), Vygotsky was more explicit about the role of collaborative activity in

cognitive growth. Vygotsky (1978, p.86) defined the ZPD as "the distance between the actual

developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential

development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration

with more capable peers" (italics added). Collaborative activity promotes cognitive growth

because children of similar ages are likely to be operating within one another's zone of

development.

One example of a collaborative activity is the "jigsaw" method (Aronson et al. 1978) in

which groups of students work on part of a task to be later presented to other classmates who

work on other parts of the task. Specifically, the teacher divides the class into small groups of

four to six students to study one subtopic (W, X, Y, or Z) of a larger topic. The small groups

learn about their subtopic from the text, teacher, and other sources. The teacher reconfigures

the students into groups of four such that each new group has one member from each of the

first groups (W, X, Y, and Z). The students teach one another about their subtopics. In this

way, students treat each other as resources; each student is an expert on his or her topic.

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27
 Gender Issues

Women continue to be underrepresented in science professions, constituting only 16

percent of all scientists and engineers employed in the United States (Davidson 1993).

Furthermore, only 30% of college-bound high school women, compared to 50% of college-

bound men, intend to study science (Mason and Kahle 1988, p.25). In a national survey

research project Shortchanging Girls, Shortchanging America, the American Association of

University Women (AAUW 1991) attributed this situation to barriers that women encounter in

the process of science education, specifically in secondary school. Echoing a conclusion of the

Carnegie Task Force Report (discussed on page 11), the AAUW says that experiences in

secondary science classrooms critically affect students' attitudes toward science, more often

adversely (also supported by Seymour 1995). The trend for most students, and for female

students in particular, is an erosion of self-esteem. Comments such as, "I am not smart

enough to learn science" were typical.

The Fall 1994 issue of Independent School was entitled "What Works for Girls." In it,

the authors of several articles offered suggestions to educators wishing to make their classroom

more "girl-friendly" including approaches discussed in the earlier sections of this chapter:

collaboration, hands-on activities, and a clear connection between the abstract and the real

(Brosnan 1994, p.23; Kruschwitz and Peter 1994; Allen et al. 1994). These authors

emphasize that these approaches help create a better learning environment for boys as well.

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28
 Assessment/Evaluation

My approach to assessment and evaluation includes two major components: 1) a

scientific portfolio and 2) tests.

First, students maintain a scientific journal and laboratory notebook. The notebook is a

portfolio of student observations, interpretations, and reflections. Students organize their

observations and interpretations from laboratory activities into formal presentations as

laboratory reports and these reports are graded. These grades are not final. Portfolio

assessment allows occasions for students to select from a body of work; to rethink,

reconstruct, or revise their work; and to reflect over time upon the process of their learning

(Beall 1994). In addition, this notebook includes journal entries for reflections on open-ended

questions (see Extension Questions in Lesson Plans in Chapter 3). The students' reflections in

their journals provide ongoing self- and course-assessment (Jacobs 1989, p.41).

Second, each unit will conclude with a test, consisting of a few objective, fact-related

questions and subjective, process-related questions. These tests will be open-notebook and

untimed. Untimed tests have become an institutional policy at my school (perhaps at most

schools) for students that have demonstrated learning "disabilities" such as dyslexia or slow

processing. I have extended this option to all my students.

Finally, I offer a comment on standardized tests. The frequently-heard comment from

26
teachers--"I don't teach to the test"indicates the contempt with which they hold most

standardized tests. However, standardized tests remain society's educational gatekeepers

(Hoerr 1994, p.31); so it is important that our students learn to do well on them. I believe

that the challenging integrated curriculum described in this document will prepare our students

to achieve on the subject area SAT-II tests. As Ted Sizer (1992, p.97) pointed out, students

who are given "high expectations for using what they have learned --do better on traditional

tests of presumed coverage. They seem to be in the habit of figuring things out."

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 Chapter 3 - The First Unit

This unit is intended for the start of the course. The eleven lessons reflect a

constructivist perspective and use the learning cycle and collaborative learning. I begin most

lessons with an activity or laboratory question that encourages student exploration. I act as a

facilitator ("guide on the side"), rather than an explainer ("sage on the stage"). In lessons that

begin with a discussion (Lessons 8 and 10), I elicit student observations and understandings on

the topic before providing an organizational framework or defining the underlying the concept.

Fensham et al. (1994, p.6) suggested a metaphor of the teacher 'parachuting in'. "This useful

image distinguishes parachuting from 'free fall'... the teacher landing heavily on students'

views, squashing them underground... To parachute is to drop lightly but effectively on the

appropriate place at the appropriate time."

Goals of the Unit

In the first unit and, indeed in the first lesson, we raise two essential questions: What is

science? and What is life? These questions will be answered tentatively at this point, and held

in partial suspension to be revisited throughout the course, i.e., the students will NOT write

down definitions for science and life to be memorized for a test. These topics of scientific

method and characteristics of life are framed as questions rather than answers to match the

28

31
spirit of inquiry that will pervade the course. We spend the first semester in the study of the

human organism. This topic was chosen as an entree into the study of biology and chemistry

because of its accessibility and inherent interest to ninth grade students. We begin our study of

the human organism by focusing on the respiratory system. One characteristic of all living

things is that they exchange of gases with the environment and large, multicellular organisms

(such as humans) need a specialized respiratory surface such as the lung to efficiently exchange

these gases. The unit concludes with a study of diffusion, the process by which gases are

exchanged between the lung and the blood. In the second unit, we will examine the

circulatory system, the system that transports gases between the lungs and all of the cells in the

body.

Objectives of the Unit

At the end of this unit, the students should be able to:

1. Explain the role of observation in science.

2. Distinguish between observation and interpretation.

3. Discuss and relate the components of the scientific method.

4. List and explain the characteristics shared by all living things.

5. Explain the theme of the Unity of Life.

6. Explain the theme of the Diversity of Life.

7. Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative observations.

29
8. Establish the importance of scientific communication, specifically as it relates to the
reproducibility of observations and consensus.

9. Distinguish between interpretation of observations and bias in observing.

10. Demonstrate the ability to use a microscope.

11. State and explain the cell theory (one characteristic of life).

12. Identify how technology expands our abilities to make observations.

13. Determine the response of humans to stress (exercise).

14. Explain the term "adaptation."

15. Identify factors that affect the respiratory rate of a goldfish.

16. Organize quantitative data on a table.

17. Graph quantitative data.

18. Interpret a graph of quantitative data.

19. Explain the meaning and importance of a controlled experiment.

20. Identify the gases in exhaled air.

21. Demonstrate the ability to use indicators to identify substances.

22. Identify the combustion products of a candle.

23. Compare the combustion products of a candle to the gases present in exhaled air.

24. Compare external, internal, and cellular respiration.

25. Identify the structures of the human respiratory system and state the function of each
structure. (In particular, explain how the structure of the lung is related to its function.)

26. Trace the path of oxygen and carbon dioxide throughout the body.

27. Explain what gas pressure is and describe how it can be measured.

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33
28. Apply Boyle's law to describe (qualitatively and quantitatively) how the volume of a gas is
related to its pressure.

29. Describe how air enters and leaves the lung.

30. Explain the process of diffusion.

The Lessons

Lesson 1 What is science? What is life?

Lesson 2 Comparison of living things: a pillbug and your laboratory partner.

Lesson 3 Introduction to the microscope: The Cell Theory.

Lesson 4 Humans, at rest and after exercise: Introduction to human biology unit.

Lesson 5 The respiratory rate of a goldfish.

Lesson 6 Identification of gases in inhaled and exhaled air.

Lesson 7 Identification of combustion products of a candle.

Lesson 8 Descriptive introduction to the function and structure of the human respiratory
system.

Lesson 9 Boyle's law.

Lesson 10 Detailed description to the function and structure of the human respiratory
system.

Lesson 11 Diffusion.

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3c
 Comparison of Objectives and Lessons

The following chart indicates when each objective is addressed in the lesson sequence.
The objectives are generally covered in sequential order as the lessons progress. Some
objectives are revisited in sequential classes (5, 12, and 19), and objective 25 is revisited two
lessons later.

The Lessons
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Objectives
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12 x x
13
14
15
16
17
18
19 x x
20
21
22 x
23 x
24 x
25 x x
26 x
27 x
28 x
29 x
30

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 Lesson 1

Topic: What is science? What is life?

Objectives: At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

1. Explain the role of observation in science.

2. Distinguish between observation and interpretation.

3. Discuss and relate the components of the scientific method.

4. List and explain the characteristics shared by all living things.

5. Explain the theme of the Unity of Life.

Teacher Preparation:

Part A: Determine a seating chart based on the students' first names in alphabetical order and

write it on the overhead, listed by last names.

Part B: Place a drop of mercury in a petri dish and add enough water to cover the mercury.

Add several drops of concentrated nitric acid. Place a few grams of potassium dichromate in a

beaker labeled "food" (Talesnick 1984, p.122).

Procedure:

Part A: As the students enter the room for the first class, point out the seating chart on the

overhead. Students must determine the "theory" by which seats were assigned. Encourage the

students to share observations about themselves and make preliminary explanations.

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38
 Students usually determine an explanation for the seating chart within a few minutes.

Do not confirm that the students have arrived at the "right" (i.e., the teacher's) theory. In

science, testing supports a theory, not some higher authority. In addition, point out that useful

theories account for all relevant observations, regardless of whether their theory matches the

teacher's theory. In this exercise, the students have essentially performed the scientific

method; they have looked for relationships between observations, and they have made and

tested explanations for these relationships. Emphasize the dynamic interplay among the

activities of the scientific method (as opposed to the static linearity described in the first

chapter of most science textbooks). The terms "hypothesis," "experiment," and "theory" can

be introduced here. The unique feature of science-- testibility --can also be discussed. An

added benefit: they learn each other's first name. Students enter the ninth grade at my school

from over 30 different middle/elementary schools. More information can be gathered on a

questionnaire to generate increasingly challenging seating charts. This activity provides a good

transition as the students are settling in during the first few minutes of class.

