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LENGUA EXTRANJERA
INGLÉS

Supuestos
 INGLÉS
supuestos

E N G L I S H LINGUISTICS: G R A M M A R

TEXT A N ALYSIS

I d e n t i f y t h e n o u n p h r a s e s (NPs) i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h , a n a l y z e t h e m i n f u l l a n d e x p l a i n y o u r
analyses.

Native speakers can rarely explain the grammatical rules of their own language. In the same way, those
who are most 'fluent' in the rituals, customs and traditions of a particular culture generally lack the
detachment necessary to explain the 'grammar' ofthese practices in an intelligible manner.

[ E x t r a c t r e t r i e v e d f r o m F o x , K a t e ( 2 0 0 5 ) . Watching the English. The hidden rules of English

behaviour. L o n d o n : H o d d e r , p. 2]

QUESTIONS

1. NP f u n c t i o n s

a) Native speakers -•

b) the grammatical rules of their own language -¥

c) their own language

d) the same way

e) f h o s e who are most 'fluent' in the rituals, customs and traditions ofa particular culture -•

f) who-¥

g) the rituals, customs and traditions ofa particular culture-*

h) a particular culture -•

i) the detachment necessary to explain the 'grammar' of these practices in an intelligible

manner-*

j) the 'grammar' of these practices ->

k) fhese practices ->

I) an intelligible manner ->

2. NP f o r m a l a n a l y s e s

a) Native speakers

b) the grammatical rules of their own language

c) the same way

d) those who are most 'fluent' in the rituals, customs and traditions ofa particular culture

e) the detachment necessary to explain the 'grammar' ofthese practices in an intelligible manner

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ENGLISH L I N G U I S T I C S : G R A M M A R

TEXT A N ALYSIS

A c o m m o n e x a m p l e p u r p o r t e d l y d o c u m e n t i n g t h e i n e x t r i c a b l e l i n k a g e of l a n g u a g e . c u l t u r e , a n d
t h o u g h t refers t o " E s k i m o w o r d s f o r s n o w " . (1) A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s e x a m p l e , u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d E s k i m o
l a n g u a g e s are c r e d i t e d w i t h s o m e variable n u m b e r of u n i q u e w o r d s for s n o w a n d a r e c o m p a r e d t o
E n g l i s h , w h i c h h a s b u t o n e . (2) A s m o s t c o m m o n l y e x p r e s s e d , t h e e x a m p l e refers t o t h e p o w e r t h a t
c u l t u r a l i n t e r e s t s o r s e t t i n g h a v e o n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f l a n g u a g e . (3) A s o m e w h a t m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d
versión a p p l i e s t h e p u t a t i v e E s k i m o c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f s n o w t o t h e o r i e s o f g r a m m a t i c a l i n f l u e n c e o n
p e r c e p t i o n . (4) O t h e r e x a m p l e s o f v o c a b u l a r y e l a b o r a t i o n are s o m e t i m e s u s e d f o r s i m i l a r e x p l a n a t o r y
p u r p o s e s , b u t n o n e is as w i d e l y c i t e d as t h i s o n e . (5) S u c h p o p u l a r i t y is at o n c e i r o n i c a n d u n f o r t u n a t e
b e c a u s e t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e e x a m p l e , a curious s e q u e n c e of distortions and i n a c c u r a c i e s , offers b o t h
a case s t u d y in t h e creation o f a n oral tradition a n d an object lesson o n the h a z a r d s o f superficial
s c h o l a r s h i p . (6)

