The Magazine of the Arnold Arboretum

VOLUM E 67 • N UM BE R 3
The Magazine of the Arnold Arboretum
VO L U M E 6 7 • N U M B E R 3 • 2 0 0 9 Contents

Arnoldia (ISSN 0004–2633; USPS 866–100) 2 An Excerpt From Wilson’s China:

is published quarterly by the Arnold Arboretum A Century On
of Harvard University. Periodicals postage paid
Mark Flanagan and Tony Kirkham
at Boston, Massachusetts.
Subscriptions are $20.00 per calendar year 14 Aronia: Native Shrubs With
domestic, $25.00 foreign, payable in advance. Untapped Potential
Remittances may be made in U.S. dollars, by
Mark Brand
check drawn on a U.S. bank; by international
money order; or by Visa, Mastercard, or Ameri-
can Express. Send orders, remittances, requests to 26 Forest Farming
purchase back issues, change-of-address notices, Ken Mudge
and all other subscription-related communica-
tions to Circulation Manager, Arnoldia, Arnold 36 A Soft Touch: Pinus wallichiana
Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, MA 02130-
Nancy Rose
3500. Telephone 617.524.1718; fax 617.524.1418;
e-mail arnoldia@arnarb.harvard.edu.
Front cover: Black chokeberry (Aronia melano-
Arnold Arboretum members receive a subscrip-
carpa) is valuable as an ornamental landscape
tion to Arnoldia as a membership benefit. To
shrub and for its antioxidant-rich fruit. Photo by
become a member or receive more information,
Nancy Rose.
please call Wendy Krauss at 617.384.5766 or
email wendy_krauss@harvard.edu. Inside front cover: In their new book, Wilson’s
Postmaster: Send address changes to China: A Century On, Mark Flanagan and Tony
Kirkham describe following in the footsteps of
Arnoldia Circulation Manager
famed plant explorer E. H. Wilson. They came
The Arnold Arboretum
across these lampshade poppies (Meconopsis
125 Arborway
integrifolia ssp. integrifolia) in the same locale
Boston, MA 02130–3500
where Wilson first found the species a century
Nancy Rose, Editor ago. Photo by Tony Kirkham.
Andy Winther, Designer
Inside back cover: Himalayan pine (Pinus walli-
Editorial Committee chiana) is notable for its fine-textured, cascading
Peter Del Tredici foliage. Photo by Nancy Rose.
Michael S. Dosmann
Back cover: Fruit color in Aronia species ranges
Copyright © 2009. The President and from black to purple to bright red. Photo by
Fellows of Harvard College Mark Brand.
An Excerpt From Wilson’s China: A Century On
Mark Flanagan and Tony Kirkham

Editor ’s N ote : Ernest H enr y W ilson was one of the most intrepid and productive plant
hunters of his era—the beginning of the twentieth century. His collecting trips to China—first
for Veitch Nurseries in England and then on behalf of the Arnold Arboretum—resulted in an
extraordinary stream of new plants to the West. Arboretum director Charles Sprague Sargent
instructed Wilson to thoroughly document his 1907–1908 and 1910 expeditions with photo-
graphs; these striking images still reside in the Arboretum’s archives.
Mark Flanagan, Keeper of the Gardens at Windsor Great Park , and Tony Kirkham, Head of
the Arboretum at Kew, are modern-day plant hunters, having traveled and collected exten-
sively in eastern Asia. Admirers of Wilson, they plotted a journey to retrace his footsteps in
Sichuan, China. Using Wilson’s expedition photographs as a guide, they were able to capture
views of some of the very same locations and even plants that Wilson saw a century ago. Their
book pays homage to Wilson and provides a fascinating “then-and-now” glimpse of China’s
landscape. The following is an excerpt from Chapter 3, “Mystery Towers of Danba.”

Tatien-lu is a small and filthy dirty place, it boasts a large mixed population of
Chinese and Tibetans. Being on the highway from Pekin to Lhasa, officials are
constantly passing and re-passing. This makes it a highly important place, both
politically and commercially. Although Batang, 18 days journey to the west, is
the actual frontier town, Tatien-lu is really the gate of Tibet.1

W
ilson’s accurate but rather unflattering description of Kangding was
penned at the conclusion of his first visit to the town in 1903. Wilson
had made the journey to Kangding on the instructions of the Veitch
nurseries who wished to add a very special plant, the lampshade poppy (Mecon-
opsis integrifolia), to their nursery catalogue. “Messrs. Veitch despatched me on
this second, and very costly, journey to the Tibetan border for the sole purpose
of discovering and introducing this, the most gorgeous alpine plant extant,”
recorded Wilson.2
Kangding still has a frontier town feel about it and is inalienably a Tibetan
place. It also remains a very important staging post on the road that leads west-
ward into Tibet. This road was one of the great highways constructed during
imperial times to hold the Celestial Empire together. But Chinese writ did not
extend very far. Indeed the country around Kangding remained lawless and
untamed until very recent times. Historically the area was known as Kham and
its inhabitants, the Khampas, were much feared for their ferocity and war-like
demeanor. In truth, Khampa was a collective noun as the area was home to a
very diverse group of related, though distinct, peoples. For a thousand years, after
the collapse of the vast Tibetan Empire in the ninth century, Kham remained
unconquered and unconquerable, its peoples engaged in ceaseless internecine
 Wilson’s China  3

All photos are by the authors unless otherwise indicated

The authors, Mark Flanagan (left) and Tony Kirkham (right), surrounded by prayer flags at the Ya-jia Pass.

conflict as petty warrior chieftains battled for supremacy. Banditry was an

accepted means of acquiring wealth and position.
The various groups of ethnic peoples he encountered fascinated Wilson and
he wrote about them extensively. His understanding was gained both first hand
and through studying the work of contemporary ethnographers, though this
understanding was far from exact. For example, he used the Chinese generic,
and derogatory, name “Sifan” (western barbarian) to describe the tribe now
identified as the Qiang, one of the 56 official ethnic peoples in China. To the
enquiring Edwardian mind the alien culture and manners of the various peoples,
particularly their peculiar (and supposedly immoral) sexual liaisons in which
both polyandry and polygamy were commonplace, was of abiding interest. Their
relative lack of sophistication also appealed to Wilson, suggesting to him a one-
ness with their environment that he found endearing.
The eventual subjugation of the Kham region in what the Chinese called the
“peaceful liberation of Tibet” finally ended the brigandry and general lawless-
ness in the 1950s. Eastern Kham formally became part of Sichuan Province and
Western Kham formed a large part of the Xizang Autonomous Region. Despite
this the Khampas retain their individuality by virtue of their strong culture
and association with their land. In travelling this country it is impossible not
to be impressed by their proud bearing and independent mien and it is easy to
 4  Arnoldia 67/3

understand how they struck fear into the hearts

of friend and foe alike. Despite the suppression
of banditry, in recent years occasional acts of
violence against foreigners still occur when
travelers are held-up by groups of armed local
men: old habits die hard.3 Through the 1980s
and 1990s the Kew expeditions to this part of
China employed the services of an armed Chi-
nese policeman, Lao Liu, as a precaution against
unwanted local attention, though he never drew
a weapon in anger!
Wilson’s quest for the lampshade poppy was,
therefore, into territory that he knew little of and
amongst people with whom, at that stage, he was
largely unfamiliar. Not only was the territory
unfamiliar, it was built on a grand scale. The Da
Xue Mountains into which Wilson was travel-
ling, together with the neighboring ranges form
part of the vast, complex Hengduan Shan, the
eastern extension of the Himalaya. They were
created at the same time but, due to the shear-
ing effect involved when the landmass of India
collided with the Asian continent, they incline
north–south. These mountains, eroded by mon-
soon-swollen rivers—the Jinsha, Yalong, Dadu
Finding the lampshade poppy (Meconopsis integ-
rifolia subspecies integrifolia) was the principal and Min—form an enormous convoluted mass
objective of Wilson’s second trip to China. of peaks, ridges and spurs with deep, sheer-sided
valleys. The range climaxes at the summit of the
mighty Gongga Shan, which at 7,556 meters is Sichuan’s highest mountain by
some way. Joseph Rock brought Gongga Shan to the attention of the West in
1930, when he infamously over-estimated its height, erroneously claiming it to
be higher than Mount Everest.4 Wilson would be travelling at far higher eleva-
tions and over much more demanding terrain than he had experienced in his first
trip to the more modest hills and valleys of Hubei.
He was not alone, however. It is intriguing that Wilson rarely mentions any
western companions in his writings, let alone provides any details of their back-
grounds and occupations. This time, as he prepared to find the lampshade poppy,
he was accompanied by an experienced traveler. On July 16, 1903, he started out
for the mountains: “On this journey I was accompanied by Mr. Edgar of the China
Inland Mission, in whom I found a delightful companion . . . Leaving by the South
Gate we followed the main road to Lhasa—a broad, well-paved road.”5
[...]
The main road to Lhasa was a well-travelled highway but not one that Wilson
would remain on for long. It quickly rises to the Zheduo Pass, which today is
still the most commonly taken route into Tibet from western Sichuan. On the
flanks just below this pass the lampshade poppy can be easily found and many
writers have assumed that this is where Wilson gathered his first plants. But the
 Wilson’s China  5

Zheduo Pass was not Wilson’s destination; he was heading for the Ya-jia Pass,
which followed an alternative and much less-used track to the south.
At first the journey was enjoyable and Wilson reveled in his surroundings: “Our
road was through lovely grassy country, with a steady rise. A wealth of many
colored herbs enlivened our path,” and, “we continued through similar country,
with a fine snow-clad peak straight in front of us and another to our left.” Soon,
however, the going became much tougher, and heavy rain fell as they reconnoi-
tered the mountainsides close to their overnight stopping point. The altitude had
a detrimental effect on his coolies and all endured a miserable night.
Our journey up to the Ya-jia Pass was rather more comfortable. The road was
well surfaced right to the top, though the occasional small landslip had to be
carefully negotiated by the vehicles. As Wilson suggested, snow-clad peaks were
visible all around and we were fortunate to have fine weather in which to appre-
ciate them. Looking back, a stunning range of mountains could be seen to the
north-east beyond Kangding—the Lian Lua Shan (Lotus Flower Mountains)—no
doubt one of the views enjoyed by Wilson during his own ascent 103 years before.
Ahead the scene was much less promising with dark clouds scudding across
the sky alternately revealing and concealing the mountain tops and providing
tantalizing glimpses of the pass.