Part B: Place the petri dish containing the mercury droplet on the overhead projector. If

necessary, mask the dish so that it cannot be directly seen by the students. Turn the projector

on. Sprinkle a few crystals of potassium dichromate (the "food") near the mercury droplet and

it will start to move around. (If this does not happen, add a few more drops of nitric acid.)

As students observe the "critter," ask the following questions: What is biology? What is life?

What are the signs of life? Have the students write answers to these questions in their lab

notebooks. Encourage student discussion in pairs or in small groups. Pull the class together

34
and list their characteristics of life on the board. Have one student act as scribe.

The students will come up with a fairly complete list of the characteristics of life

(usually covered in the second chapter of any biology textbook). Distinguish those items that

are direct observations (for example, movement) and those that involve inference or

interpretation (respiration or breathing). Go back over each item on the list and consider the

following questions: Do all living things perform all these activities and/or characteristics?

For example, do plants move? Can non-living things do any of (or all of) these? Introduce

the theme of the Unity of Life. Reveal to the students in as gentle manner as possible that

they have been observing mercury, not something living. ("Ha, ha, you're stupid" is not the

recommended response.) Discuss the difficulty in defining life, particularly at the

"boundaries." Since we cannot directly observe them, microscopic organisms are less familiar

to us. This activity can be termed a "Christopherian encounter" (described on page 18).

Students usually believe that the mercury was alive because they operate on the naive

conception that movement indicates life. In confronting this misconception, we can discuss

other non-living things that move such as clocks. Most students understand that clocks are not

alive, so we can further refine their misconception--it was the erratic movement of the

mercury that led students to believe the mercury blob was alive. The students will return to

their list of life's characteristics repeatedly throughout the course.

Extension: What "strategies" did the students use to solve the seating chart? Were the

students completely "objective" in their thinking? Would it have been possible to solve the

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38
seating chart while being completely objective? Why did the students think that the mercury

was alive? These questions encourage students to think about their thinking, also called

metacognition (Kuhn et al. 1988, p.6; Perkins 1992, p.100).

Homework: Students read Chapter 1 in the Heath Biology (McLaren et al. 1991) and respond

in their scientific journals to the extension questions.

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 Lesson 2

Topic: Comparison of living things: a pillbug and your laboratory partner.

Objectives: At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

5. Explain the theme of the Unity of Life (from Lesson 1).

6. Explain the theme of the Diversity of Life.

7. Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative observations.

8. Establish the importance of scientific communication, specifically as it relates to the

reproducibility of observations and consensus.

9. Distinguish between interpretation of observations and bias in observing.

Teacher Preparation: Make available. pillbugs (Isopods), dissecting microscopes (10X-30X)

or hand magnifying lenses, butcher paper, marking pens, and tape.

Procedure: In an activity similar to Part B of Lesson 1, pairs of students (lab teams) observe

a pillbug and observe their partner. To better observe the pillbug, students can use the

dissecting microscopes or a hand lens. Students write observations in their lab notebooks.

Encourage lab teams to share their observations with other teams. One approach: one member

of a lab team joins with another member from a different lab team and compares observations

in a modified "jigsaw" approach (discussed on page 24). Students should consider the

similarities and the differences between their partner and the pillbug. (Teachers need to

monitor this activity for unacceptable humor and disparaging "observations.") Have each lab

37
team trade lab notebooks with another team and draw the described organisms (partner and

pillbug) on butcher paper. The drawings should be based strictly on the observations written

down. Post the drawings around the room. Read aloud the description on which a drawing is

based.

Students are likely to be better at describing and distinguishing their lab partner than

they are at describing the pillbug. Discuss bias in scientific observations, and the influence of

experience (i.e., students have more experience observing humans than pillbugs.) In

addressing the question--What characteristics are shared by pillbugs and humans?reinforce

the theme of the unity of life discussed in the first lesson. Briefly introduce the theme of the

diversity of life -- organisms find different solutions to similar problems; for example, pillbugs

solve the problem of locomotion with many legs, while humans do so with two. We discuss

this theme in greater detail in the second semester (see top half of page 9, topic J).

Extension: Some pillbugs may appear dead or may be, in fact, dead. How can one

distinguish something that is dead from something that was never alive? (This is a

sophisticated question. The next lesson begins to answer this question and it will be revisited

later in the course.)

Homework: Students read Chapter 2 in the Heath Biology (McLaren et al. 1991) and respond

in their scientific journals to the extension question.

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41
 Lesson 3

Topic: Introduction to the microscope: The Cell Theory.

Objectives: At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

10. Demonstrate the ability to use a microscope.

11. State and explain the cell theory (one characteristic of life).

12. Identify how technology expands our abilities to make observations.

Teacher Preparation: Make available: microscopes, lens paper, microscope slides, cover

slips, newspaper, toothpicks, aquatic plants (Elodea), onions, stains, small beakers, and

droppers.

Procedure: Demonstrate the care and use of a microscope. Demonstrate the techniques of

making a wet mount slide and staining a microscope slide preparation. Discuss the approach

to making biological drawings. Students begin by looking at newspaper print to acquaint

themselves with the use of a microscope. Students examine a variety of living tissues--cheek

cells, Elodea, and onion skin--and make drawings in their lab notebooks. Students may

suggest other tissues. Encourage student discussion and comparison of drawings and slide

preparations.

In the follow-up discussion, refer to extension question from Lesson 2. The presence

of cells would distinguish something that was dead from something that was never alive.

39

42
Discuss how the microscope is a tool that expands our ability to make observations. In a

broader sense, tools act "as amplifiers of human capacities and implementors of human

activity" (Bruner 1966, p.81). Post student drawings around the classroom.

Homework: In their science journals, students write an educational autobiography

(Countryman 1993, p.60). Stimulate their thought processes with the following questions;

How do you learn best? What situations make it difficult for you to learn?

40

4.3
 Lesson 4

Topic: Humans, at rest and after exercise: Introduction to human biology unit.

Objectives: At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

12. Identify how technology expands our abilities to make observations (from Lesson 3).

13. Determine the response of humans to stress (exercise).

14. Explain the term adaptation.

Teacher Preparation: Make available the following equipment: stethoscope, blood pressure

cuff, respirometer, and electrocardiogram (ECG).

Procedure: Students observe their lab partners at rest, and after two minutes of vigorous

exercise. Students write their observations in their lab notebooks. Encourage lab teams to

share their observations. Some students may ask to use a stethoscope and a blood pressure

cuff. Pull the class together and list observations on the board. Have one student act as

scribe. Discuss how humans respond or adapt to the stress of exercise. Do humans respond to

other stresses in a similar fashion?

Examples of observations that might be made after exercise include: increased

breathing rate, increased heart rate, flushing, and sweating. Some students will have made

quantitative observations, for example, the number of breaths in one minute. Discuss the

importance of using units; a number without a unit is meaningless. Compare qualitative and

41
quantitative observations and discuss situations when each is useful. For example, if your

blood pressure is "fine" or within an acceptable range, you may not need to know the exact

systolic and diastolic readings. However, if your blood pressure is too high, you may need to

monitor it as you modify your diet and exercise regime. Like the microscope, discuss how the

stethoscope and the blood pressure cuff are tools that expand our ability to make observations.

Indicate that the word "observation" can refer to senses other than visual, as it did with the

stethoscope.

Other equipment such as the respirator and the ECG can be introduced here if there is

time. Otherwise, the students will use this equipment in the second unit on the Circulatory

System. For the rest of this unit, we will focus on the Respiratory System.

Extension: Can students think of other examples of technology expanding our abilities of

observation?

Homework: Students respond in their scientific journals to the extension question.

42

4.a
 Lesson 5

Topic: The respiratory rate of a goldfish.

Objectives: At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

15. Identify factors that affect the respiratory rate of a goldfish.

16. Organize quantitative data on a table.

17. Graph quantitative data.

18. Interpret a graph of quantitative data.

19. Explain the meaning and importance of a controlled experiment.

Teacher Preparation: Separate goldfish into 400 ml beakers containing aquarium water.

Make available: thermometers and graph paper.

Procedure: Students begin by observing a goldfish at rest. What indicates that a goldfish is

"breathing"? What other behaviors are noticed? In the last lesson, students examined the

effect of stress (exercise) on the respiratory rate of a human. Discuss the questionWhat

factors might affect the respiratory rate of a goldfish? Encourage students to develop

experiments to test those factors.

One factor that can be tested is temperature of the surrounding environment (McLaren

et al. 1991, p.537). Divide the students interested in testing temperature into two groups; one

group will test the response of their fish to colder temperatures, while the other will test the

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46
response to warmer temperatures. For the warm water group, place some aquarium water in a

large beaker on a hot plate. Water from this beaker can be added slowly to increase the

temperature of the water in the beaker containing their fish. For the cold water group, place

some aquarium water in a large beaker with ice cubes. This water can be used to slowly

decrease the water temperature surrounding their fish. After every change of a few degrees,

students count the number of breaths that the fish makes in one minute. The goldfish should

not be harmed if the water temperature is changed slowly and kept between 10°C and 45°C.

Students write their observations in their lab notebooks. (Discuss the usefulness of recording

quantitative data in the form of tables.) Encourage students to share observations. Write the

class data on the board.

Students that tested other factors share their results with their classmates. All students

graph the respiratory rate of a goldfish vs. the water temperature. Discuss the graph.

The activities in the first four lessons were observational activities. In this lesson,

students performed a controlled experiment. Discuss the meaning and important of a control

in an experiment.

Extension: What is the meaning of the word "controlled" in a controlled experiment? Can

students describe another controlled experiment?

Homework: Students respond in their scientific journals to the two extension questions.

44
 Lesson 6

Topic: Identification of gases in inhaled and exhaled air.