T h e e a r l i e s t r e f e r e n c e t o E s k i m o s a n d s n o w w a s a p p a r e n t l y m a d e b y Franz B o a s . (7) A m o n g m a n y
e x a m p l e s o f cross-linguistic v a r i a t i o n in t h e patterns o f f o r m / m e a n i n g a s s o c i a t i o n , B o a s presents a
b r i e f c i t a t i o n o f f o u r l e x i c a l l y u n r e l a t e d w o r d s f o r s n o w i n E s k i m o : aput ' s n o w o n t h e g r o u n d ' , qana
' f a l l i n g s n o w ' , p/'qs/rpoí/'drifting s n o w ' , a n d qimuqsuq'a s n o w drift'. (8) In t h i s c a s u a l e x a m p l e , B o a s
m a k e s l i t t l e d i s t i n c t i o n a m o n g " r o o t s " , " w o r d s " , a n d " i n d e p e n d e n t t e r m s " . (9) He i n t e n d s t o ¡Ilústrate t h e
n o n c o m p a r a b i l i t y o f l a n g u a g e s t r u c t u r e s , n o t t o e x a m i n e t h e i r c u l t u r a l o r c o g n i t i v e i m p l i c a t i o n s . (10)

T h e e x a m p l e b e c a m e i n e x t r i c a b l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h B e n j a m í n W h o r f . (11) A l t h o u g h f o r B o a s t h e e x a m p l e
i l l u s t r a t e d a s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n E n g l i s h a n d E s k i m o , W h o r f r e o r i e n t s it t o c o n t r a s t t h e m . (12) It is a
m i n o r diversión i n h i s a r t i c l e " S c i e n c e a n d l i n g u i s t i c s " , a d i s c u s s i o n o f p e r v a s i v e s e m a n t i c c a t e g o r i e s
s u c h as t i m e a n d s p a c e , a n d h e d e v e l o p s it n o f u r t h e r , h e r e o r e l s e w h e r e in his w r i t i n g s . (13)

O f p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e is W h o r f ' s f a i l u r e t o c i t e s p e c i f i c d a t a , n u m b e r s , o r s o u r c e s . (14) H i s E n g l i s h
g l o s s e s s u g g e s t a s m a n y a s f i v e w o r d s b u t n o t t h e s a m e s e t g i v e n b y Boas. (15) A l t h o u g h W h o r f ' s
s o u r c e is u n c e r t a i n , if h e d i d r e l y o n B o a s , his a p p a r e n t l y c a s u a l revisión o f n u m b e r s a n d g l o s s e s a r e
b u t t h e f i r s t m i s t r e a t m e n t s t o w h i c h t h e o r i g i n a l d a t a h a v e b e e n s u b j e c t e d . (16)

A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h t h e e x a m p l e is t r a c e a b l e t o t w o i n f l u e n t i a l t e x t b o o k s w r i t t e n i n
t h e l a t e 1 9 5 0 s a n d a d o p t e d i n a v a r i e t y o f d i s c i p l i n e s w e l l i n t o t h e 1 9 7 0 s . (17) In t h e f i r s t , TheSilent
Language, E d w a r d H a l l i n e x p l i c a b l y d e s c r i b e s t h e E s k i m o d a t a as n o u n s a n d , a l t h o u g h h i s a r g u m e n t
i m p l i e s q u i t e a l a r g e i n v e n t o r y , s p e c i f i c n u m b e r s a r e n o t p r o v i d e d . (18) In t h e s e c o n d , R o g e r B r o w n ' s
Words and Things, t h e a u t h o r c l a i m s precisely "three E s k i m o w o r d s for s n o w " b u t his d i s c u s s i o n
i l l u s t r a t e s a c r e e p i n g c a r e l e s s n e s s a b o u t t h e a c t u a l l i n g u i s t i c f a c t s o f t h e e x a m p l e . (19)

With t h e passing of time, t e x t b o o k references to the e x a m p l e have reached s u c h proliferation that