A view to distant Gongga Shan, showing its distinctive peak.

 6  Arnoldia 67/3

Wilson’s miserable end to the day was compounded during the night:
Having at length got rid of our soaked garments—a difficult enough task
under the circumstances—we eventually got between the blankets. No
sooner had I lay down than a drip came a spot of rain into my eye: I turned
over and drip came another into my ear. I twisted this way and that way,
but there was no escape. Like evil genii these rain-drops pursued me turn
which way I would. I could not move my bed, since this was longer than
the tent was broad, and my feet already exposed, and we sorely afraid the
whole thing might collapse, it being anything but secure . . . About 4 a.m.
our firewood gave out and things assumed a very dismal aspect. However,
all things have an end; day at length dawned and all were devoutly
thankful . . . With what fire remained we managed to boil some water
and make some tea. We breakfasted on ship’s biscuits and cheese and felt
none the worse for the night’s experience.8
Wilson was, above all things, a fatalist.
The rain stopped and Wilson and Edgar prepared for the day’s work, during
which they hoped to find the lampshade poppy. A farmhouse, one thousand
feet below their overnight position, was commandeered and their cook, who
was suffering from severe altitude sickness, was taken down to recuperate. The
journey to the pass began at 7.a.m. and after some initial rain showers contin-
ued on in sunshine. The alpine flowers captivated Wilson; in early summer
these Chinese mountains are amongst nature’s most exquisite natural gardens.
Tony and I arrived at the peak of the display and we left the vehicles three or
four hundred meters below the pass and proceeded on foot. By the roadside, a
braided mountain stream provided ample moisture and it was in this sodden turf
that the greatest diversity could be found. “I wish I had the ability to describe
this floral paradise with all its glories, but this is beyond me,” wrote Wilson.9
I certainly won’t try where Wilson failed and hope that the images reproduced

The flora of the moist ground below the Ya-jia Pass is replete with a wonderful array of colorful flowers, including Rheum alexan-
dre (left) and Primula secundiflora (right)
 Wilson’s China  7

on these pages will give the reader a hint of the individual and collective beauty
of these mountain flowers, many of which have become firm garden favorites
amongst discerning growers.
We followed Wilson’s and Edgar’s route to the pass knowing that at any
time the lampshade poppy would appear. Our experience was almost exactly
as theirs had been:
At 11,000 feet I came across the first plant of Meconopsis integrifolia! It was
growing amongst scrub and was past flowering. I am not going to attempt
to record the feelings which possessed me on first beholding the object of
my quest to these wild regions . . . I had travelled some 13,000 miles in five
and a half months and to be successful in attaining this first part of my
mission in such a short time was a significant reward for all the difficulties
and hardships experienced en route.10
The lampshade poppy is a monocarpic species, dying after flowering, but it
produces ample seed and has proved to be relatively amenable in cultivation
particularly in the cool summer climate of Scotland.11 Wilson’s plant became an
instant success, flowering in its first season in the Veitch nursery and persist-
ing for many years.12 All the recent trips to this and neighboring parts of China
have reinforced its presence in cultivation and it is not unusual to see this plant
flowering in northern gardens. In cultivation it has also produced several attrac-
tive hybrids with other Asiatic species such as M. × beamishii (M. integrifolia
× M. grandis) and M. × finlayorum (M. integrifolia × M. quintuplinervia). In
recent years botanical opinion, particularly that of Dr. Chris Grey-Wilson, has
suggested that this variable plant is easily divisible into two distinct entities—
M. integrifolia and M. pseudointegrifolia, the latter a plant with nodding and
more open flowers, quite distinct from Wilson’s plants that have globular and
more upright flowers.13
After this first plant the mountainsides began to reveal a veritable cornucopia
of poppies. Wilson recorded that “as we continued the ascent, Meconopsis inte-
grifolia became more and more abundant. At 12,000 feet and upwards, miles
and miles of the alpine meadows were covered with this plant, but only a few
late flowers remained.”14 Being a month earlier Tony and I caught every plant
in full flower, the sun-disk blooms swaying in the mountain breeze, flaunting
their wares for any passing bees. Our climb continued in deteriorating condi-
tions until we reached the pass at nearly 4,000 meters. Wilson tells us of the fear
that the Ya-jia Pass engendered amongst his Chinese followers who were not,
by nature or inclination, mountain people: “this Ya-kia pass enjoys an unenvi-
able reputation, and is much dreaded on account of its asphyxiating winds. It
is said to be the only pass in the neighborhood which ‘stops peoples’ breath’.”15
On reaching the pass we were forced to concur, for though it was June 17, the
temperature hovered around freezing point and a biting wind blew from the
bleak Tibetan Plateau to the west, bringing pulses of sleet in its wake. Despite
this we were thrilled to take an image at almost exactly the same location as
Wilson had when he re-visited the pass on 19 July 1908.
Wilson stayed a second night on the mountain, this time in the more salubri-
ous surroundings of the farmhouse that had been commandeered for the use of
 8  Arnoldia 67/3
Archives of the Arnold Arboretum

The caption for this 1908 Wilson photograph reads: Tachien-lu, near, W. Szechu’an. The Ya-chia-k’an snows and alpine regions
clothed with dwarf junipers and rhododendrons. 13,000 feet. July 19, 1908.

his party. This proved to be a clean, dry, cozy dwelling, and to add further to their
good fortune his cook was quite recovered and prepared a hot meal for the team.
On the next day of our trip a most intriguing incident occurred, something
that caught me quite by surprise. I have already mentioned Gongga Shan, the
giant peak that dominates the Da Xue Shan range. It is the highest mountain
in Asia outside of the main Himalayan chain and it exerts a baleful influence.
Numerous glaciers grind their way down its flanks and such is its size that it
generates its own climatic conditions over a sizeable swathe of the surrounding
country. This mountain has always fascinated me. Despite dominating the area
it is frequently covered in cloud: I have journeyed to five key vantage points—
east, northeast, west, and south of the peak—and been disappointed to find a
shroud-covered summit every time. In all his writing Wilson never mentions
this mountain either as Gongga Shan or Minya Konka, its Tibetan name. How
can this be? During his visits to China he spent many months in the Da Xue
 Wilson’s China  9

A current view of the barren and desolate Ya-jia Pass, unchanged since Wilson and Edgar first came here.

Shan, surely he must have heard some local reference to the peak or glimpsed
some distant view? Given his silence on the matter the obvious conclusion was
that he was also unlucky and never had a clear view of the summit nor did he
hear mention of it amongst the local people.
As Tony and I wandered the lonely slopes around the Ya-jia Pass I pondered
this matter, knowing that the giant mountain lay to the southwest of our posi-
tion. All around us were shattered and snow-clad peaks. It would have taken
a strenuous hike into the higher reaches to breast these in order to provide an
unencumbered view to the southwest, and time didn’t allow this opportunity.
In the warmth and comfort of our 4x4 as we took the road back to Kangding,
I re-read Wilson’s account of his first journey to the Ya-jia Pass, particularly
the second day of his visit. One paragraph leapt from the page. Although I had
pored over all Wilson’s writings for the best part of the previous 18 months, the
significance of the words had, until now, escaped me:
The moraine in front of us terminated in tremendous fields of ice, glaciers
of a virgin peak, 21,000 feet high. The sun shone brilliantly and we got a
magnificent view of the surrounding mountains. South, south-west of us
lay a gigantic peak, several thousand feet higher than the one mentioned;
its summit crowned with snowfields of enormous size.16
 10  Arnoldia 67/3

Gongga Shan? Surely.

The following day it was time to move on to the next phase of our journey.
Wilson’s first trip in the employ of the Arnold Arboretum, his third visit to
China, took place between 1907 and 1909. Released from the economic shackles
imposed by the Veitch Nursery he could take a much more expansive view of
his activities. The patrician director of the Arnold Arboretum, Charles Sprague
Sargent, encouraged Wilson not only to “science-up” his work—more emphasis
on herbarium specimens and greater attention to field notes—he also insisted
that a comprehensive photographic record of the journeys be produced. In a letter
to Wilson dated 6 November 1906, a copy of which can be found in the Wilson
archive at the Arnold Arboretum, Sargent explains:
I write to remind you of the very great importance of the photographic
business in your new journey. A good set of photographs are really about
as important as anything you can bring back with you. I hope therefore
you will not fail to provide yourself with the very best possible instrument
irrespective of cost.