Objectives: At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

19. Explain the meaning and importance of a controlled experiment (from Lesson 5).

20. Identify the gases in exhaled air.

21. Demonstrate the ability to use indicators to identify substances.

Teacher Preparation: Prepare a dilute solution of Brom Thymol Blue (BTB). Distribute

cobalt chloride paper. Make available the following liquids: vegetable oil, 100% alcohol, and

water. Make available tanks of the following gases: carbon dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen.

Procedure:

Part A: Students explore the following question--What materials (liquids and/or gases listed

above) make cobalt chloride paper and BTB solution change colors? Students answer this

question in their lab notebooks. Encourage student discussion in pairs or in small groups.

Pull the class together and briefly discuss the meaning of the word "indicator." (An

indicator is a tool for identifying the presence of a specific substance. Cobalt chloride paper

indicates the presence of water by turning blue to pink. BTB indicates carbon dioxide by

turning from blue to yellow.) These indicators will be used in Part B as well as in later lab

exercises.

45
Part B: Encourage students to discuss methods for using cobalt chloride paper and BTB

solution to compare inhaled and exhaled air. One possible procedure for students to follow: in

a testtube labeled "I" (for inhaled air; i.e., air in the atmosphere), add a piece of cobalt

chloride paper, stopper the tube, and shake. Note color change. In a testtube labeled "E"

(for exhaled air), add a piece of cobalt chloride paper, breathe into the tube, stopper the tube,

and shake. Note color change. Repeat these steps, using two squirts of BTB in place of cobalt

chloride paper. Students record all observations in the lab notebook.

List student observations on the board. Emphasize that an observation of "color

change" should specifically include the initial and the final color. As a result of these

procedures, students should "discover" that exhaled air contains more carbon dioxide and

water vapor than inhaled air. They probably "knew" this before, however, now they have

direct observations to support (emphasize that they did NOT "prove") their knowledge.

Students can examine whether other organisms give off carbon dioxide. Add BTB

solution to a testtube. Wedge a cotton ball into the testtube so that it rests just above the BTB

solution. The cotton ball will provide a platform for whatever small animal is used: pillbug,

mealworms, crickets, etc. Stopper the tubes and let sit for 24 to 48 hours.

Extension: What does it mean "to know" something? Can one prove that carbon dioxide is

present in exhaled air? What results in this lab exercise might disprove it? For example, is

carbon dioxide the only substance that changes the color of BTB solution? (In fact, no- - carbon

46
dioxide forms a weak acid in aqueous solutions; any acid changes the color of BTB solution.)

Homework: Students respond in their scientific journals to these extension questions.

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50
 Lesson 7

Topic: Identification of the combustion products of a candle.

Objectives: At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

22. Identify the combustion products of a candle.

23. Compare the combustion products of a candle to the gases present in exhaled air.

Teacher Preparation: Make available: cobalt chloride paper, BTB solution, candles,

matches, and beakers.

Procedure: Encourage students to develop an experiment to determine the products of a

burning candle using the indicators from the last lesson (cobalt chloride and BTB solution). A

possible procedure: cover a burning candle with a beaker until the flame goes out. Why?

Notice the condensation of the inner surface of the beaker. Use cobalt chloride paper to

determine if this is water vapor. Relight the candle and again cover it with a beaker until it

goes out. Turn the beaker upright and quickly pour in BTB solution and swirl.

As time allows, students can identify the combustion products of other materials:

methane gas (Bent 1986), paper, a peanut, etc. Alternatively, these identifications can be done

as teacher demonstrations. Combustion of all these materials yields carbon dioxide and water

vapor.

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51
Extension: How do the combustion products of a candle compare to the gases present in

exhaled air in Lesson 6? What is the significance of this comparison? What produced the

carbon dioxide present in exhaled air?

Homework: Students respond in their scientific journals to the extension questions.

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 Lesson 8

Topic: Descriptive introduction to the structure and function of the human respiratory system.

Objectives: At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

24. Compare external, internal, and cellular respiration.

25. Identify the structures of the human respiratory system and state the function of each

structure.

26. Trace the path of oxygen and carbon dioxide throughout the body.

Teacher Preparation: Set up the multi-media program AD.AM Essentials (Broderbund

Software), a CD-ROM on human anatomy.

Procedure: In discussion, elicit students' beliefs on the need for respiration. Build on their

conceptions, or confront their misconceptions (Gardner 1991, p.229; Linn and Songer 1991,

p.403; Resnick 1983, p.478) to introduce the functions of the human respiratory system.

Compare breathing, external respiration, internal respiration, and cellular respiration. In

addition, elicit students' understanding of the structures of the human respiratory system.

Demonstrate the respiratory system on AD.AM (Students will use this multimedia program

throughout the units on human biology.) Allow students to explore AD.AM

Homework: Students read p.648-652 in Heath Biology (McLaren et al. 1991). Spend at least

15 minutes exploring the respiratory system on AD.AM on the library computers.

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53
 Lesson 9

Topic: Boyle's law.

Objectives: At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

27. Explain what gas pressure is and describe how it can be measured.

28. Apply Boyle's law to describe (qualitatively and quantitatively) how the volume of a gas is

related to its pressure.

Teacher Preparation: Make available: 60 ml plastic syringes with plunger and end cap, large

rubber one-hole stoppers, ring stands, clamps, and weights.

Procedure: Students explore the syringes. Discuss the question--why it so hard to push in or

pull out the plunger when the end cap is secured? Develop a qualitative understanding of the

relationship between pressure and volume of a gas (they are inversely related--as pressure

increases, the volumes decreases).

Students break into their lab teams to develop a method to answer the question--what is

the quantitative relationship between pressure and volume of a gas? A possible procedure: set

the plunger at its highest marking on the cylinder. Fasten the end cap onto the end of the

syringe and insert into the rubber stopper. Clamp the syringe-stopper apparatus in an upright

position. Systematically add weights on top of the plunger and measure the volume of the

trapped air. Graph pressure versus volume.

51

5 ti
 Encourage students to consider other ways of graphing pressure and volume. Attempt

to get a straight line. (Graphing pressure (P) vs. the inverse of the volume (1/V) yields a

straight line.) Discuss quantitative interpretations of the graphs while recalling the students'

qualitative understanding of the relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas. Lead

students to "discover" the existence of atmospheric pressure. Begin with the question--if no

pressure is exerted on a gas, what would be its resulting volume? (The answer is infinity; the

gas would continue to expand under conditions of zero pressure.) Why does the graph of P

vs. 1/V not pass through the origin (0,0)? That is, when the pressure equals zero (i.e., there

are no weights on the plunger), why is 1/V not equal to zero (i.e., why does the volume not

equal infinity?) At this point, students might suggest that atmospheric pressure prevents the

infinite expansion of the trapped air. Perform demonstrations of atmospheric pressure; two

that are commonly listed in teacher resource books are Egg-in-the-bottle and Collapsing can.

Brief procedures are listed below:

Egg-in-the-bottle - Heat up a small amount of water in a large flask over a Bunsen

burner. The opening of the flask should be just smaller than a peeled hard-boiled egg. After

the water is boiling, set the flask on the counter and place the egg over the opening of the

flask. The atmospheric pressure will force the egg into the flask as the water vapor inside the

flask condenses, i.e., the gas pressure inside the flask decreases. Make a subtle pointDoes

atmospheric pressure push the egg in or, is the egg sucked in? The more accurate explanation

is that the egg was pushed in by atmospheric pressure. Suggestion: leave the egg-in-the-bottle

out on the front bench at the beginning of class before the demonstration. Ask the students to

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55
figure out how the egg was put into the bottle.

Collapsing can - Holding it with tongs, heat up a small amount of water in an

aluminum soda can over a Bunsen burner. After the water is boiling, invert the can into a

large pail of the water. The atmospheric pressure will instantaneously collapse the can when

the water vapor inside the can condenses, i.e., the gas pressure inside the can decreases.

Extension: How might Boyle's law relate to the mechanism of breathing? Does air get

pushed into or sucked into our lungs?

Homework: Students read p.213-215 in Heath Chemistry (Herron et al. 1993) and respond in

their scientific journals to the extension question.

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 Lesson 10

Topic: Detailed discussion of the function and structure of the human respiratory system.

Objectives: At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

25. Explain how the structure of the lung is related to its structure (recall Lesson 8).

29. Describe how air enters and leaves the lung.

Teacher Preparation: Make available: 2 -liter clear-plastic soda bottles, Y-tubes, balloons,

large one-hole rubber stoppers, sealer (wax, clay), rubber bands, cotton balls, baggies, and a

large rubber sheet (or large balloons).

Procedure: Challenge the students to construct a model of the chest using the materials listed

above. One possible procedure for students to follow: cut off the bottom of the soda bottle

(representing the thoracic cavity). Insert a glass Y-tube (representing the trachea and bronchi)

through a one-hole rubber stopper that fits into the mouth of the soda bottle. Use sealer if the

stopper does not fit tightly. Fasten two balloons (representing the lungs) to the two arms of

the Y-tube with rubber bands. Use another rubber band to secure a circle of rubber sheeting

(representing the diaphragm) over the bottom of the soda bottle (Morholt and Brandwein 1986,

p.320). Observe how gases move into and out of their "lungs" when the "diaphragm" is

pulled down. In discussion, relate Boyle's law to the mechanism of breathing. Review the

function and structures of the human respiratory system, particularly focusing on the lung.

Discuss the questions--How is this model an accurate representation of the thoracic cavity?

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How is it inaccurate? (The balloons do not accurately reflect the millions of tiny sacs, called

alveoli, present in human lungs.)

The effects of smoking can be demonstrated by placing cotton balls inside the lungs of

the chest model. Insert a lit cigarette into the tube that represents the mouth of the model.

After a few inflations, the cotton balls become quite stained. This effect can be seen more

easily if clear plastic baggies are used instead of balloons for the lungs.

In discussion, pose the following questions--Once oxygen has entered the lungs, how

does it get to the rest of the body? Where does the exhaled carbon dioxide come from?

(These questions can be used as Extension Questions.) Most students will know that the

circulatory system (the topic of the next Unit, see page 9) is involved. Follow-up question- -

How does oxygen move from the lung to the blood? Introduce the concept of diffusion (the

topic of the next lesson).