n o c o m p l e t e inventory seems possible, but e x a m i n a t i o n of a representative set reveáis c o m m o n
features: lack or inaccuracy of citations; applications of the e x a m p l e to diverse a n d c o n t r a d i c t o r y
t h e o r e t i c a l p u r p o s e s ; w h o l e s a l e r e a n a l y s i s o f t h e e x a m p l e a n d its h i s t o r y . (20) C a s u a l c l a s s r o o m u s e
is s t a r t l i n g l y f r e q u e n t a n d m u c h m o r e o f t e n a c c o m p a n i e d b y a p o c r y p h a l n u m b e r s , w h i c h u s u a l l y
r a n g e f r o m a b o u t a d o z e n t o m o r e t h a n o n e h u n d r e d . (21) T h e g r a d u a l f i l t e r i n g o f t h e e x a m p l e i n t o
t h e e d u c a t e d lay p o p u l a t i o n h a s e s t a b l i s h e d its v i t a l i t y b e y o n d u n i v e r s i t y w a l l s , f r o m n i n e E s k i m o
w o r d s f o r s n o w i n a t r i v i a e n c y d o p e d i a t o a l o c a l televisión r e f e r e n c e s t o " t w o h u n d r e d w o r d s " d u r i n g
w i n t e r s n o w f o r e c a s t s . (22)

[From L. M a r t i n , "Eskimo w o r d s f o r snow", adapted]

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QUESTIONS

1. N o u n s a n d N o u n P h r a s e s

a) N o m i n a l l s a t l o n . F l n d a l l t h e n o u n s in t h e f i r s t p a r a g r a p h w h i c h h a v e r e s u l t e d f r o m a p r o c e s s
o f a f f i x a t i o n o r conversión a n d indícate t h e p r o c e s s (e.g., d e v e r b a l , d e a d j e c t i v a l ) .

2. I d e n t i f y a l l t h e n o u n p h r a s e s i n s e n t e n c e s (4) a n d (16) b e a r i n g i n m i n d t h a t o n e n o u n p h r a s e m a y
h a v e a n o t h e r as c o n s t i t u e n t . F o r e a c h n o u n p h r a s e , p i c k o u t t h e n o u n h e a d .

3. C l a u s e P a t t e r n s a n d S u b o r d i n a r o n

a) O b j e c t s a n d c o m p l e m e n t s . In t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s i d e n t i f y t h e o b j e c t s ( e i t h e r d i r e c t o r
indirect) a n d c o m p l e m e n t s (either subject c o m p l e m e n t o r object c o m p l e m e n t ) a n d indícate
the pattern o f c o m p l e m e n t a t i o n (intransitive, i n t e n s i v e , monotransítive, dí-transitíve,
complex-transitive):

(¡) Such popularity is at once ironic and unfortunate.

(¡í) The evolution ofthe example offers a case study in the creation ofan oral tradition.

(ni) Whorf reliedon Boas.

(iv) Hall inexplicably describes the Eskimo data as nouns.

(v) The lecturer told them that Eskimos have many words for snow.

(vi) The paths oflinguistics and psycholinguistics coincided at first.

4. S u b o r d í n a t e c l a u s e s c a n b e f i n i t e a n d n o n - f i n i t e a n d c a n h a v e v a r i o u s f u n c t í o n s ( n o m i n a l ,
a d v e r b i a l , relative, comparatíve). Identify f o u r finite a n d f o u r non-finite clauses a n d indícate t h e i r
functíon.

5. A n a l y s i s

a) A n a l y s e t h e u n d e r l i n e d n o u n p h r a s e i n (1) u s i n g a t r e e - d i a g r a m .

6. T e x t Exploitatíon

R e t a i n i n g a n d u s i n g v o c a b u l a r y is o n e o f t h e m a i n p r o b l e m s f o r s t u d e n t s . A c t i v i t i e s t e n d t o b e
v e r y s p e c i f i c f r o m a l e x i c a l p o i n t o f v í e w , e.g., m e a n s o f t r a n s p o n , t e c h n o l o g y a n d c o m p u t e r s ,
b u t m o r e ¡mportantly, t h e y s h o u l d b e m e a n i n g f u l t o s t u d e n t s , t h a t is, r e l a t e d t o t h e i r e v e r y d a y
e x p e r i e n c e . P r e p a r e a 2 0 - 3 0 m i n u t e v o c a b u l a r y - b u i l d i n g a c t i v i t y i n w h i c h lists o f r e l a t e d w o r d s
are e l i c i t e d f r o m g r o u p s o f s t u d e n t s d r a w i n g o n their k n o w l e d g e a n d e x p e r i e n c e .