The hardy and ubiquitous Rhododendron prezwalskii covers huge areas of the high mountains above Kangding.
 Wilson’s China  11

Sargent’s prescience not

only provided us with an
excellent series of images
of plants and landscapes,
which were later pub-
lished by the Arnold Arbo-
retum, but also a snapshot
of Imperial China right at
the end of its long history;
within a year of Wilson’s
departure China was effec-
tively a republic.
Thus equipped and
instructed Wilson arrived
at Yichang, his old base on
the Yangtze River, in Feb-
ruary 1907 for what was
The local flora is occasionally put to a novel use; this Tibetan girl is using an
to be his most successful Incarvillea flower as a kazoo.
trip, a trip that cemented
his reputation as the foremost collector of his generation. I have long felt that
the second year of this expedition, 1908, was also his most interesting and pro-
ductive and in following in Wilson’s footsteps I was especially keen to emulate
some of his travels during that year. From Kangding we had the opportunity
to retrace Wilson’s journey of June–August 1908 when he travelled between
Dujiangyan (Kuan Hsien) and Kangding, though we would travel it in reverse.
Interestingly, Wilson himself was following an earlier traveler—Sir Alexander
Hosie—as he tells us:
During the summer of 1908, when in Chengtu, I determined upon a jour-
ney to Tachienlu. Previously, in 1903 and again in 1904, I had visited this
town by three different routes. This time I decided upon following the road
leading from Kuan Hsien via Monkong Ting and Romi Chango. The only
published account of this route that I had knowledge of is a report by Mr.
(now Sir) Alexander Hosie, erstwhile HBM’s Consul-General at Chengtu,
who returned over this road in October 1904.17
The account Wilson refers to, “Journey to the Eastern Frontier of Thibet”, was
published as a Parliamentary Report and presented to Parliament in 1905. Hosie
took the same direction as Tony and I would, east from Kangding, which he left
on 10 October 1904. This was by no means a regular or accepted highway and
that is what interested Wilson: “what I saw of the forests and mountain scenery,
together with the quantity and variety of the plants discovered and collected,
abundantly repaid me for the hardships experienced.”18
My hope was that we could also experience some of this scenery and plant
diversity. But could we retrace the route and match some of the many images
that Wilson had taken on this journey?
Things began disappointingly. Wilson had travelled on foot on the east side
of the Da Xue Shan between Kangding and the village of Hsin-tientsze and even
 12  Arnoldia 67/3

The new temple at Tagong with the massive bulwark of the Da Pao Shan behind.

today there is no suitable road for motorized vehicles. This meant that we would
have to drive up the west side of the range before rejoining Wilson’s route beyond
Hsin-tientsze. Fortunately, apart from stunning views of some of the snow-
clad peaks and a range of hot springs at Je-shuit’ang, it seemed we would miss
nothing of great import. No images of particular interest record this section of
the journey. We left Kangding taking the road up and over the Zheduo Pass. In
the sunlight the roadsides were bright with wild flowers, many of a striking
nature, including the large flowered but short-statured Tibetan lady’s slipper
orchid (Cypripedium tibeticum) with large maroon pouches. At the pass we
had a something of a shock. Having been at this lonely spot in 2001 we were
dismayed to find that things were much changed. A wooden belvedere had been
built about 150 meters above the pass, reached by a flight of steps, and another
building was under construction nearby. No doubt these developments are
underpinned by good intentions, this spot is very much on the tourist route, but
it somehow seems quite inappropriate to despoil these pristine alpine areas with
such frippery. We didn’t dwell.
On the other side of the pass we got stuck behind an endless convoy of lumber-
ing army trucks, which slowed the pace considerably. One of the positive results
of this inconvenience was that we were able to continue to admire the carpet
of flowers in the grassy alpine pastures. Unlike the valleys to the east, the west
 Wilson’s China  13

side of the Da Xue Shan is quite dry and few trees are to be found. As a result
extensive grasslands are a feature and at this time of year they boasted a display
worthy of the most colorful flower garden. The turf was studded with gorgeous
plants—Incarvillea delavayi, Meconopsis horridula, Lilium lophophorum—odd
specimens of Rhododendron capitatum formed hummocky mounds amongst
the grass sward and the horizon was an endless, undulating green line. Eventu-
ally we turned north leaving the army to continue their procession into Tibet.
The road became more and more potholed and uneven as we proceeded. Along
the way the solid architecture of Tibet began to dominate, with farm buildings
of substantial size and construction. Many are only seasonally occupied as the
inhabitants leave in the spring to spend the summers in the high mountain
pastures grazing their herds of yak. We passed through the important religious
centre of Tagong, dominated by its richly decorated and ornamented temple.
Rising in front of us was another range of impressive peaks, the Da Pao Shan
(Big Cannon Mountains). This linked us back with Wilson who enjoyed fine
weather during the last leg of his journey, albeit on the other side of the range
to our position:
The view from the summit of the pass far surpassed my wildest dreams. It
greatly exceeded anything of its kind that I have seen and would require
a far abler pen than mine to describe it adequately. Straight before us, but
a little to the right of our view point was an enormous mass of dazzling
eternal snow, supposed to be, and I can well believe it, over 22,000 feet
high. Beneath the snow and attendant glaciers was a sinister-looking mass
of boulders and screes.19
Unfortunately for us low clouds obscured the actual summit, though Xiao Zhong
told us of that on a recent previous visit he had seen nothing of the mountains
at all, so perhaps we were not so unlucky.

[...]

References 12
Gardeners’ Chronicle Vol 36. 1 October.
1904. p. 240.
1
Wilson, E. H. (1906). Leaves from my
Chinese Notebook. Gardeners’ Chronicle
13
Grey-Wilson, C. (1996). The Yellow
Vol 39. 17 February. p. 101. Poppywort and its Allies. The New
Plantsman 3 (1) 22–39.
2
Wilson, E. H. (1906). op cit. 24 March. p. 179.
14
Wilson, E. H. (1906). op cit. 24 March. p. 179.
3
“Lonely Planet writer vanishes on trek in
Tibet bandit country”. The Times 5 June 2007.
15
Wilson, E. H. (1906). op cit. 17 March. p. 165.
4
Goodman, J. (2006). Joseph F. Rock and
16
Wilson, E. H. (1906). op cit. 24 March. p. 180.
His Shangri-La. Caravan Press, Hong 17
Wilson, E. H. (1913). A Naturalist
Kong. p. 97. in Western China. Methuen and Co.
5
Wilson, E. H. (1906). op cit. 3 March. p. 138. London. Vol. 1. p 170.
18
Wilson, E. H. (1913). op cit.
[...]
19
Wilson, E. H. (1913). op cit. Vol 1. p. 200.
8
Wilson, E. H. (1906). op cit. 3 March. p. 139.
9
Wilson, E. H. (1906). op cit. 17 March. p. 166.
10
Wilson, E. H. (1906). op cit. 24 March. p. 179. Wilson’s China: A Century On
11
Grey-Wilson, C. (1993). Poppies: A guide Mark Flanagan and Tony Kirkham.
to the Poppy Family in the Wild and in Kew Publishing. 2009. 256 pages.
Cultivation. London. B T Batsford. p. 186. ISBN-13: 978-1842463949
 Aronia: Native Shrubs With Untapped Potential
Mark Brand

T
he genus Aronia is a group of largely the fruits compared to other fruits that are more
overlooked shrubs native to the east- readily taken by birds.
ern United States. Aronia species have I am always working to enlighten people
tremendous potential for use as ornamental about Aronia and in doing so I have found that
landscape plants and as an edible fruit crop. confusion abounds when it comes to chokeberry
One thing that has held back consumer accep- and chokecherry. I regularly have people tell me
tance of Aronia is the unfortunate common they are familiar with chokeberry, only to find
name chokeberry—a name unlikely to endear out that they meant chokecherry (Prunus vir-
a plant to consumers. The name chokeberry giniana). Aronia is one of the best kept plant
may have been given to Aronia because people secrets around—surprising since this genus is as
have observed that the berries are initially over- complex and interesting as it is useful.
looked by birds and are only taken later in the
winter when they are the last fruits remaining. Aronia Species and Their Characteristics
The strong tannin flavor of chokeberry fruits Chokeberries are in the Rosaceae and are multi-
may seem to be the reason why birds avoid the stemmed, deciduous shrubs. They readily form
fruits, but ornithologists point out that it may rhizomes and can sucker to form small colo-
actually be the relatively low protein content of nies in a non-aggressive manner. Two species
All photos are by the author unless otherwise indicated

Red chokeberry’s striking fruit display lasts several months.

 Aronia  15

species, A. prunifolia (purple chokeberry), is

generally recognized as having purple-black
fruits and amounts of pubescence intermediate
between the red and black species. In my obser-
vation, the amount of pubescence on plants
that could be considered A. prunifolia can range
from moderate to heavy. Table 1 summarizes
some of the characteristics that can be used to
try to differentiate red from black chokeberry.
Speciation within the Aronia genus is far from
clear cut and more research needs to be con-
ducted to determine if A. prunifolia is a hybrid
The leaves of red chokeberry (seen here) are pubescent between A. arbutifolia and A. melanocarpa or
on the lower surface while black chokeberry leaves
lack pubescence.
should be considered as part of the A. melano-
carpa species. (See the taxonomy sidebar for
more information on Aronia speciation).
The red chokeberry grows 6 to 10 feet (1.8 to
3 meters) tall and 3 to 5 feet (.9 to 1.5 meters)

Though not long lasting, red chokeberry’s flowers are attractive

in the spring.