Homework: Students read p.652-655 in Heath Biology (McLaren et al. 1991). In their

scientific journals, students outline the concepts investigated in this unit.

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 Lesson 11

Topic: Diffusion.

Objectives: At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

30. Explain the process of diffusion.

Teacher Preparation: Make available: ammonia, potassium permanganate crystals, and

beakers. Set up the kinetic molecular demonstrator on the overhead.

Procedure: Students explore the diffusion of different substances in different media: diffusion

of methane and ammonia in air, diffusion of potassium permanganate (a purple crystal) in

water, and diffusion of carbon dioxide from air to water (Marek et al. 1994a, p.74).

Students can examine the effect of different factors on the rate of diffusion. In

observing the diffusion of potassium permanganate, different media may be tried, or the

temperature of the media may be changed.

Discuss the concept of diffusion--particles move randomly from an area of greater

concentration to lesser concentration until evenly distributed. Highlight the discussion with the

use of the kinetic molecular demonstrator on the overhead. Reinforce the idea that diffusion

accounts for the exchange of gases between the lungs and the blood.

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5
 Review the major concepts investigated in this unit in preparation for the assessment

that will occur in the next lesson.

Extension: Make a wet mount of Elodea (see Lesson 3). Place several drops of concentrated

salt solution along one side of the cover slip. Place the edge of a paper towel along the

opposite side of the cover slip. As the towel soaks up water, the salt solution will be drawn

under the coverslip. What happens to the Elodea cells in this highly saline environment?

Repeat procedures, but use distilled water in place of concentrated salt solution. What happens

to the Elodea cells in the presence of distilled water?

Repeat the entire sets of procedures using cheek cells in place of Elodea. You must be

looking at the cheek cells through the microscope as you add the distilled water.

Homework: Study for assessment.

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 Chapter 4 - Implementation

In a chapter in the book Interdisciplinary Curriculum (ed. Jacobs 1989), David

Ackerman provides a framework for educators pondering curriculum integration. He describes

two sets of criteria, the intellectual and the practical. Ackerman's framework echoes Michael

Fullan's terminology in his discussion of the what and howof educational change (Fullan
chemistry
1991). I explained the intellectual criteria (the what) for an integrated biology and

curriculum in Chapters 1 & 2. In this chapter, I will discuss the practical criteria (the how) of

implementing this curriculum at my school in San Francisco, University High School (UHS).

I will set the stage with a brief discussion of UHS. Next, I will describe the steps that

have already been taken and the plans for the future by the science department at UHS. This

chapter culminates in some recommendations for other schools considering curriculum

integration or, indeed, any curriculum change.

Background on University High School

UHS is a small (400 students) independent high school located in the affluent Pacific

Heights area of San Francisco. The school occupies a Julia Morgan-designed building

constructed at the turn of the century. Considered among the best academic private schools in

the Bay Area, UHS receives five times as many applications as it has spaces available in the
58
ninth grade class. As its name implies, UHS sends virtually all of its graduates to four-year

colleges and universities.

Despite its location and selectivity, UHS offers much to belie the stereotype of an elite

private school. The school maintains a strong financial aid program. Twenty-two percent of

the student body receives financial assistance totaling $675,000 (out of an operating budget of

5.5 million dollars). In addition, UHS "seeks to be a school not only in the city, but of the

city." To this end, the school developed a community service learning program to facilitate

contribution of the students to the broader community. The school employs two three-quarter

time Community Service Learning Directors who, with the student-run Community Service

Learning Committee, helps place students in positions with nonprofit agencies. Each student

must complete twenty hours of independent community service each year. In addition, all

students participate in a class project that enables them to work for service organizations such

as day care centers, hospitals, and convalescent homes. The school schedule includes a weekly

95-minute block for students to perform community service.

UHS also maintains an ethos of caring and support within the walls of the school. In

its mission statement, the school professes a commitment to the "welfare and development of

the total student." The students are allowed to discover different definitions of "excellence" in

many co-curricular activities. In addition to a strong athletic program, the school supports an

outdoor education program, a People of Color support group (student requested and

organized), a Gay and Lesbian support group (ditto), and Summerbridge, a six-week academic

59
program for middle school students taught by high school students. Other support structures

for students include a school counselor, a health educator, a college counselor, a peer advising

program (non-academic), and a peer tutoring program (academic). However, the primary

system of guidance and support for students is the Advising program. Each faculty member

meets weekly with 10 student advisees.

The faculty (60 members) is seen as a strength of the school, generally praised by all

components of the school community; students, parents, administration, and the board of

trustees. The faculty is educated and experienced; over 75% hold advanced degrees in their

academic field and most have taught elsewhere before coming to UHS. Beyond their teaching

responsibilities, faculty members serve on committees that assist the administrative council in

overseeing the day-to-day operations. The administrative council includes the Headmaster, the

Academic Dean, the Dean of Students, the Chief Financial Officer, the College Counselor, the

Development Director, and the Admissions Director.

This laudatory introduction to UHS serves to highlight; 1) the strong academic

program, 2) the strong faculty (the two go hand in hand), and 3) the institutionally supported

care and concern for the students. This care and commitment can lead to conflicting priorities

when attempting curricular or systemic change.

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 Curricular Change

During 1992-1993, the Science Department decided to consider integrated science

courses. This decision evolved out of pie-in-the-sky discussions, "if we could change

everything, what would we do?" In the spring of 1993, the four biology and chemistry

teachers (Ray Boyington, Ann Pogrel, Rob Spivack, and I) met away from school for a day to

explore the feasibility of an integrated biology and chemistry course. The physics teachers

expressed no interest in changing their course. (A practical consideration: the four biology

and chemistry teachers had no experience teaching physics and the two physics teachers had no

experience teaching either biology or chemistry.) After a broad ranging discussion, we

decided that an integrated course would not compromise the integrity of either discipline and,

additionally, would be a better educational experience for our students (see Rationale on pages

5-8). Based on this skeleton plan, the administration agreed to support us with Professional

Development Funds for two weeks during the summer of 1993 to "flesh out" a curriculum for

an integrated biology and chemistry course.

Simultaneously, three other significant changes were being considered at UHS: 1) The

Community Service Learning Committee was redefining its focus and pondering greater

integration into the academic curriculum. 2) A Schedule Committee was formed and charged,

among other priorities, to find more time for science labs. 3) The English, History, and Arts

teachers were considering greater integration and/or coordination of their instruction of ninth

and tenth grade students. Collectively, these impending changes raised the intoxicating

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.8 4
possibility that we might develop a coordinated and/or integrated curriculum across all

disciplines for the lower division (ninth and tenth grades). I will return to these changes later

in this section. I will focus now on the changes in the science department.

As science department chair, my role was to lead our meetings and to facilitate

communication between the department and the administration. In addition, I wrote the

application for official University of California (UC) approval of our integrated curriculum

(see Appendix). As I indicated earlier, UHS sends 30%-40% of its graduates to a UC school.

The Academic Dean, William Bullard, aided me in this task. UC granted approval for the

Integrated Biology and Chemistry Curriculum in January 1995.

Four science teachers (Ray Boyington, Ann Pogrel, Rob Spivack, and I) met for two

weeks over the summer of 1993 and developed an integrated biology and chemistry curriculum

for all ninth and tenth grade students. I had researched information on science reform

published by national and state science organization -- specifically, Science for All Americans

(American Association for the Advancement of Science 1989), the The Content Core: A Guide

to Curriculum Designers: Scope, Sequence, and Coordination (National Science Teachers

Association 1993), Fulfilling the Promise: Biology Education in the Nation's Schools (National

Research Council 1990), and the Science Framework for California Public Schools (California

State Board of Education 1990). However, we drew primarily on our teaching experience to

develop our curriculum. With 12 years of teaching, I had the least experience of the group.

Our resulting curriculum (listed on page 9) incorporated many suggestions by the national and

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state organizations, although we had not explicitly referred to them.

These organizations have published additional reports in the last two years. All

recommended interdisciplinary and/or multidisciplinary approaches to science education as

well as emphasis on the "habits of mind" questions (for example, '"how do we know?") and

active learning environments. Titles of publications are listed in italics.

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) - Project 2061

Benchmarks for Science Literacy (1993)
Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS)
Developing Biological Literacy (1993)
Redesigning the Science Curriculum (1995)
National Research Council (NRC)
National Science Education Standards (1995)
National Science Teachers Association (NSTA)
Scope, Sequence & Coordination (SS&C) of National Science Education
Content Standards (1994)
The Content Core A Guide for Curriculum Designers (1994)
A High School Framework for National Science Education Standards (1995)

We chose three short-range goals. First, our separate biology and chemistry courses in

1993-1994 were used as testing grounds for the topic order of the integrated curriculum.

Based on that experience, we revised the biology and chemistry courses slightly for 1994-

1995. Second, we provided training for Ray Boyington and Rob Spivack. Ray has been

dedicated to teaching chemistry, while Rob had only taught biology. Ann Pogrel and I have

taught both biology and chemistry courses. Ray and Rob are presently (1994-1995) co-

teaching both a chemistry and a biology class. The administration supported this training by

reducing their course loads by 1/2 class. Third, I further researched issues in integrating

science curriculum in project supported by the Klingenstein Center at Teachers College

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6 f;
Columbia University for 1994-1995 school year. Specifically, I have been investigating

integrated science courses at other high schools, cognitive development in adolescents, the

history of reform in science education, and educational philosophy.

Our long-range goal is to implement the first year of the integrated curriculum for ninth

grade students during the 1995-1996 school year. This step will coincide with implementation

of other systemic changes occurring at UHS, including the new schedule. The four science

teachers will meet during the last two weeks of June 1995 for final planning, again supported

by Professional Development Funds. In addition, the four science teachers will meet weekly

throughout 1995-1996 as the newly formed Integrated Science Committee. Each of us will

teach our own section(s) of the integrated course, i.e., no team-teaching. Chemistry will

continue to be offered in 1995-1996 for the students who took biology in 1994-1995. Full

implementation of the integrated science program for both ninth and tenth grade students will

occur in 1996-1997.