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E N G L I S H LINGUISTICS: G R A M M A R

TEXT ANALYSIS

T h e r e a r e t w o ¡deas t h a t h a v e b e e n p r o m o t e d i n E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g o v e r r e c e n t y e a r s . (1)
O n e is t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e t o b e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e c l a s s r o o m s h o u l d b e a s a u t h e n t i c as p o s s i b l e s o a s
t o r e p r e s e n t t h e r e a l i t y o f n a t i v e - s p e a k e r u s e . (2) T h e o t h e r is t h a t l e a r n e r s s h o u l d b e a s a u t o n o m o u s
a s p o s s i b l e , a n d b e a l l o w e d t o m a k e t h e l a n g u a g e t h e i r o w n . (3) T h e q u e s t i o n I s h o u l d l i k e t o r a i s e is
w h e t h e r t h e s e t w o i d e a s a r e c o m p l e m e n t a r y o r c o n t r a d i c t o r y . (4)

T h e a u t h e n t i c i t y i d e a d e v e l o p s f r o m a c o m m u n i c a t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n t o l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g . (5) T h e
a r g u m e n t r u n s a l o n g t h e f o l l o w i n g l i n e s . (6) If y o u a r e g o i n g t o t e a c h r e a l E n g l i s h a s it f u n c t i o n s
in c o n t e x t u a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e w a y s , rather t h a n a c o l l e c t i o n o f l i n g u i s t i c f o r m s in artificial c l a s s r o o m
s i t u a t i o n s , t h e n y o u n e e d t o r e f e r t o h o w n a t i v e s p e a k e r s a c t u a l l y p u t it t o c o m m u n i c a t i v e u s e . (7)
A u t h e n t i c i t y is t h u s d e p e n d e n t o n t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e n a t i v e s p e a k e r . (8) T h e ¡dea g a i n s s u p p o r t , t o o ,
f r o m t h e v a s t a c c u m u l a t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s o f l a n g u a g e w h i c h c a n n o w b e c a r r i e d o u t b y c o m p u t e n (9)
C o r p u s descriptions of English c a n n o w m a k e available facts a b o u t authentic usage w h i c h w e ignored.
(10) It is a n i d e a , t h e r e f o r e , w h i c h is n o t o n l y a p p e a l i n g i n p r i n c i p i e , b u t f e a s i b l e in p r a c t i c a (11) T h e
a p p r o p r i a t e E n g l i s h f o r t h e c l a s s r o o m is t h e real E n g l i s h t h a t is a p p r o p r i a t e l y u s e d o u t s i d e it. (12) W e
n o w k n o w w h a t real E n g l i s h l o o k s like, s o w e n o l o n g e r h a v e a n e x c u s e f o r n o t t e a c h i n g it. (13)

T h e a u t h e n t i c i t y i d e a g i v e s p r i m a c y t o t h e g o a l o f l e a r n i n g . (14) If real c o m m u n i c a t i v e b e h a v i o u r is
w h a t l e a r n e r s h a v e e v e n t u a l l y t o l e a m , t h e n t h a t is w h a t t h e y h a v e t o b e t a u g h t . (15) T h e a u t o n o m y
i d e a g i v e s p r i m a c y t o t h e p r o c e s s o f l e a r n i n g . (16) T h e a r g u m e n t h e r e is t h a t if t h i s is t o b e a c t i v a t e d
effectively, t h e n w e n e e d t o a p p e a l t o t h e learners' o w n experience, a n d get t h e m e n g a g e d o n
t h e i r o w n t e r m s . (17) T h e y n e e d t o b e í n d u c e d t o i n v e s t t h e l a n g u a g e w i t h t h e i r o w n p e r s o n a l i t i e s
a n d goals, t o interact w i t h e a c h o t h e r o n p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g tasks w h i c h w i l l g i v e a p u r p o s e to their
l e a r n i n g . (18) T h e e m p h a s i s h e r e is n o t o n t h e l a n g u a g e t h a t w i l l b e appropriate in c o n t e x t s of use,
b u t o n t h e l a n g u a g e t h a t c a n b e appropriated in c o n t e x t s o f l e a r n i n g . (19)