Red chokeberry has an upright growth habit.

of Aronia are generally recognized: A. arbutifo-

lia (red chokeberry) and A. melanocarpa (black
chokeberry). Hardin (1973) suggests that fruit
color—red versus black—should be used to dif-
ferentiate between species. In addition to fruit
color, Krussmann (1986) used degree of pubes-
cence on stems, leaves, and inflorescences to
distinguish red from black chokeberry. A third Red chokeberry has outstanding red fall foliage color.
16  Arnoldia 67/3

wide. It is a multi-stemmed shrub with a dis- Amelanchier flowers), but they do add early
tinctly upright growth habit. Even though the season interest to the plant.
plant suckers and spreads, it can become some- Perhaps the best part about the flowers is
what leggy and open at the base. Most of the that they give rise to abundant red fruits in
foliage on a mature red chokeberry will be found late September and early October. The clusters
in the upper half of the plant. Summer foliage of small (0.25 inch [.64 centimeter] diameter)
of red chokeberry is shiny or flat green above fruits are quite showy and typically remain
and grayish tomentose below. New growth on firm, glossy, and attractive through December.
stems is also quite pubescent. Leaves are obo- As stated before, birds rarely strip the fruits
vate or elliptical with a short acuminate tip from the plants until after they have lost orna-
and marginal serrations. Red chokeberry fall mental appeal.
foliage turns a vibrant red crimson or purple The black chokeberry can generally be dis-
red and can be spectacular in sunny locations. tinguished from the red chokeberry (when fruit
Even in partly shaded locations the leaves are absent) by the lack of pubescence on stems
muster a very nice blend of orange and red. In and leaf undersides. Black chokeberries are also
addition to being attractive in the summer and shorter than their red-fruited counterparts,
fall, the red chokeberry also flowers in spring, attaining a mature height of 4 to 8 feet (1.2 to
usually in early May in New England. Small 2.4 meters). Like the red chokeberry, it suckers
white flowers are produced in clusters that are profusely, but forms dense plants and colonies,
about 1.5 inches (3.8 centimeters) wide and rarely appearing very leggy.
can be so numerous that they cover the canopy Black chokeberry has outstanding, lustrous,
surface. The flowers do not last a particularly dark green summer foliage that turns a pleasing
long time (about the same amount of time as blend of yellow, orange and red in the fall. While

Black chokeberry bears glossy black fruit.

 Aronia  17

the black chokeberry’s autumn foliage display black fruits, from which A. melanocarpa gets
may fall a bit shy of that of its red-fruited rela- its common name, are shiny and larger (0.3 to
tive, it is still superior to many shrubs. Flowers 0.5 inch [0.8 to 1.3 centimeters] diameter) than
are white, borne in May, and are similar in land- the fruits of A. arbutifolia. Fruits can ripen as
scape effectiveness to the red chokeberry. The early as mid-July, but they primarily ripen dur-

Table 1: Comparison of red (Aronia arbutifolia) and

black (A. melanocarpa) chokeberry characteristics
red black

fruit color cherry red fruit color black

fruit relatively small (≤ 0.3 inch) fruit relatively large (≥ 0.3 inch)
fruit ripens Sept.–Oct. fruit ripens late July–Aug.
fruit persistent into winter fruit shrivels and drops
leaves, stems, inflorescences pubescent leaves, stems, inflorescences glabrous
habit upright, leggy at base habit rounded, full to base
found primarily on damp/wet sites found on both damp/wet sites and dry sites
inhabits coastal southeastern U.S. inhabits northeastern and midwestern U.S.

The glabrous foliage of black chokeberry is green in summer and can develop good red to orange and yellow fall color.
18  Arnoldia 67/3

A powerline cut with sand overlaying moist seeps is home to red chokeberries in North Carolina.

ing the month of August. Black chokeberries distribution for Aronia melanocarpa is in the
wither soon after ripening and either drop off northeastern states and the Great Lakes region,
or persist for a while as “raisins” on the plant. with range extension into the higher elevations
A. melanocarpa populations in the upper Mid- of the Appalachian Mountains. In the Appa-
west typically have more persistent fruit than lachian Mountains and the Northeast there
populations in the Northeast. is considerable overlap of the red and black
chokeberry range. Although the information is
Distribution and Habitat somewhat incomplete, A. prunifolia seems to
The geographical range for Aronia arbutifolia be found throughout much of the black choke-
is centered in the southeastern Coastal Plain, berry range and extends somewhat into the
but it can be found extending out into suitable red chokeberry range.
habitats westward into the Appalachian Moun- Aronia arbutifolia occurs in bogs, swamps,
tains. It ranges from eastern Texas to northern savannahs, lowland woods, the edges of water
Florida and continues up the eastern seaboard. bodies, moist rocky seeps, and moist pine bar-
It is common in much of the Carolinas, Vir- rens. A. melanocarpa occurs in similar wet
ginia, Maryland, and New Jersey. Although it locations, but can also be found growing on
can be found in New England, red chokeberry sand dunes, dry rocky slopes, dry bluffs and
occurs much less frequently there and is gen- balds, and grassy areas. You will rarely find
erally found close to the coast. The center of A. arbutifolia on the same dry rocky bluffs and
 Aronia  19

One type of black/purple chokeberry environment in Maine.

dunes where A. melanocarpa occurs, but I have chokeberries even when they are given only
found it growing in thin layers of organic duff modest aftercare. Like most members of the
on the exposed spines of rock balds. A. pruni- Rosaceae, Aronia has a seemingly endless list of
folia is found in areas similar to A. arbutifolia, insects and diseases that could attack it, but the
but also in somewhat drier clearings. plants rarely seem to be affected by much and
are considered relatively carefree. I have found
Cultural Conditions that powdery mildew can hit A. melanocarpa,
Chokeberries are considered to be hardy to but it doesn’t seem to show up to any degree on
USDA hardiness zone 4 and, with proper geno- A. arbutifolia. Lacebug is one insect that I have
type selection, the red species can exhibit good observed occasionally afflicting black choke-
heat tolerance as well. Plants can be grown suc- berry growing on hot, dry sites.
cessfully in partial shade or full sun, but better
flowering, fruiting, and fall color occur in full Aronia Genetics: Ploidy and Apomixis
sun situations. Both red and black chokeberries Published literature states that A. arbutifolia
seem to tolerate dry or wet soil conditions, even has a 2n number (number of chromosomes in
though the red species naturally occurs most somatic cells) of either 34 or 68 and A. melano-
often in wet areas. Best growth can be expected carpa has a 2n number of 34 (Darlington and
in moist soils, but soil type is not critical. Janaki 1945). At the University of Connecticut
Transplanting and establishment are easy with I have an Aronia germplasm collection of over
20  Arnoldia 67/3

This rocky outcropping in the Appalachian Mountains in Tennessee is a typical habitat for Aronia.
 Aronia  21

Taxonomic Teasers in Aronia

O
ver the years, Aronia has been placed in numerous genera, including
Mespilus, Pyrus, Adenorachis, Sorbus, and Photinia by different taxo-
nomic authorities (Robertson et al. 1991). Rehder (1949) and Hardin
(1973) chose to use the genus Aronia for the chokeberries. In 1991, Robertson et
al., placed the chokeberries in the genus Photinia, citing no differences in floral
and fruit morphology between plants formally in the genus Aronia and those in
Photinia. According to Robertson et al., red chokeberry becomes Photinia pyri-
folia, black chokeberry becomes Photinia melanocarpa, and purple chokeberry
becomes Photinia floribunda. The USDA Plants Database (plants.usda.gov) has
adopted Photinia as the genus for the chokeberries, but USDA GRIN (www.
ars-grin.gov/) is still allowing Aronia. Likewise, in the new 6th edition of Michael
Dirr’s Manual of Woody Landscape Plants, Aronia is still being used for the
chokeberries. Until more conclusive genetic studies are undertaken, there will
likely be continued uncertainty about the correct genus for the chokeberries.
Another point of nomenclatural uncertainty is with Aronia prunifolia. Should
it be considered a separate species or be folded into A. melanocarpa or A. arbutifo-
lia as a variety? If it is a separate species, does it have its origins as an interspecific
hybrid of A. arbutifolia and A. melanocarpa and should it be designated as Aronia
x prunifolia? Most of the evidence seems to suggest that the purple chokeberry
is the result of interspecific hybridization between red and black chokeberry. We
know from our own hybridization work that it is relatively easy to cross red and
black chokeberries and get offspring that are not the result of apomixis. We have
pollinated diploid black to tetraploid red and have many purple plants which are
triploid. Hardin (1973) points out that garden hybrids between red and black have
arisen at times and have been referred to as Aronia floribunda.
Some have argued that the naturally occurring A. prunifolia is something dif-
ferent from A. floribunda because it can occur outside areas where the red and
black chokeberries are sympatric, but this argument is flawed. It does not take
into consideration the likely scenario that interspecific red-black hybrids pro-
duce viable seeds apomictically. The purple species could arise at the margins of
overlap of the red and black species and then spread by seed to regions far beyond
each parent species’ range. Purple chokeberry could also spread vegetatively by
rhizomes. Furthermore, purple chokeberries seem to occur in the greatest abun-
dance and have the most within-population variability in areas where both the
red and black chokeberries overlap. Paper chromatography done in the 1960s on
red, black, and purple chokeberry found that purple chokeberry contained the
greatest number of unique compounds in comparison to red and black, adding
more weight to the theory of hybrid origin (Alston et al. 1965). These arguments,
along with the fact that A. prunifolia generally has morphological characteristics
(degree of leaf/stem pubescence, fruit color, fruit ripening date, plant habit) that
are intermediate between A. arbutifolia and A. melanocarpa, seem to tip the bal-
ance in favor of hybrid origin. One bit of work conducted in the 1970s, at the now
closed Long Ashton Research Station at the University of Bristol, found that the
flavone C-glucoside vitexin is restricted to arbutifolia and prunifolia x arbutifolia
material and absent from melanocarpa and prunifolia x melanocarpa material.
These findings do not support the involvement of A. arbutifolia in the parentage
of A. prunifolia (Anon. 1974).
 22  Arnoldia 67/3