I return to the three other significant changes under development at UHS. The

Community Service Learning Committee has spent the last two years redefining its focus.

They have been somewhat successful at greater integration into the academic curriculum.

Rather than systemic integration, they have taken a course-by-course approach. Specific

teachers have developed partnerships with the Community Service Learning Office. For

example, one Spanish teacher committed class time to training his students to act as English

tutors for recently-emigrated Latinos. It is hoped that these partnerships will provide models

64
for other teachers to emulate.

This Schedule Committee spent last year (1993-1994) considering the schedules of

other schools and trying to develop new schedules. Besides its charge to find more time for

science labs, the Committee was constrained by the following: other disciplines did not want to

decrease their classtime, the Community Service block could not be shortened (ideally

extended), a common lunch must be maintained for student club and activities meetings, and

after-school athletics limited any extension of the end of the school day. Even given these

limitations, the committee came up with three models for faculty consideration. (This year- -

1994- 1995 - -has been spent discussing these models.) This issue has been met with a

tremendous amount of resistance. Some protest the "inequity," maintaining that science

classes should not have any more time than other disciplines. Others simply resist change,

claiming that the present schedule suits them fine. In early April 1995, the Headmaster Peter

Esty chose a new schedule to take effect in 1995-1996 that adds 25 minutes to the science

laboratory blocks. They will now total 95 minutes.

All of the English, History, and Arts teachers met last year to consider greater

integration and/or coordination of their instruction of ninth and tenth grade students. Their

efforts have not progressed smoothly. They have selected some common readings and hope to

underscore thematic material in all of their courses. However, the large group size, the large

domain to be integrated, and some strong-willed participants have all conspired to limit

comprehensive integration. Some pathways of communication have been opened and progress

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66
is continuing.

General Comments

In comparison to the humanities deliberations, the science department has had relatively

placid meetings. Some reasons I alluded to in the last section. Our group was smallerfour

science teachers vs. twelve humanities teachers. Our task was smaller--integration of two

areas within a discipline vs. integration across several disciplines. Lastly, the science

department has been one of the more cohesive departments at UHS. Our limited physical

space has contributed to this cohesiveness. The science teachers all have their desks in one

large office. In this regard, our meetings could extend beyond the formal meeting times, as

discussions often arise spontaneously during free time. Informal or off -task interactions (nerf

ping pong, juggling, etc.) have contributed to the community feel of the science office and

enhanced working relationships. We also share classroom space and have a tiny preparatory

room to setup labs. Thus, we are often in each other's classrooms, making up solutions and

getting out equipment. I find that I learn a great deal from my colleagues about teaching in

this short time. Lastly, the department members have demonstrated an impressive pedagogical

flexibility in addition to (some would say "despite") their vast experience teaching experience.

In the article that I discussed at the beginning of this chapter, David Ackerman (1989,

p.31) identified three practical considerations for curricular change: time, schedule, and

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69
budget.

Time is required for curricular development and evolution. In the planning stages, we

needed concentrated time away from school, when our attention was not split by the daily

demands of teaching. Constructivist philosophy applies to teachers as well as students,

teachers must be given the time and support to construct their understanding of an educational

change based on their prior teaching history. Next year, when the new curriculum is

implemented, we have planned weekly meetings for communication and coordination.

The schedule is destiny. This statement does not overstate the impact that the schedule

can have in implementing educational and curricular decisions. Students must have time to

reflect upon and process the overarching concepts taught in an integrated curriculum. Longer

blocks of time must be carved out of the schedule for a more student-centered, hands-on

approach. Time also needs to be allocated for teacher collaboration and consultation.

The success of addressing the foregoing two factors depends on the institutional

willingness to commit money. The budget must support the training of teachers and the

acquisition of additional materials. This support must continue beyond the planning stages.

I would add a key additional factor needed to ensure the success of any educational

change--faculty buy-in. It may be obvious to say that teachers must comprehend and commit

to an educational change for that change to be successful. "Learning cannot change is teaching

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work doesn't change" (Ancess and Darling-Hammond 1994, p.29). However, that point is so

often forgotten in "top-down" reform efforts. The affected faculty must be included in the

process of the change--development, implementation and continuation. Compatibility among

faculty members would be ideal, but a few key members should also possess skills in conflict

resolution when this breaks down.

Future Directions

I envision eight critical issues that we should address as we prepare to implement this

integrated curriculum in the fall of 1995. This is hardly an exhaustive list and other issues will

likely surface as we progress.

1) The evolving curriculum. The curriculum should continue to evolve so that it

becomes truly integrated. As we have presently configured the curriculum, we distinguished

the biology from the chemistry topics. As we gain more experience in teaching this topic

sequence, we will look for more links and less distinction between biology and chemistry

topics. Collegial discussion of this issue can/will occur during our weekly meetings.

2) Mentoring/support new Acuity members. Next year, the weekly meetings will

provide support for the four founding teachers. For the long-term maintenance of this

curriculum, however, we also need to plan to mentor and support new science faculty

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71
members when a founding teacher leaves the school. Successful innovative curricula seldom

last long once the teachers who developed these curricula depart (Charles Hardy, personal

communication, 1995; Cuban 1992, p.240). A critical aid to new teachers will be the

development of written curriculum materials (see issue #7). New teachers can also aid in the

evolution of this curriculum, as they will bring new perspectives.

3) Reduce fragmentation of students' learning experience. Many factors contribute to

the fragmentation of students' learning experience (see also issues #4, #5, and #6), but I will

focus on the schedule. Although we have just completed changing the schedule at UHS, I

would argue that further change is necessary. In Horace's Compromise: The Dilemma of the

American High School, Ted Sizer (1984) presents a troubling picture of the typical high

school, a place that forces teachers to compromise to meet the demands of the system. I found

the most compelling of Sizer's criticisms to be the choppiness of the school day as exemplified

by schedule of Mark, a typical but unremarkable student (p.71-76). In what might have been

the most valuable activity that I have done as a Klingenstein fellow, I shadowed a student for a

day at Horace Greeley High School in Chappequa, NY. I would suggest this activity to any

teacher as a way to better understand their students. Horace Greeley is considered one of the

best public schools in the country and my student, David, was one of its strongest students.

Like Sizer's fictitious student Mark, David had a class in every one of eight periods. At the

end of the day, I was exhausted. However, David still had play practice from 4:00-6:00 (he

was the musical director for Pippin), music practice from 6:30-8:30 (he arranged songs for an

a cappella singing group), and 1-2 hours of homework. How could he do this? Why was I

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72
exhausted and he still able to go on? Beyond snide comments about my advancing age (which

certainly may be part of the explanation), I would suggest that I attempted to connect and

integrate all of the disparate experiences (classes) throughout the day and this effort was

fatiguing. The irony here is that the schedule promotes disconnection, encourages the students

to not integrate the material and skills that they learn. As Sizer suggests, "there is a frenetic

quality to the school day, a sense of sustained restlessness" (p. 79) with "a high premium

placed on punctuality... a low premium placed on reflection and repose" (p. 80). The best

students (like David) learn to compartmentalize their learning, efficiently turning around

information--they listen and take notes on the teachers' presentations and faithfully return that

information to the teacher on tests and homework assignments. The rest of the students (like

Mark) pass through the systematized, conveyer-belt of schooling the object of, but mostly

unaffected by, the information being directed at them.

If I could make only one major change in secondary education, it would be to change

the schedule under which most schools operate. I would like to see a schedule with fewer

periods that meet for longer times. Some schools had successfully adopted a 10-day cycle-

each day has four periods and each period meets for 90 minutes (Gerking 1995; Day 1995). A

particular class meets every other day, five times within a 10-day cycle. The benefit to the

student is fewer transitions within each day. Although the number of minutes that each class

meets is equivalent to that of a class that meets every day for 45 minutes, there is a qualitative

increase in the learning time because there are fewer stops and starts to disrupt learning and

reflection. Opposition to this plan would likely come from many sectors (every sector?) of the

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d3
school community. Math and foreign language teachers might be particularly opposed to this

plan because they feel that students need regular (daily) exposure and repetition of material.

However, this argument sounds suspiciously like the "mental discipline" argument of a century

ago. Unfortunately, a change in the schedule can be the most divisive change a school can

undertake. All teachers are affected as lesson plans need to be revamped, styles need to be

varied (you cannot lecture for 90 minutes), and rhythms change.

The next three issues deal with students' past (#4), present (#5), and future (#6)

educational experiences.

4) Coordination with middle school science programs in the area. I plan to have

greater communication with science teachers at the middle schools from which we draw our

students. I have been slow to initiate contact because of daunting numberswe draw from

other 30 middle schools. Skills and concepts that students have learned can be used as a

foundation for their learning in high school.

5) Coordination with other University High School courses. Over the last nine years,

UHS has had a freshman curriculum committee that provided teachers awareness of the skills,

the topics, and the rhythm of other disciplines. As a result, I have used the same language in

describing a conclusion to a lab report that the English teacher used to discuss paragraph

construction. We will continue to seek links between the disciplines in the lower divisionsfor

example, discussion of ethical issues related to biotechnology--and better anticipate learning in

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the upper division. We recently hired a physics teacher, Nasif Iskander, who had worked at

the Exploratorium, the well-known, discovery science museum in San Francisco. He can help

better coordinate the integrated biology and chemistry curriculum with the physics curriculum

because he brings greater expertise in both the natural sciences and physics that we had

possessed on the science faculty.

6) Chart student outcomes. As our students exit this integrated curriculum, I intend to

chart their science achievement by traditional and alternative means. Naturally, I will examine

their performance on the subject area SAT-II tests. In the past, our students have done very

well by these measures. I am also interested in questions that may be more difficult to

quantify or complicated by other variables. How do these students perform in Advanced

Placement (AP) science courses and on the AP tests? How are enrollments affected? In the

past, far fewer females than males took our AP chemistry and physics courses. Will more

female take these courses in the future? How will our students perform in college science

courses where most instruction occurs in the separate disciplines?