T h e d i f f i c u l t y is t h a t , o n t h e f a c e o f it, t h e t w o i d e a s a p p e a r t o b e i n c o m p a t i b l e . (20) T h e y g i v e p r i o r i t y
t o c o n t r a r y realities. (21) A u t h e n t i c i t y c o n c e r n s t h e r e a l i t y o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n E n g l i s h w h i c h is
r e a l i z e d b y a n E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g c o m m u n i t y . (22) B u t t h e l a n g u a g e w h i c h is real f o r n a t i v e s p e a k e r s
is n o t l i k e l y t o b e real f o r l e a r n e r s . (23) O n e m i g h t a r g ü e t h a t l o g i c a l l y it c a n n o t b e , f o r l e a r n e r s h a v e
b y d e f i n i t i o n n o t y e t l e a r n e d h o w t o m a k e it s o . (24) T h e y b e l o n g t o a n o t h e r c o m m u n i t y a n d d o n o t
h a v e t h e n e c e s s a r y k n o w l e d g e o f t h e c o n t e x t u a l c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h w o u l d e n a b l e t h e m t o verify t h e i r
p r o f i c i e n c y in E n g l i s h in n a t i v e - s p e a k e r t e r m s . (25) T h e i r r e a l i t y is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t : it is o n e w h i c h r e l a t e s
t o a d i f f e r e n t c o m m u n i t y s e r v e d b y a l a n g u a g e o t h e r t h a n E n g l i s h . (26) S o c o n t e x t s w h i c h w i l l b e
m e a n i n g f u l for t h e m h a v e s o m e h o w t o b e c o n s t r u c t e d in t h e c l a s s r o o m o u t o f this p r i m a r y e x p e r i e n c e
o f first l a n g u a g e a n d c u l t u r e . (27) T h e y c a n n o t b e r e p l i c a t e d v e r s i o n s o f n a t i v e - s p e a k e r c o n t e x t s o f u s e .
(28) T e a c h e r s w h o c o m e f r o m t h e s a m e c o m m u n i t y as t h e i r l e a r n e r s , o f c o u r s e , h a v e t h i s e x p e r i e n c e
i n c o m m o n . (29) T h e y a r e t h e r e f o r e n a t u r a l l y in a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n t o c o n s t r u c t t h e r e l e v a n t c l a s s r o o m
c o n t e x t s a n d m a k e t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s real t h a n a r e t e a c h e r s c o m i n g f r o m a d i f f e r e n t l i n g u i s t i c a n d
c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d . (30) In t h i s s e n s e , a u t o n o m y is d e p e n d e n t o n n o n - n a t i v e - s p e a k e r a u t h o r i t y . (31)

It w o u l d s e e m , t h e n , t h a t y o u c a n n o t h a v e a p e d a g o g y w h i c h is b a s e d o n b o t h o f t h e s e i d e a s a t
t h e s a m e t i m e . (32) A u t h e n t i c l a n g u a g e is, in p r i n c i p i e , i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h a u t o n o m o u s l a n g u a g e
l e a r n i n g . (33) O r is it? (34) A r e t h e r e w a y s , i n p r a c t i c e , o f r e c o n c i l i n g t h e s e contraríes? (35)

[From H . W i d d o w s o n , "Authenticity a n d a u t o n o m y in ELT", adapted]

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QUESTIONS

1. P i c k o u t a l l t h e a d j e c t i v e s f r o m t h e f o u r t h p a r a g r a p h . I d e n t i f y a d j e c t i v a l s u f f i x e s a n d p r e f i x e s a n d
i n d í c a t e t h e s u f f i x a t i o n p r o c e s s (e.g., d e n o m í n a l , d e v e r b a l , etc.). C l a s s i f y t h e m i n t o p r e d i c a t i v e
( c o m p l e m e n t in c o p u l a t i v e a n d c o m p l e x - t r a n s i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ) a n d / o r a t t r i b u t i v e (pre-head
m o d i f i e r in n o u n phrases).