100 accessions of black, purple, and red species. breeding work with Aronia at the University
So far, based on flow cytometry results, we have of Connecticut, we have found that seedling
not found any diploid (2n=34) red chokeberries. populations from tetraploid plants are visu-
With additional collecting, we hope to find the ally identical to the female parent regardless
elusive diploid A. arbutifolia. Black chokeber- of the ploidy of the pollen used. When we use
ries collected from outside of New England a diploid female parent, we get segregation
have all been tetraploids (2n=68), while New within the population. We have also found
England black chokeberries have been diploid that triploid Aronia produce fertile seed, even
(2n=34). There are numerous accessions that we though triploidy typically results in sterility. It
believe to be A. prunifolia and these plants are is likely that polyploid forms of Aronia have
either tetraploid or triploid. evolved to produce seed through apomixis as a
There is mounting evidence that suggests functional manner in which to reproduce.
that Aronia is capable of producing apomictic
seeds (Persson Hovmalm et al. 2004). These Why the Interest in Aronia?
are seeds that develop without fertilization of The future is particularly bright for Aronia and
the egg and are, therefore, clones of the mother it will undoubtedly emerge from its relative
plant. This is particularly true of tetraploid obscurity to serve as both an important orna-
and triploid forms of Aronia. Apomictic seed mental landscape shrub and as a nutraceutical
set has been suspected from observations of fruit crop. There is growing interest among gar-
the homogeneity in cultivated Russian plant deners, landscapers, landscape architects, and
material (Poplavskaya 1995). In our own the general public in making better use of our
Nancy Rose

Chokeberries are versatile ornamental landscape shrubs. A planting of black chokeberry is seen here in fall color.
 Aronia  23

own native plants, especially when they can

serve as alternatives to problematic aggressive
and invasive exotic species.
In the Northeast, the popular winged euony-
mus or burning bush (Euonymus alatus) has
become invasive and has even been banned in
Massachusetts and New Hampshire. Its main
landscape attributes are stunning red fall color,
dense habit, and easy culture. Since native
highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum)
also has excellent red fall color it is often rec-
ommended as a replacement for burning bush,
but it is not adapted to many of the landscape
sites where burning bush has typically been
employed. Aronia can serve as a much better
alternative to E. alatus because it is site adapt-
able in addition to having multi-season inter-
est, including red fall color. To become popular
ornamental shrubs, chokeberries simply need a
little marketing and perhaps a more appealing
Aronia juice products (left to right): aronia blended with acai
common name. juice to make a fruit juice drink similar to cranberry cocktail,
In addition to uses as an ornamental, black powdered juice to mix into food or drink as a nutraceutical,
chokeberry is rapidly gaining momentum as and a nutraceutical beverage containing aronia juice.
a new small fruit crop for many parts of the
United States. The blueberry-sized black fruits processing since they are not prone to mechani-
produced by Aronia melanocarpa have the cal damage during transport and have low pectin
highest known levels of antioxidants (anthocya- content (Jeppsson 1999). Moreover, chokeberries
nins and flavonoids) of any temperate fruit, five can be harvested by machine (Gatke and Wilke
times higher than cranberry and blueberry, and 1991) and there is a long harvest window.
also contain strong anticancer compounds. Aro- Since “chokeberry juice” is unlikely to sell,
nia has been widely grown in Eastern Europe it is usually labeled as “aronia juice.” Wine red
and Russia where the fruits are processed and to dark purple in color, it is often blended with
used in beverages, wine, jelly, and baked goods other more flavorful juices such as apple, cran-
(Kask 1987). In the United States, Aronia is berry, grape, and black currant to make popular
largely unknown as a fruit crop, but there are no beverages. Other common uses include jellies
obvious limitations to prevent it from becom- and jams, syrup, soft spreads, teas, wine, and
ing popular here as well, especially given the flavorings for ice cream and yogurt. Aronia juice
public’s growing interest in functional foods. is also an excellent colorant.
Preliminary work in Iowa, Oregon, Wisconsin, The University of Wisconsin-Madison
and Nebraska has demonstrated the viability of Center for Integrated Systems (Secher 2008)
Aronia as a fruit crop in many regions, includ- evaluated 13 potential uncommon fruits with
ing New England. sustainability potential. Aronia was chosen as
Aronia berries, while edible as a fresh fruit, the crop with the greatest potential, beating
are much tastier when the fruits have been out currants, gooseberries, and elderberries.
processed. They are high in sugar (12 to 20% Low input requirements, high adaptability,
soluble solids), anthocyanins (560 to 1050 high pest resistance, high nutraceutical con-
mg/100 g fresh weight), have a pH of 3.3 to 3.7, tent, short time to first yield, ease of culture,
and 0.7 to 1.2% titratable acidity (Jeppsson and and high machine harvest potential were given
Johansson 2000; Oszmianski and Sapis 1988). as reasons why Aronia is tops for commercial
Chokeberries are very suitable for industrial production potential.
24  Arnoldia 67/3

The fruit of ‘Viking’(left) and typical wild-type Aronia melanocarpa (right). ‘Viking’ and ‘Nero’ are the primary culti-
vars available for fruit production in the United States (McKay 2001). Both are tetraploid forms (Brand, unpublished
data) with large, relatively sweet berries and are the highest producing cultivars currently available (Strik et al. 2003).

Breeding and Selection incomplete mutations. Nonetheless, we have

Breeding efforts to improve ornamental choke- made some progress in developing more com-
berries at the University of Connecticut are pact forms of red chokeberry using chemical
focused primarily on red chokeberry. There mutagens and irradiation.
is a need to reduce the plant’s stature by half European and Russian breeding efforts to
and eliminate its tendency toward legginess. enhance black chokeberry for fruit production
Another goal would be increased fruit size to have been largely constrained by the highly
provide a more impressive display in the fall homogenous gene pool in domesticated Rus-
and early winter. Fall foliage impact can be sian plant material. To make progress in this
enhanced by improving leaf retention as the area it is, therefore, necessary to broaden the
leaves turn red; currently available forms of red genetic basis through the introduction of
chokeberry tend to drop leaves too quickly after germplasm from native stands (Persson Hov-
coloring. Selections can also be made for resis- malm et al. 2004). There is evidence suggesting
tance to powdery mildew in black chokeberry. that flavonoid content of chokeberries can be
So far, improving red chokeberry has been chal- increased by incorporating native germplasm
lenging because all of the accessions we have that contains higher levels of flavonoids into
are tetraploids that probably produce apomictic a breeding program (Sueiro et al. 2006). Due to
seed. Finding a wild diploid A. arbutifolia could apomixis, diploid forms of black chokeberry
prove to be very useful in breeding this species. are at the core of plant improvement efforts
Polyploidy can also make it more difficult to at the University of Connecticut. It is unclear
use mutation breeding on red chokeberry due whether tetraploid forms are autotetraploids or
to the extra sets of chromosomes that can mask allotetraploids. It is possible that commercial
 Aronia  25

Aronia cultivars like ‘Viking’ could be allotetra- Hardin, J. W. 1973. The enigmatic chokeberries (Aronia,
ploids, since Aronia is known to hybridize with Rosaceae). Torreya 100:178–184.
plants in the Rosaceae genus Sorbus. Jeppsson, N. 1999. Evaluation of black chokeberry, Aronia
Our primary goal at the University of Con- melanocarpa, germplasm for production of
natural food colourants. Acta Horticulturae
necticut is to improve black chokeberry as a 484:193–198.
fruit crop by increasing levels of antioxidants
Jeppsson, N. and R. Johansson. 2000. Changes in
and anticancer compounds in the fruits while
fruit quality in black chokeberry (Aronia
maintaining or increasing fruit size above that melanocarpa) during maturation. Journal
found in current commercial cultivars such of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology
as ‘Viking’. Of course, improving fruit flavor 75:340–345.
is also important. We are currently trying to Kask, K. 1987. Large-fruited black chokeberry (Aronia
unravel the genetics that have given us culti- melanocarpa). Fruit Varieties Journal 41:47.
vars like ‘Viking’ and ‘Nero’. Some authorities Krussmann G. 1986. Cultivated Broad-leaved Trees and
designate the large fruited black chokeberries Shrubs, 3 volumes, B. T. Batsford Ltd., London.
as Aronia mitschurini (Strik et al. 2003). In the McKay, S.A. 2001. Demand increasing for aronia
late 1800s and early 1900s, Russian and east- and elderberry in North America. NY Fruit
ern European breeders had significant Aronia Quarterly 9:2–3.
breeding programs. Ivan Michurin, a Russian Oszmianski, J. and J. C. Sapis. 1988 Anthocyanins in fruits
plant breeder, produced a plant called ‘Liker- of Aronia melanocarpa (chokeberry). Journal of
naya’ that is an intergeneric hybrid between Food Science 53:1241–1242.
Sorbus aucuparia and Aronia melanocarpa Paplavskaya, T. K. 1995. Aronia, its economic significance
(Kask 1987). It is possible that this interge- and current status. In: A program and methods
neric hybrid, or others like it, were eventually of breeding fruit, small-fruit and nut bearing
crops. Oryol, Russia:457–459.
back crossed to A. melanocarpa to give rise to
cultivars such as ‘Viking’. By understanding Persson Hovmalm, H.A., N. Jeppsson, I. V. Bartish and
H. Nybom. 2004. RAPD analysis of diploid
how ‘Viking’ was created, we hope to re-create and tetraploid populations of Aronia points
superior large-fruited forms for the fledgling to different reproductive strategies within the
domestic chokeberry fruit industry. genus. Hereditas 141:301–312.
Rehder, A. 1949. Bibliography of Cultivated Trees and
Literature Cited Shrubs. Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University.
Alston, R. E., H. Rosler, K. Naefeh and T. J. Mabry. 1965. pp. 261–262.
Hybrid compounds in natural and interspecific Robertson, K.R., J.B. Phipps, J.R. Rohrer, and P.G. Smith.
hybrids. Proceedings of the National Academy 1991. A synopsis of genera in Maloideae
of Science 54:1458–1465. (Rosaceae). Systematic Botany 16: 376–394.
Anon. 1974. Aronia. Long Ashton Research Station, Secher, D. 2008. Fruit with potential for Wisconsin
University of Bristol: Report 1974. farms. http://www.cias.wisc.edu/wp-content/
uploads/2008/07/carandale.pdf.
Bermúdez-Soto, M.J., Larrosa, M., Garcia-Cantalejo, J.M.,
Espín, J.C., Tomás-Barberan, F.A., & García- Strik, B., Finn, C. and Wrolstad, R. 2003. Performance of
Conesa, M.T. 2007. Up-regulation of tumor chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) in Oregon,
suppressor carcinoembryonic antigen-related USA. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS) 626:439–443.
cell adhesion molecule 1 in human colon cancer
Sueiro, L., G. G. Yousef, D. Seigler, E. G. De Mejia, M. H.
Caco-2 cells following repetitive exposure to Grace and M. A. Lila. 2006. Chemopreventive
dietary levels of a polyphenol-rich chokeberry potencial of flavonoid extracts from plantation-
juice. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 18: bred and wild Aronia melanocarpa (black
259–271. chokeberry) fruits. Journal of Food Science
Darlington, C. D. and E. K. Janaki. 1945. Chromosome 71:480–488.
atlas of cultivated plants. George Allen and
Unwin Ltd., London.
Mark Brand is a professor in the Department of Plant
Gatke, R. and K. Wilke. 1991. Sind Aronia-Busche Science and Landscape Architecture at the University
machinell beerntbar? Gartenbau 38:37–38. of Connecticut.
 Forest Farming
Ken Mudge
Nancy Rose