7) Develop curriculum materials. We plan to develop written curriculum materials,

possibly a textbook. These materials will be necessary to support the integrated learning of

our students--this fall, they must alternate between biology and chemistry textbooks. The

students must rely on the teacher to bridge the isolated perspective of these texts. Written

curriculum materials will also support new science faculty members and aid teachers at other

schools to envision similar reform.

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 8) Maintain contact with other innovative high school science programs. Finally, I

intend to maintain contact with other schools that have initiated innovative science curriculum

to share experiences related to these issues of educational change. At the National Science

Teachers Association meeting in March, several teachers gathered informally to discuss their

experiences. At this gathering, Kelly Gatewood from Omaha (Nebraska) North High School

christened the National Association of Integrated Science Teachers (NAIST). The NAIST

already has twelve teacher members and we have been communicating by electronic mail.

Schools with Innovative Science Programs

Academy for the Advancement of Science & Technology, Hackensack, NJ. Integrated
study of science and technology. I visited the school and talked to Don DeWitt,
science teacher, on March 13, 1995.

Amador County Unified School District, CA. Integrated study of all science disciplines
using projects and themes as a foundation. I attended a presentation by Gary Sokolis at
the California Science Teachers Association meeting on October 16, 1993.

Central Park East Secondary School, New York, NY. Integrated study of science and
math. I visited the school and attended classes on December 8, 1994.

Charlotte Latin School, Charlotte, NC. Integrated study of science and engineering for
middle school students. I attended a presentation by Tom Dubick, science teacher, at
the National Association of Independent Schools on March 3, 1995.

College Preparatory School, Oakland, CA. Coordinated study of biology and chemistry over
two years for tenth and eleventh grade students. I attended a presentation by Julie
Stokstad, science department chair, at the California Association of Independent
Schools meeting in the spring of 1992.

Community High School, Ann Arbor, MI. Integrated study of earth science, biology,
physics, and technology over three years for ninth through eleventh grade students. I
attended a presentation by Madeline Drake, Elizabeth Stern, and Michael Mouradian,
science teachers, at the National Science Teachers Association meeting on March 25,
1995.

73
Convent of the Sacred Heart School, New York, NY. Coordinated study of biology,
chemistry, and physics over three years for ninth through eleventh grade students. I
visited the school, attended classes, and talked to Keith Shepard, science department
chair, in the fall of 1994.

Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Allied Health Sciences, Boston, MA. Coordinated
study of biology and chemistry over two years. I talked with Professors Fred Garafalo
and Vin LoPresti in Boston on March 2, 1995.

Omaha North High School, Omaha, NE. Integrated theme-based, study of biology and
chemistry over two years for ninth and tenth grade students. I talked with Kelly
Gatewood and Susan Koba, science teachers, at the National Science Teachers
Association meeting on March 25, 1995.

Punahou School, Honolulu, HI. Integrated study of biology, geology, chemistry, math, and
physics over two years for ninth and tenth grade students using the theme of time. I
talked by phone with Jerry Devlin, science teacher, in September, 1994.

Stuyvesant High School, New York, NY. Integrated study of chemistry and physics over one
year (double periods) for tenth or eleventh grade students. I visited the school and
attended the classes of Miriam I -272r, science teacher, on February 8, 1995.

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 Appendix
Biology and Chemistry Two-Year Integrated Program

University High School

San Francisco, CA

Application for Curriculum Approval

University of California
July 25, 1994

Page

i. Overall Organization of Coursework 83

ii. Essential Concepts to be Explored 87

iii. General Demands Made Upon the Students 97

iv. Prerequisites and Corequisites 97

v. Methods of Assessment 97

vi. Laboratory Exercises/Activities 98

Textbooks Heath Biology, McLaren et al., D.C. Heath and Company, 1991.
Heath Chemistry, Herron et al., D.C. Heath and Company, 1987.

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L Overall Organization of Coursework

Integrated Biology and Chemistry I - Ninth Grade

FALL
A. Scientific Method/Characteristics of Life
B. Introduce Human Biology/Respiratory System
C. Gases volume/composition/properties combustion products
D. Diffusion/Osmosis
E. Circulatory System
F. Combustion/Qualitative Energetics
G. Descriptive Kinetics

SPRING
H. Digestive System/Excretory System
I. Reproductive System
J. Diversity of Life (Five Kingdoms)
K. Chemical Separations
L. Ecology

Integrated Biology and Chemistry II - Tenth grade

FALL
M. Atomic-molecular theory
N. Electronic structure of atoms
0. Molecular structure
P. Physical properties
Q. Chemistry of organic functional groups
R. Molecules - Carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, proteins
S. Stoichiometry
T. Energetics quantitative
U. Aqueous solutions

SPRING
V. Kinetics - quantitative
W. Cells/organelles
X. Acid/base
Y. Equilibrium - quantitative
Z. Reduction/oxidation reactions
A'. Tools of Biotechnology
B'. Genetics
C'. Evolution/History of Life

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Narrative Overview of Overall Organization of Coursework

We have developed a two-year curriculum that integrates Biology and Chemistry for

the ninth and tenth grades. Traditional high school science education divides study into the

separate disciplines. However, many state and national organizations recommend integrated

science curricula including the California State Board of Education, the National Science

Teachers Association, and the National Academy of Sciences. These organizations support our

argument that students would be better served by an integrated study of biology and chemistry

for two fundamental reasons. First, an integrated approach is a better way to learn science

given the intellectual co-dependence of biology and chemistry. The living state ultimately

results from interactions between molecules and atoms, commonly thought to be the realm of

chemistry. The study of any topic in biology would be enriched by an understanding of the

supporting chemical principles. Second, a host of public policy decisions and ethical dilemmas

surrounds recent advances in biotechnology and genetics. If our students are to be prepared

participants in these decisions, they must possess an integrated understanding of biology and

chemistry as well as recognition that scientific discoveries often have social consequences.

Our proposed curriculum matches the cognitive development of ninth and tenth grade

students. Topics progress from the concrete to the abstract, i.e., we begin with the study of

organisms and later consider the underlying cell and molecular phenomena. In fact, the first

semester is framed by study of the organism most meaningful to students humans.

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 During the first year, we will focus on the study of biology and develop the need to

delve deeper to learn chemistry. Topics normally taught during Chemistry courses will be

presented in an introductory or qualitative fashion at relevant junctures in our study of

organismal biology. These topics will be examined quantitatively or in greater depth in the

second year. For example, a descriptive introduction to rates of reactions (kinetics) and the

effect of catalysts will precede the study of the digestive system. Organic molecules will be

loosely defined as large molecules broken down to building blocks during the digestive

process. (Most students have, at the least, heard the terms carbohydrates, lipids, and

proteins.) Rigorous definitions of these organic molecules are left to the second year, after

study of atomic and molecular structure. Further examination of kinetics will include

quantitative terms. By the end of the two-year sequence, we feel that each discipline, biology

and chemistry, will be equally well served.

Units on biotechnology, genetics, and evolution provide a pedagogically appropriate

closure to an integrated biology and chemistry curriculum. Students would apply their

understanding of both subjects to explore the related ethical, legal, and societal issues of

contemporary scientific problems. The fruits of biotechnological advances have already

reached our supermarket shelves (literally), our pharmacies, and affected our judicial system.

Unreasonable fears abound. "Environmentally-conscious" chefs in the Bay Area have decided

not to serve the genetically altered tomato, though nearly all of our food crops have been

altered genetically through selective breeding over the last two thousand years. Reasonable

concerns have also been raised. If a genetic disease can be detected but not corrected, will

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affected individuals be discriminated against? Will they be able to find health insurance? As

employers increasingly insure their employees, will affected individuals be able to find

employment? Our students can be and should be familiar with the rudimentary techniques of

biotechnology to assess such issues. As the English, History, and Arts teachers at our school

are considering an integrated Humanities curriculum for the 9th and 10th grades, we have the

unique opportunity to develop units that could at the least underscore thematic connections

across the entire lower division curriculum.

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 Essential Concepts to be Explored Essential Concepts (in bold type) from
"Statement on Preparation in Natural Science Expected of Entering Freshmen" published by
the University of California in July 1986. The numbers indicate the essential concept from the
biology (Bio) section or the chemistry (Chem) of that document. The letters correspond to the
topic sequence of our integrated biology and chemistry curriculum (see page 83).