Many sections of the Northeast have been reforested over the past century. Extensive forest cover is seen in this view from Wachu-
sett Mountain in central Massachusetts.

F
armers harvest crops from their fields, and agroforestry—a multidisciplinary approach to
loggers harvest trees from their forests, agricultural production that achieves diverse,
but what do forest farmers harvest? The profitable, sustainable land use by integrating
answer is an eclectic collection of non-timber trees with non-timber forest crops.
forest crops like maple syrup, medicinal herbs, While some other agroforestry practices begin
fruits, gourmet mushrooms, and nuts. with planting young trees that take years to
Forest farming is an approach to forest man- mature, forest farming involves planting non-
agement that combines some of the manage- timber forest crops beneath the canopy of an
ment practices of conventional forestry with established forest. In other words, other agro-
those of farming or gardening to achieve forestry practices bring the forest to the crops,
an environmentally and economically sus- whereas forest farming brings the crops to the
tainable land-use system. It is one of several forest. In this regard it is helpful to consider
related practices that fall under the domain of the role of forest farming in overall forest man-
 Forest Farming  27

agement. A forest farm should be designed to bearing trees including walnuts and peaches,
emulate as much as possible a natural forest. but there is no evidence of deliberate culti-
This includes characteristics of a healthy forest vation of useful crops beneath the canopy of
ecosystem such as species diversity, resilience established forest.
to disturbance, soil health, and a relatively wide Although some types of forest farming and
tree age distribution. other agroforestry practices have been going
on for centuries, the terms “agroforestry” and
Forest Farming Through the Ages “forest farming” are of relatively recent ori-
Although this article will focus on modern gin. Agroforestry—as a concept that recognized
temperate region forest farming, similar prac- the integration of trees, crops, and people—was
tices have been used in tropical regions by introduced in 1973 by John Bene, and led to the
indigenous peoples for hundreds of years. In establishment of the International Council for
a classic paper from the agroforestry litera- Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) in Nairobi,
ture, Fernandez et al. (1984) described an agro- Kenya which is now the World Agroforestry
forestry practice called home gardens, used Center . It was not until 2000 that the term
by the Chagga people who live on the slopes forest farming was introduced by Hill and Buck
of Mt Kilimanjaro. Home gardens are highly (2000) to describe the cultivation of non-timber
integrated, multistory collections of overstory forest crops beneath an existing tree canopy.
forest trees valued for timber, an intermedi- One factor contributing to the growing popu-
ate layer of small trees including coffee and larity of forest farming in northeastern North
banana, and a diverse array of understory America is the gradual increase in the extent
herbs and vines used for food and medicine. of privately owned forest. Using the state of
In North America, during and prior to the New York as an example, forest cover was at
seventeenth century, native peoples are known a minimum of about 15% in 1880 because of
to have planted and managed various food extensive conversion of forest to farmland.

Farming or Wildcrafting?

Nancy Rose
Although there is no anthropological
or archeological evidence that Native
Americans practiced forest farming per se,
unquestionably they were highly skilled at
gathering and utilizing wild forest products,
including food, medicines, and ceremonial
plants. Prospective forest farmers today fre-
quently ask if the collection of wild forest
products like edible mushrooms, wild leeks
(ramps), ginseng and other medicinals, and
decoratives like pine cones for wreaths and
vines for basketry can be considered forest
farming. These practices, known collec-
tively as wildcrafting, are certainly com-
patible with forest farming, particularly
when done on a sustainable basis, but don’t
qualify as forest farming (i.e. cultivation)
unless they are practiced in combination
with deliberate cultivation of non-
timber forest crops.

Wild-collected morel mushrooms.

28  Arnoldia 67/3

Reforestation since then has gradually increased

Nancy Rose
forest cover to 65%, and about 60% of that is
privately owned. At the same time average
parcel size has decreased, making timber extrac-
tion a less economically feasible option. This
transition from “industrial” forestry to “invest-
ment” forestry by owners who consider forestry
a part-time activity or even a hobby makes forest
farming an attractive management alternative.
Those interested in forest farming include con-
ventional farmers, many of whom have woodlots
on their farm, but also private forest owners with
non-farm day jobs who want to use their forest
productively while preserving or restoring the
natural ecosystem. In either case, supplemental The banana-custard-flavored fruits of pawpaw (Asimina tri-
income associated with sale of non-timber forest loba) are a potential forest farming product.
crops can be the deciding factor, although many
forest owners pursue forest farming as a source forest canopy rather than along its perimeter
of non-timber forest products for the family, or generally have not been successful.
simply as a source of personal satisfaction. While light is an environmental factor that
can be managed, others, including soil pH, fer-
Becoming a Forest Farmer tility, slope, and water availability, cannot be
Before starting, the forest owner should con- modified in forests as easily as in field agricul-
sider site issues beyond just “Can I grow gin- ture. Irrigation, fertilization, and modification
seng (and/or any other crop) at this site?” A of soil pH are not realistic management options
successful forest farm should be seen as an inte- in most forest situations. It makes more sense
grated agro-ecosystem that satisfies the owners to select crops that are naturally well-suited to
goals while sustaining ecosystem components the site characteristics.
including soil, water, trees, and wildlife.
A forest farm often begins with a more or less Types of Non-Timber Forest Crops
natural (unmanaged) stand of trees. To make it There are three major categories of non-timber
suitable for forest farming, some degree of man- forest crops used in forest farming: medicinal,
agement is necessary, including management of food, and ornamental. Ginseng and mush-
the forest light environment. For the medicinal rooms, in the medicinal and food categories
herb ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), up to 70% respectively, have the greatest proven income
shade is necessary, and for mushrooms like potential but there are others in each category
shiitake (Lentinula edodes), the more shade well worth considering (see Chamberlin et al.
the better. On the other hand, fruit crops like 2009). While cultivation of ornamentals in
blackberries (Rubus spp.) and pawpaw (Asimina forest farming systems is less frequently prac-
triloba) perform best under moderate shade. ticed it does have considerable potential.
Light management practices include pruning, In traditional farming, crop diversification
selective tree removal, utilizing natural gaps in was considered insurance against the failure of
the forest canopy, and planting less shade-toler- any one crop. Species and temporal diversity
ant crops along the forest perimeter. Observing are characteristics of a natural forest ecosys-
the natural distribution of wild relatives can tem which forest farms ideally should seek to
inform decisions about appropriate placement of emulate. For example, in a forest farm grow-
candidate non-timber forest crops. For exam- ing mushrooms, maple products, and ginseng,
ple, wild brambles like black raspberry and diversification makes good sense from a produc-
blackberry typically occur along the ecotone tion standpoint; maple is tapped yearly, mush-
(interface) between field and forest. Attempts rooms yield a harvest for several years, while
to grow cultivated brambles beneath a dense ginseng will take eight years to mature. In this
 Forest Farming  29

Ken Mudge
case, the maples also provide shade for both
other crops and additional calcium (in fallen
leaves) needed by the ginseng.