A. Scientific Method/Characteristics of Life

1. (Bio) The Cell - Building Block of All Life Forms (briefly, later more detail)
introductory section presenting an overview of course
cell structure
biological organization
utilization of energy by living systems
growth
response to stimuli
cellular and organismic adaptation
cells, tissues, organs in humans beings
introduction to principles of evolution

1. (Chem) Introductory Concepts - Definitions and Examples (briefly, later more detail)
states of matter

B. Introduce Human Biology/Respiratory System

12. (Bio) Human Biology
overview of anatomical structure and function
system analyses
cell biology and metabolism (briefly, later more detail)
organ physiology

C. Gases - volume/composition/properties - combustion products

8. (Chem) Gases
the kinetic molecular theory of gases (qualitative)
pressure and its measurement - units of pressure
temperature and temperature scales - Kelvin scale
Boyle's law
Charles' law

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D. Diffusion/Osmosis
3. (Bio) The Structural Basis of life
movement of materials across cell membranes

E. Circulatory System

F. Combustion/Qvalitative Energetics
14. (Chem) Energetics and Dynamics
energy changes during physical changes & chemical reactions

G. Descriptive Kinetics
effect of changes in temperature
effect of catalysts
potential energy diagrams

H. Digestive System/Excretory System

2. (Bio) The Chemical Basis and Requirements of Life (briefly, later more detail)
molecules essential to the functioning of living systems
their molecular structure and biological role -
proteins , lipids, and polysaccharides
energetics of chemical reactions - including the role of enzymes and other catalysts

I. Reproductive System
12. (Bio) Human Biology
human reproduction and sexuality
human embryology and development

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:91.
 J. Diversity of Life (Five Kingdoms)
8. (Bio) Taxonomy
classification (reasons for and concepts of)
contributions of Linnaeus
modern taxonomic systems
scientific nomenclature
present-day classification systems
phenetic and phylogenetic trees

9. (Bio) Animal Phyla, Physiology and Behavior

major classes of animal organisms
invertebrates
vertebrates
their structural and functional similarities and differences
their evolutionary relationships
major systems of vertebrates
system-by-system analysis
application of basic principles to humans
energy systems in animals
neurobiology systems
behavioral patterns

10. (Bio) Plants and Protists

major classes of plant organisms
botanical principles
plant structures
protists in the web of life
structure, evolutionary relationships, functional differences, economic significance,
organizational complexity of the following groups of organisms:
viruses and bacteria, protozoa, fungi, algae
mosses, liverworts, and ferns
gymnosperms, angiosperms
role of plants and protists in nutrition and medicine
applications in modern agriculture and technology (briefly, later in mom detail)

K. Chemical Separations
1. (Chem) Introductory Concepts - Definitions and Examples
states of matter
chemical and physical properties
pure substances and mixtures
heterogeneous and homogeneous substances
physical change
chemical change

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L. Ecology
4. (Bio) Energetics of Life
overview of energy processes within organisms
(later include cell structures and organelles)
cellular respiration (briefly, later in MOM detail)
photosynthesis (briefly, later in mare detail)
uses and conversions of chemical energy
the balance of autotrophs and heterotrophs
predator-prey relationships
the balance of chemical and energy cycles
energy flow within a community
impact of human society on the natural environment

11. (Bio) Ecology

structure and function of ecosystems; population biology, community structure
demographics and the environment
wise use renewable and non-renewable resources
the "agricultural revolution" its consequences for population growth etc.
control of pollution and toxic waste
conservation of natural resources

16. (Bio) Biology and Human Affairs

public participation in scientific undertaking
using knowledge to reach informed decisions
careers and avocations in biology
ethical and moral considerations in biology

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M. Atomic-molecular theory
1. (Chem) Introductory Concepts - Definitions and Examples
states of matter
chemical and physical properties
pure substances and mixtures
heterogeneous and homogeneous substances
physical change
chemical change

3. (Chem) The Atomic Nature of Matter - Atoms and elements

the atomic theory
the nuclear atom
subatomic particles - protons, electrons, neutrons
qualitative introduction to atomic structure
elements - atomic number
chemical symbols and names of the elements
isotopes - mass number
atomic mass unit - relative weights of atoms
ion formation through electron gain or loss
the charges and nomenclature of common monatomic cations and anions

4. (Chem) Introduction to the Periodic Table

atomic number and the periodic table
classification of elements according to the periodic table -
main group elements, transition elements
physical properties of the common elements - common physical states, densities
chemical formulas of the elements - allotropes
chemical families - names of the families and some simple illustrations of the
chemical and physical properties of families

2. (Bio) The Chemical Basis and Requirements of Life

atoms, molecules, chemical bonds and reactions

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 N. Electronic structure of atoms
5. (Chem) Compounds and Chemical Formulas
elements and compounds
binary compounds: molecular and ionic
nomenclature of binary compounds
molecules and ions containing three or more elements
formulas and names of common polyatomic ions
nomenclature of salts

11. (Chem) Chemical Bonding

the concept of valence electrons in atoms
Lewis dot representation of atoms
Lewis dot representation of monatomic (sic) ions
relative sizes of monatomic cations and anions compared to atoms
the Lewis concept of covalent and ionic bonds
the concept of electronegativity - polarity of bonds in diatomic molecules
Lewis structures in simple molecules - the use of the octet rule

0. Molecular structure
10. (Chem) Geometry of Simple Molecules and Polyatomic Ions
classification of common molecules and ions based on a central atom and
pendant (ligand) atom
geometric structure of simple molecules and ions
linear and bent triatomic molecules (2 ligands)
pyramidal and trigonal planar geometries (3 ligands)
tetrahedral and square planar geometries (4 ligands)
P. Physical properties
9. (Chem) Solids and Liquids
comparison of the properties and characteristics of gases, liquids, and solids
phase changes: evaporation and condensation; melting and solidification;
sublimation
heat changes accompanying phase changes
qualitative introduction to the concept of dynamic equilibrium
vapor pressure - boiling point
qualitative structural picture of the nature of crystalline solids and of liquids
Q. Chemistry of organic functional groups

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R. Molecules - Carbohydrates, lipids, DNA/RNA/proteins
2. (Bio) The Chemical Basis and Requirements of Life
atoms, molecules, chemical bonds and reactions
molecules essential to the functioning of living systems
their molecular structure and biological role -
proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and polysaccharides
energetics of chemical reactions - including the role
of enzymes and other catalysts (more detail)

S. Stoichiometry
2. (Chem) Measurement - Definitions and quantitative application
measurement systems - the metric system and SI units
scientific notation - it relationship to metric prefixes
the qualitative concept of precision and error
dimensional analysis and unit conversion - emphasis on mass, volume, density

6. (Chem) Calculations and Chemical Formulas

the mole
molecular weight (formula weight)
Avogadro's number
mass-to-mole and mole-to-number interconversions
elemental composition (percent composition)
empirical formula determination

7. (Chem) Chemical Equations and Calculations

writing and balancing equations
conservation of atoms and charge, and the meaning of a balanced equation
conservation of mass and reaction stoichiometry - including mole-to-mole,
mole-to-mass, and mass-to-mass calculations
the yield of a reaction and percent yield
limiting reagent calculations

8. (Chem) Gases (more detail)

Boyle's law
Charles' law
Avogadro's law - law of combining volumes
the ideal gas law
standard temperature and molar volume
stoichiometry problems involving gases

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T. Energetics - quantitative
14. (Chem) Energetics and Dynamics
energy changes during chemical reactions

U. Aqueous solutions
12. (Chem) Solutions
water and its properties
solutes and solvents
electrolytes and nonelectrolytes in aqueous solution concentration
concentration units - percent by weight, molarity
calculations involving interconversions among moles, mass, volume, and
molarity, including dilution

13. (Chem) Chemical Reactivity

a. Precipitation Reactions in Aqueous Solutions

qualitative aqueous solubility of common salts

strong electrolyte character of most common soluble salts
deduction of a chemical equation for a precipitation reaction using the solubility
data for common salts

V. Kinetics quantitative
first order rate law
effect of changes in temperature
effect of catalysts
potential energy diagrams

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 W. Cells/organelles
3. (Bio) The Structural Basis of Life
structure of plant and animal cells
the cellular environment
movement of materials across cell membranes (revisited)
movement within the cell
levels of organization in multicellular organisms
nature and role of anaerobiosis and fermentation - applications to humans
and medicine

4. (Bio) Energetics of Life (mom detail)

overview of energy processes within organisms
cellular respiration
photosynthesis
uses and conversions of chemical energy

5. (Bio) Growth and Reproduction

comparison of roles of meiosis and mitosis in cellular and organismic reproduction
sexual and asexual reproduction - alternative means of species perpetuation

X. Acid/base
13. (Chem) Chemical Reactivity
b. Acid-Base Reactions in Aqueous Solution

Arrhenius and Bronsted-Lowry definitions of acids and bases

nomenclature of common inorganic acids and bases
strong electrolyte character of many common acids and bases
the neutralization reaction
deduction of a chemical equation for an acid-base reaction using the neutralization
reaction - emphasis on common strong acids and bases
definition of pH - qualitative applications
acid and base precursors - oxides of nonmetals and oxides of metals

Y. Equilibrium - quantitative
14. (Chem) Energetics and Dynamics
dynamic equilibria in chemical systems
Le Chatelier's principle

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Z. Reduction/oxidation reactions
13. (Chem) Chemical Reactivity
c. Oxidation and Reduction Reactions
descriptive chemistry of oxygen and the halides, including the preparation of
simple oxides and halides of main
group elements as examples of oxidation and reduction
descriptive chemistry of Group I and II representative metals, including the action
of other active metals on aqueous solutions - generation of hydrogen gas
combustion of simple hydrocarbons
definition of oxidation and reduction
concept of oxidation numbers
balancing simple equations by half-equation method
practical applications - combustion and batteries

A'. Tools of Biotechnology

13. (Bio) Health and Major Diseases
public health and modern medicine
principles of genetic counseling
potentials of bioengineering
concepts and controversies in human health and fitness

5. (Bio) Growth and Reproduction

potentials of bioengineering
reproductive technology in agriculture and medicine

10. (Bio) Plants and Protists

applications in modern agriculture (mom detail)

B'. Genetics
7. (Bio) Principles of Heredity
chromosomal theory of heredity
Mendelian genetics and improvement of crops
gene-enzyme relationships - their application to human inheritance

C'. Evolution/History of Life

6. (Bio) Evolution
history of life and organic diversity
survey of organic evolution and speciation
synthesis of genetic variation and natural selection in effecting morphological,
physiological, and behavioral changes in populations over time
evidence and logic in defining the evolutionary process
evidence from fossils
interpretations of human evolution

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 General Demands Made Upon the Students
Written/Oral Expression
Lab Reports - 1-2 pages, assigned 2-4/month

Presentations - oral and written

ex. report on an element, an organelle, etc.

Tests - subjective/objective sections include essay

Laboratory exercises/activities - see next section.

Each course meets 205 minutes per week - three 45 minute periods and
one 70 minute block.

Laboratory exercises occur once per week during the 70 minute block.

Additional hands-on activities and demonstrations can occur more than once
per week during the 45 minute periods.

iv. Prerequisites and Corequisites

no prerequisite to Biology and Chemistry A

level of math sophistication - students must be in (or above) Algebra I

v. Methods of Assessment

tests 60% - 70%

lab reports 20% - 30%

additional written work 10%

short written assignments
oral and written presentations

daily preparation ungraded, but a contributing factor

reading
participation in class discussions

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vi. L2 bora tory Exercises/Activities (in bold type). The letters correspond to the topic
sequence of our integrated biology and chemistry curriculum (see page 83).

A. Scientific Method/Characteristics of Life

importance of being a good observer, accurate recording

-Observational activity - partner, pillbug

write down all observations
reconstruct organism on butcher paper from descriptions

scientific communication
reproducibility/consensus - same pillbug, different observations
observation vs. inference, bias
students better at distinguishing/describing partner than pillbug
What characteristics do your partner and a pillbug share?
leads into Characteristics of Life (Unity)
what do living things need?
processes, structures
How can you distinguish something that is dead from something that was
never alive? (Sophisticated question - pose now, answer later)

-Observational activity - Microscope Work

extend observations with technology
cheek cells, aquatic plant (Elodea), onion membrane

cell theory (pick up cells again with circulation)

B. Introduce Human Biology/Respiratory System

-Observational activity - partner at rest, active

heart rate, resp rate, flushed, sweat
extend observations with technology - stethoscope
later blood pressure cuff, respirometer, EKG
-Effect of temp on Goldfish resp rates - Student design

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C. Gases - volume/composition/properties combustion products
-volume of inhaled/exhaled air
low tech - exhale into bag, displace H2O
high tech - respirometer
-distinguish inhaled/exhaled air
CO2 content via acid-base indicator
H2O content (condensation, cobalt chloride paper)
(same products as combustion)
combustion consumes 02, N2 remains

combustion products nature of flames (preview energetics)

-candle, wax alone - tests for CO2 and H2O
-methane (Bent's flame demonstration)
- complete, incomplete combustion
- diffusion (normal candle) and premixed (blue) flame(s)
-students light and adjust burners

D. Diffusion/Osmosis
-demonstrate - methane, ammonia into room air, sealed tubes of 12, Br2
-NH3 + HC1 (open bottles) - quantitative(?) extension - molecular speeds
-12 or KMnO4 crystal in solvent, cold vs. hot (molecular model)
- osmosis labs - potato pieces, blood cells, Elodea cells
in different concentrations of sugar water
-bell jar - beaker of H2O, beaker of H2SO4
measure mass of each over time - > graphing
molecular activity, water vapor in the air ("osmosis")
- Kinetic molecular model demonstrator
- PV measurements - graphing, pressure units, scuba diving
- VT measurements - graphing, absolute temperature, metric units, prefixes
-12 diffuse into bag of starch

E. Circulatory System
- stethoscope/blood pressure/EKG
- Beef Heart dissection
- Daphnia heartrate at different temp
-microscope - > capillaries in Goldfish tail
-Fetal Pig Dissection - start with thoracic cavity
reinforce respiratory, later used with digestive/reproductive

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F. Combustion/Qualitative Energetics
qualitative enthalpy diagram
matter - source of C in CO2, source of H in H2O
reactants vs. products (word equations)
-candle wax or oil lamp ("lipid")
-calorimeter - measure mass and temperature changes
-enthalpy diagram, energy barrier
-glucose (recall H2SO4 "dehydration")
- flour explosion (demonstration)
-Mg burned in air (measure masses), 02, CO2
(sources of oxygen?)
- KMnO4 + glycerol flame

Other exo-, endothermic reactions

- solution/crystallization - anhydrous CaCl2, NH4NO3, supersaturated sodium
acetate
-phase changes - cooling curve (note T of water bath during phase change
- energy involved in changing T or phase) note reversibility
(Equilibrium introduction)

G. Descriptive Kinetics
surmounting the energy barrier
kinetic molecular model, continued
- effect on reaction rate of
changes in temperature
catalyst (inorganic/organic: Mn02, liver + 11202 demo)
pH and/or other concentration
-effect of temperature on catalyst (inorganic/organic)
(recall effect of temp on respiratory rate of goldfish)
-effect of acid/base/salt on catalyst (inorganic/organic)

H. Digestive System/Excretory System

-food (types of organic molecules) tests
- semipermeable membrane revisited
leads to chemical separation

I. Reproductive System
-chick, sea urchin development
-sheep testes dissection
-microscope work - slides of sperm/eggs
- demonstration - HCG + pregnancy tests

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J. Diversity of Life (5 Kingdoms)
Plants
1. Reproduction/growth/development
-sexual (plant seeds)/asexual (cuttings)
-flower dissection
2. Respiration
-Elodea/Daphnia in tubes of dilute acid-base indicator
3. Nutrition
-leaf design structure/function
anticipate biomes (Oleander stomates lined by hairs)
4. Support
-roots/shoots (prepared slides)
-tropisms

Animals
-research Project
(each student becomes an expert on a specific animal phylum)

-observational Activity
vertebrates (human, frog, fish)
arthropods (aquatic, terrestrial)
mollusks (aquatic, terrestrial)
echinoderm
sea anenome
earthworm

for each organism, consider

1. Support
2. Nutrition
3. Respiration
4. Reproduction

Plant/Animal Taxonomy (follow water- > land theme for plants/vertebrates)

-observational activity for plants

Other Kingdoms Fungi/Protista/Monera

-microscopic observational activity
use protists to discuss uncertainty of classification

-student-designed dichotomous key for all kingdoms

(Summary activity)

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K. Chemical Separations
-demonstrate separation techniques - filtration, dissolving, distillation, sublimation,
paper chromatography (black ink, chlorophyll, food colors), centrifuge (ultra-)
-separation lab applying one of the above techniques
-demonstrate - electrolysis of H2O (note volume ratio)
another kind of "separation" (introduce electrophoresis)

sources and fates of substances - chemical cycles

chapter on carbon cycle in Primo Levi, Periodic Table
minerals/stellar synthesis/metallurgy
distinguish substances, compounds vs. elements

-synthesis and analysis - MgO preparation (combining masses)

(via method of continuous variations?)
-demonstration - CuO reduction

L. Ecology
a. Biomes - How would you build animal/plant to live here?
-leaf observational activity
-soil comparison

b. Ecosystems
food chains - energy flow/chemical cycles
-Pirdator card game

c. Human Impact
-student research/presentation on a topic
examples Biological Magnification, acid rain, ozone depletion, greenhouse
effect, habitat destruction (forests, wetlands) and loss of biodiversity

M. Atomic-molecular theory
explaining combining masses in compounds (MgO lab, CuO demonstration)
explaining combining volumes (electrolysis demonstration)
distinguishing substances in terms of atomic composition

Periodic Table
-Element report assigned
representative elements - emphasis on C, N, 0
metals/nonmetals, states, trends

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N. Electronic structure of atoms
charge density
-hydrogen atom target
s, p orbitals (OP transparencies)
electron configurations (through atomic number 20, main group
elements by analogy to representative elements)
octet rule as guide to monatomic ion structures

0. Molecular structure
the chemical bond - charge density model again (more OP transparencies)
octet rule as guide to formulas involving electron sharing
molecular geometry - VSEPR model
-molecular models
bond properties length, strength, polarity
-Element report due

P. Physical properties
-relative melting point, solubility in polar/nonpolar solvents, conductivity
- include organic functional groups (pool student data)
forces within/between units of structure
covalent (also ionic, metallic) bonds
dispersion and dipole forces, hydrogen bond
-solubility curve (more on equilibrium; compare unsaturated, super-)
-vapor pressure of butane (demonstration)

Q. Chemistry of organic functional groups

hydrocarbons
alcohol, acid, amine (aldehyde, ether) - > ester, amide
- esterification - small-scale labs
-soap - demonstration
-polymers (nylon) - demonstration or small-scale lab

R. Molecules - Carbohydrates, lipids, DNA/RNA/proteins

carbohydrates/lipids
enzymes mechanisms, metabolism
DNA/RNA/proteins
- models, videos of replication, protein synthesis

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S. Stoichiometry
mass and volume ratios -> atom and molecule ratios
relative and absolute masses - > atomic, molecular, and formula masses
- Mg + HC1 stoichiometry (continuous variations?)
-Avogadro's number by monomolecular film
-MgO, CuO revisited
formulas - simplest and molecular
equations
ideal gas law

T. Energetics quantitative
quantitative, written into balanced equations
enthalpy diagrams for reactions
relative strengths of bonds (energy stored and released)

U. Aqueous solutions
concentration - molarity, molality(?)
-molecular mass determined from freezing point depression data
- technology - molarity via spectrophotometry

V. Kinetics - quantitative
- rate law - dependence of rate on concentration
(S or I clock)

W. Cells/organelles
membrane structure/active transport
compartmentalization

X. Acid/base
proton transfer definition (Bronsted-Lowry)
strength - equilibrium, K, K and % ionization, conductivity, pH
acid-base reactions, neutralization
indicators demo red cabbage
- technology - pH meter
-titration of a household product Gums, vinegar)
inorganic acids/bases and anhydrides -> acid rain, shuttle launch
carboxylic acids
buffers - later refer to electrophoresis
human pH "balance" - refer back to respiration/excretion
- CaCO3 + acetic acid, with/without acetate - demonstration
equilibrium "shift"

Y. Equilibrium - quantitative

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Z. Reduction/oxidation reactions
electron transfer (partial/complete)
oxidation number/state
electronegativity
Periodic Table trends, group behavior
balancing redox equations
- voltaic pile, dry cell - demonstration
- cell voltages - small-scale lab
- concentration cell - demonstration (refer to nerve impulse)

A'. Tools of Biotechnology

- restriction digestion analysis of DNA
DNA fingerprinting

B'. Genetics
-bacterial transformation (follow-up on biotech labs)
- plant crosses - Wisconsin fast plants
-fruit flies crosses

C'. Evolution/History of Life

chemical basis of evolution
- organic chemical evolution (Miller -Urey experiment)
- field trip to Academy of Sciences - Live Through lime exhibit

last 3 sections are good summary units

biology content, but requires heavy-duty chemistry

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