Medicinals
The forests of North America have been reposi-
tories for a wide range of herbs and other plants
and mushrooms gathered for use in traditional
medicine. The pallet of medicinal plants col-
lected and used by Native Americans and
others was and is extensive, but only a few of
these species are cultivated as non-timber forest
crops today. To a very great extent, this is due
to economic factors, including lack of markets
and concomitantly low potential for income American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius).
generation. Ginseng and goldenseal (Hydrastis

Ken Mudge
canadensis) are the two medicinals most often
cultivated by forest farmers.
American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) is
a shade-loving perennial herb that produces a
valuable below-ground storage root. It occurs
in hardwood forests throughout most of
eastern North America. Although wild popula-
tions have declined somewhat because of har-
vesting, it is still relatively common. American
ginseng has been highly valued in traditional
Chinese and Korean medicine since it was
first exported from North America in the sev-
enteenth century. Most commercial demand
today is from China and Korea. Ginseng is valu-
able as a forest farming product, but potential Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis).
growers should use Beyfuss’s site assessment
techniques (see listing under Additional Read- looks like a stem, but is in fact a sympodium
ing) before jumping in. consisting of the fused petioles (leaf stalks) of
American ginseng is reputed to function in its 3 or 4 palmately compound leaves. Ginseng
the human body as an “adaptogen,” increasing develops a narrow underground rhizome—about
the body’s resistance to stress. In traditional the thickness of a good sized-earthworm—
Chinese medicine, ginseng is said to promote with a bud at one end and one or more tuberous
yin energy and have a calming effect. This and storage roots at the other end. A single flush of
other beneficial effects of ginseng have been aboveground growth emerges from the rhizome
claimed for centuries, but there is little modern bud in the spring while the storage root grows
scientific research to substantiate these claims. slowly during the summer. The plant’s slow
Nevertheless, ginseng is the most valuable of growth rate is an adaption to its low light envi-
North American medicinal herbs. ronment and results in forest-cultivated ginseng
The ginseng plant has an unusual growth habit taking about eight years to mature.
and life cycle that contribute to the relative dif- The storage root, which looks a little like a
ficulty and long timeframe involved in cultivat- branched carrot, is what all the excitement is
ing it as a crop. A more typical plant has roots, about. In Chinese the word for ginseng means
stem(s) and multiple leaves, each associated with “man root,” and the more it looks like a person
a bud that grows into new branches. Not ginseng. (arms and legs) the more valuable it is to tradi-
The mature plant consists of a single stalk that tional Asian buyers. The root is the source of
 30  Arnoldia 67/3
Ken Mudge

able period of time, and be sold for a reasonable

price. Food crops that are most likely to be found
in a forest farm include gourmet mushrooms
like shiitakes (Lentinula edodes), berries, other
fruits such as pawpaw (Asimina triloba), ramps
(Allium tricoccum), and tree nuts such as wal-
nuts (Juglans spp.) and hickories (Carya spp.).
Forest-cultivated mushrooms deserve seri-
ous consideration for those starting a new
forest farming venture. Most candidate crops
like medicinals, fruits and nuts, or ornamentals
require specific site conditions, but since mush-
rooms are grown on logs they are less dependent
on factors like soil moisture, pH, and drain-
The branched storage root of ginseng. age. Mushrooms are not photosynthetic and
therefore can tolerate nearly complete shade,
the pharmacologically active compounds and a shady site is essential to minimize exces-
known as ginsenosides. When it comes time sive drying of the substrate logs. Aside from
to harvest the crop, it can only be sold to a socioeconomic factors like access to markets,
licensed dealer if it is intended for export, as is mushrooms can be cultivated almost anywhere
the case with most American ginseng. as long as there is sufficient shade and a source
The price structure for ginseng is a curious of substrate logs.
inversion of most other crops. The more inten- Mushrooms are less valuable per pound than
sively it is cultivated, the less it is worth. Large ginseng, they are more perishable, and their
scale, high density ginseng grown in Wisconsin, cultivation requires more labor than ginseng.
Ontario, and British Colombia requires expen- On the other hand, $8 to $16 per pound fresh
sive artificial shade structures and consider- weight for shiitake mushrooms is not a bad
able amounts of fertilizers and fungicides. The price when you consider that you can start har-
wholesale value of this ginseng is about $25 per vesting mushrooms in as little as one year after
pound dry weight as of 2009. log inoculation, and continue harvesting from
As a forest farming crop, ginseng is cultivated the same log for 3 to 5 years. By contrast, once
either by the “woods-cultivated” or the “wild- a ginseng root is harvested, the plant is gone.
simulated” method. “Woods-cultivated” gin- Other mushrooms including lion’s mane
seng is grown in raised beds, often amended (Hericium spp.), oyster (Pleurotis spp.), and hen
with organic matter. Its price is about $150 of the woods (or maitake) (Griffola frondosa)
per pound dry weight. The less intensive wild- can be cultivated under forest farming condi-
simulated method involves minimal manage- tions but cultivation strategies are not yet as
ment—little more than roughing up the ground well worked out as for shiitake. People curious
with a rake, scattering the seed, and coming back about mushroom cultivation often ask about
to harvest eight years later. It wholesales for the ultra-valuable truffles (Tuber spp.), which
about $300 per pound dry weight. This inverse can sell for nearly $1000 per pound, and valuable
relationship between price and intensity of cul- morels (Morchella spp.). It is probably best to
tivation extends even to wild-collected (zero discourage all but the bravest and most patient
cultivation) ginseng which wholesales for $400 entrepreneurs from investing time or money in
to $600 or more per pound dry weight. cultivating truffles—many have tried to grow
them but very few have succeeded. Similarly,
Food there are very few who have successfully grown
North American forests abound with edible morels, which are best left to wildcrafting.
plants. However, their use in forest farming By far the most reliable mushroom for forest
is limited since few of these forest edibles can cultivation, and for which there is the great-
be grown in sufficient quantity, in a reason- est commercial demand, is shiitake. While log-
 Forest Farming  31
Ken Mudge

grown shiitake can be a reliable non-timber

forest crop for forest farming, it is worth point-
ing out that most shiitake mushrooms available
to the public are grown indoors on artificial
(sawdust) logs, in expensive climate-controlled
rooms. The quality of these artificially culti-
vated shiitake is generally considered inferior
to log-grown shiitake mushrooms.
Shiitake is a primary saprophytic fungus
that derives its nourishment from dead organic
matter; in forest farming, freshly cut logs pro-
vide the substrate. The goal of shiitake cultiva-
tion is to facilitate the decay of the log through
a process by which the fungal mycelium (aggre-
gated fungal strands, or hyphae) enzymatically
digests the wood by degrading lignin and cellu-
Ken Mudge

lose, producing carbon dioxide, water (products

of respiration), and the energy necessary for the
fungus to assimilate the remaining carbon into
new mycelium and reproductive structures,
that is, the mushrooms.
Since shiitake competes poorly with other
fungi, the substrate logs for production must be
freshly cut and lack competing decay organisms.
Freshly cut logs also provide the high moisture
content necessary for fungal colonization after
inoculation. A number of deciduous hardwood
tree species make good shiitake substrate. Oaks
(Quercus spp.) are considered the gold standard
in the Northeast but sugar maple (Acer saccha-
rum) also rates highly. Tulip poplar (Lirioden-
Lion’s mane (Hericium spp.) and oyster mushrooms (Pleurotis dron tulipifera) is particularly desirable further
spp.) can be cultivated in forest farms, though not as reliably
south. Conventional wisdom says that species
as shiitake.
with tight bark that helps maintain a high
moisture content make the best shiitake bolts,
Ken Mudge

yet our research has shown that aspen, which

maintains a higher moisture content than oak,
beech, or red maple, is the poorest with respect
to shiitake production. Interestingly, in our
tests ironwood, or American hornbeam (Carpi-
nus caroliniana) outperformed red oak.
Cut logs are then inoculated with spawn, a
pure culture of shiitake fungal mycelium (not
spores) grown on sawdust or other substrate
which is introduced into holes drilled in the
logs. Production of uncontaminated spawn
must be done under sterile laboratory condi-
tions, so most growers purchase their spawn
from commercial producers. An approximately
$20 bag of spawn inoculates about 20–30 logs.
Forest-farmed shiitake mushrooms ready for harvest. Once inoculated, the logs are transferred to the
32  Arnoldia 67/3

The MacDaniels Nut Grove: A Unique Educational Site

P
racticum in Forest Farming is a multidisciplinary course taught at Cornell University. What
makes the course unique is not only the subject matter but also the MacDaniels Nut Grove,
the outdoor classroom where the course is taught.
Both are an outgrowth of the rediscovery, in 2000, of a more than 70-year-old temperate nut tree
variety trial established in the 1920s by Professor Lawrence MacDaniels. Not long after Dr. Mac (as
he was known) retired in 1956, the site was abandoned. Soon, it was all but forgotten as it reverted
to secondary forest including oak, hickory, maple, cherry, and invasive honeysuckle. Fifty or more
years later, the only obvious sign that the seven acre site was once a repository for hickory and
walnut clonal varieties was an abundance of graft unions on over 100 of the older trees. When Dr.
Mac was acquiring and grafting scions (upper portion of a grafted plant) onto understocks (lower por-
tion), little was known about the limits of genetic compatibility between different hickory (Carya)
species. Graft unions between genetically compatible scion/stock combinations like C. x dunbarii
(C. laciniosa x C. ovata) grafted onto a shagbark hickory (C. ovata) understock are barely evident
today. Other combinations like shagbark hickory grafted onto red pignut hickory (C. ovalis) showed
extreme bulging and cracking at the graft

Ken Mudge
union, signs of delayed incompatibility.
When the site was rediscovered it was easy
to recognize it as a nut tree variety trial, but
it didn’t take long to envision it as an outdoor
forest farming classroom for Cornell students
and members of the community. The course
is structured around experiential learning,
combining a wide range of outdoor activities
with related reading and writing assignments.
A field trip to Cornell’s Arnot Teaching and
Research Forest lets students learn about
ongoing mushroom and ginseng research, A view into the MacDaniels Nut Grove, teaching site for Cornell’s
including hands-on inoculation of freshly Practicum in Forest Farming.
cut logs with shiitake mushroom spawn

Ken Mudge
and digging young ginseng seedlings from
a wild-simulated (not wild) ginseng patch.
Both the logs and the ginseng are brought
back to the MacDaniels Nut Grove for fur-
ther learning activities. Additional activities
include soil analysis, vegetation inventory,
site indexing to gauge suitability for a given
tree species, and forest stand improvement.
Data collected in each of these categories
contribute to an ongoing GPS database of the
MacDaniels Nut Grove. As an integrator of
all these hands-on activities, student groups
work on a final project involving a system-
atic permaculture-inspired approach to site
assessment and design using an explicit set
of “forest owner” goals developed by each (A) shows an incompatible graft union (Carya ovata on C. ovalis)
group in order to synthesize a final design. and (B) shows a compatible graft union (C. x dunbarii on C. ovata).
 Forest Farming  33
Ken Mudge

thrive in full sun are not well suited

for forest farming, but there is plenty
of demand for shade-tolerant garden
perennials including hostas, daylil-
ies, ferns, heucheras, trilliums, astil-
bes, and hellebores. Note that some
of these are forest wildflowers, but
in forest farming the emphasis is on
deliberate cultivation and conser-
vation of wild plants so plants are
grown, not wild collected.
Two basic nursery production
systems are adaptable to forest
farming—field (in the ground) and
container. Field production can have
lower costs but harvest and sale of
A laying yard of logs inoculated with shiitake mushroom spawn. plants is seasonally limited. Con-
tainer production makes it easier to
harvest, move, and sell plants, but
Ken Mudge

has drawbacks such as wind throw,

low and high temperature stress to
root systems, and higher water needs
from restricted rooting volume.
A newer method, pot-in-pot pro-
duction, solves many of these con-
tainer problems and may be well
suited for forest farming. This
method uses an empty socket pot
buried in the ground so that its rim
is about even with the soil surface. A
second pot containing the crop plant
slides down into the socket pot, so
its soil line is at about the natural
ground line. This prevents wind
throw, allows for easy, multi-season
These hostas are being forest-farmed in a pot-in-pot nursery production bed.
harvest, moderates soil temperature
Netting prevents deer browsing. within the crop pot, and reduces
water use. The latter is particularly
laying yard where they will incubate while the useful in most forest farming systems where
fungal mycelium colonizes the log. The lay- irrigation is usually not readily available.
ing yard must be well shaded (about 80%) year Another category of ornamentals for forest
round to minimize moisture loss from the logs. farm production includes cut stems, flowers,
Production of mushrooms for harvest typically cones, and vines that are harvested from intact
occurs about a year after inoculation. plants that remain alive, ready to produce sub-
sequent crops. Although collection of cones,
Ornamentals boughs, bark, etc., is more closely allied with
The North American public spends a consid- wildcrafting than forest farming, the distinction
erable amount of money on plants used as becomes blurred if a wild plant is deliberately
ornamentals, either in gardens or for decora- managed to produce a continuous supply of cut
tive purposes around the home (e.g. cut flow- products. Woody florals—ornamental stems
ers). Ornamental plants like roses or lilacs that of woody shrubs such as red-twig dogwood or
34  Arnoldia 67/3

Nancy Rose

Red-twig (or red osier) dogwood (Cornus sericea) can be grown as a woody floral for its colorful winter stems.
 Forest Farming  35

corkscrew willow used in floral design—are Chamberlin, J.L., D. Mitchell, T. Brigham, T. Hobby, L.
another potential crop, though most woody spe- Zabek, J. Davis. 2009, Forest Farming Practices,
Ch. 9, In: North American Agroforestry, An
cies in this category would be best suited for Integrated Science and Practice, 2nd Ed., Edited
planting along the perimeter of a forest farming by H.E. Garrett. American Society of Agronomy
site. Woody floral shrubs are generally coppiced Press, Madison, WI.
(cut back to ground level annually) to generate Fernandez, E.C.M., A. Oktingata, and J. Maghembe.
multiple new shoots for harvest each year. 1984. The Chagga homegardens: a multistoried
agroforestry cropping system on Mt. Kilimanjaro
The Future of Forest Farming (Northern Tanzania). Agroforestry Systems, 2:
73–86.
Forest farming is not yet a widespread approach Hill, D.B. and L.E. Buck. 2000. Forest Farming Practices
to, or component of, forest management, but (Ch. 8), In: Garrett, H.E., W.J. Rietveld, and R.F.
it has great potential for wider adoption as Fisher (eds.), North American Agroforestry: An
forest owners look for alternatives to either Integrated Science and Practice, Amer. Soc.
Agronomy, Madison, WI.
management of the forest for timber extrac-
Jacke, D. and E. Toensmeier. 1996. Edible Forest Gardens,
tion or no management at all. Development
vol. 2, Chelsea Green Publisher, White River
of a successful forest farming design should Junction, VT.
include an integration of the explicit goals of Mudge, K.W., 2009, Northeast Forest Mushroom Growers
the forest owner with a systematic assessment Network http://mushrooms.cals.cornell.edu/
of both biophysical and anthropogenic charac- Mudge, K.W., L. Buck and P. Treadwell, 2007. How When
teristics of the site. Ginseng, maple syrup, and and Why of Forest Farming http://www.hort.
forest-cultivated mushrooms have the most cornell.edu/forestfarming/
reliable track record, and are potentially more Mudge, K.W., 2009. MacDaniels Nut Grove Forest Farm
http://www.hort.cornell.edu/mng/
profitable than other non-timber forest crops.
Mudge, K.W. Forest Farming at the MacDaniels Nut
Others like minor fruits and ornamentals Grove, Cornell Plantations Magazine, Summer
have considerable potential for exploration 2004, 59(2):6–11.
and development. World Agroforestry Center, http://www.worldagroforestry.
org/af/index.php
Additional Reading
Beyfuss, R. Visual Site Assessment (for ginseng cultivation)
http://scnyat.cce.cornell.edu/forestfarming/ Ken Mudge is an associate professor in the Department of
ginsengvisualassmt.pdf Horticulture, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

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A Soft Touch: Pinus wallichiana
Nancy Rose

I
f any tree could be described as pettable it to P. nepalensis, back to P. excelsea, then to
would have to be the Himalayan pine (Pinus P. griffithii. These are all synonyms for the now-
wallichiana). Its drooping clusters of fine- accepted name P. wallichiana.
textured, luxuriantly long needles positively The Arboretum holds a number of accessions
invite touching. Think of it as the Afghan of Himalayan pine. Currently, the oldest living
hound of the conifer world. specimen is a large, handsome 1946 accession
Native to the Himalayan Mountains from (268-46-A) originally received from Karl Sax
Afghanistan to Burma, Himalayan pine is fairly under the name P. griffithii. It stands 18 meters
common at mid to upper elevations. It grows in (59 feet) tall, has a crown spread of 16.4 meters
valleys and hillsides either alone or with other (54 feet), and a trunk diameter of 97.8 centi-
conifers and deciduous trees including oak, meters (38.5 inches) (measured below the first
birch, and maple species. limb). This plant is of unknown garden origin,
Himalayan pine is known to reach 50 meters but the Arboretum does have several accessions
(about 160 feet) or more in height in its native of documented wild origin as well.
range. It typically has a straight central trunk The specimen pictured at right (accession
and horizontal to slightly drooping branches. In 83-94-B) arrived as seed from the Quarryhill
open, cultivated settings it tends to be shorter Botanic Garden, originally collected in October
(perhaps 15 to 25 meters [about 50 to 80 feet]) 1993 during a plant expedition to India. The
and develops an attractive domed or haystack seeds were collected in the northern Indian
shape. When grown like this, with plenty of state of Himachal Pradesh at an elevation of
space, the foliage display is most attractive. The approximately 2500 meters (8200 feet). Of the
thin, 15 to 20 centimeters (about 6 to 8 inches) four specimens of accession 83-94 planted, this
long needles are bundled in groups of five and one has performed best, perhaps because of
cascade elegantly from the branches like bluish its somewhat protected but adequately sunny
green waterfalls. The pendant cones of Hima- location behind the Arboretum’s maintenance
layan pine look similar to those of Eastern white garage. It currently stands 8.3 meters (27 feet)
pine (Pinus strobus)—light brown at maturity, tall and has a DBH (diameter at breast height) of
with flexible scales, and very resinous. 17.3 centimeters (6.8 inches). We also have two
Cold hardiness for cultivated Himalayan pine specimens of another accession, 84-94, which
is somewhat variable depending on provenance. originated from the same 1993 expedition but
The species has grown well in locations in the a different location, this one at an elevation of
United States at least as cold as USDA hardiness approximately 2300 meters (7500 feet) in the
zone 5 (average annual minimum temperature Great Himalayan National Park. One last wild
-20 to -10°F [-23 to -29°C]). As with some other collected Himalayan pine accession of interest
thin-needled pines, the foliage may suffer winter is 1277-61-A, grown from seed collected in
desiccation damage in windy, exposed sites. November 1961 in the vicinity of Kabul, Afgha-
The Arnold Arboretum’s first accession of nistan, at an elevation between 6000 and 7000
Himalayan pine arrived in January 1874 from feet (about 1800 to 2100 meters). Unfortuna-
The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (the plant tely, this specimen is in only fair condition but
was removed from the Arboretum in 1892 for is a candidate for repropagation because of its
unknown reasons). The Arboretum’s curato- unique provenance.
rial records show that this accession was recei-
ved under the name Pinus excelsea, changed Nancy Rose is editor of Arnoldia.