2. A d j e c t i v e s a n d p a r t i c i p l e s . W h i c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g w o r d s are v e r b s ( p a r t i c i p l e f o r m s ) a n d w h i c h a r e
a d j e c t i v e s ( d e v e r b a l a d j e c t i v e s ) , a n d w h i c h are a m b i g u o u s b e t w e e n t h e t w o ? ( C o n s i d e r t h e i r u s e
in t h e t e x t a n d o t h e r p o s s i b l e c o n t e x t s ) promoted, allowed, activated, engaged, induced, constructed,
replicated.

3. A d v e r b i a l i s a t i o n . I d e n t i f y t h e a d v e r b s i n t h e s e c o n d p a r a g r a p h . R e p l a c e t h o s e f o r m e d b y s u f f i x a t i o n
o f -ly b y p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e s (e.g., carefully-t with caré), a n d , w h e r e p o s s i b l e , t h o s e w i t h o u t t h i s
s u f f i x b y -ly a d v e r b s (e.g., now-¥currently).

4. I d e n t i f y t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e a d v e r b s i n t h e s e c o n d p a r a g r a p h : (i) a d j u n c t (She s a n g b e a u t i f u l l y ) ; (¡i)

m o d i f i e r i n a d j e c t i v e p h r a s e {The film is extremely boring); d i s j u n c t (Obviously. they were allarrested);
s u b j u n c t (She was onlyjoking); c o n j u n c t {Moreover, costs are high).

5. A n a l y s e s e n t e n c e (23) u s i n g a t r e e - d i a g r a m .

6. A u t h e n t i c i t y i n m a t e r i a l s is e s s e n t i a l l y a b o u t t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n w h i c h t h e y a r e p r o d u c e d ( u s u a l l y
by native speakers for l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g purposes) but authenticity can also be a b o u t the
c o n d i t i o n s in w h i c h t h e y a r e u s e d . A c t i v i t i e s f o c u s e d o n class p e r f o r m a n c e c a n p r o v i d e m e a n i n g f u l
e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h t a k e p l a c e in " a u t h e n t i c " c o n d i t i o n s . P r e p a r e a fifteen-minute class a c t i v i t y
a s k i n g y o u r students t o n o t e d o w n w h a t was said or d o n e to achieve a particular interactional a i m
(e.g., g i v i n g o p i n i o n s , e x p r e s s i n g d i s a g r e e m e n t ) .

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TEXT A N A L Y S I S

S o m e d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n critic a n d reader m a y be w o r t h testing on the u n d e r s t a n d i n g that,

for p u r p o s e s o f focus, these t w o t e r m s are b e i n g u s e d w i t h fictive stringency, t h a t t h e y are b e i n g
h y p o s t a t i z e d . (1)

It m a y b e t h a t t h e r e c i p r o c a l r e l a t i o n s o f t h e " c r i t i c " a n d o f t h e " r e a d e r " t o t h e t e x t a r e n o t o n l y d i f f e r e n t

b u t , i n c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s , a n t i t h e t i c a l . (2) T h e c r i t i c is a n e p i s t e m o l o g i s t . (3) T h i s is t o s a y t h a t t h e d i s t a n c e s
b e t w e e n h i m s e l f a n d t h e t e x t a r e o f t h e m s e l v e s f e r t i l e a n d p r o b l e m a t i c a l . (5) Insofar as t h e s e d i s t a n c e s
are m a d e e x p l i c i t a n d s u b j e c t t o i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e y g e n é r a t e intermedíate t e x t s , o r w h a t a r e c u r r e n t l y
k n o w n a s " m e t a t e x t s " . (6)The s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e c r i t i c a n d " h i s " t e x t is r e f l e x i v e . (7) It m a k e s s e n s i b l e
its o w n i n h i b i t o r y o r t r a n s l a t i o n a l s t a t u s . (8) " l n h i b i t i o n " a n d " t r a n s l a t i o n " a r e t h e c a r d i n a l a n d k i n d r e d
c a t e g o r i e s o f t h e critic's d i s t a n c i n g . (9) T h e r e a r e o b s t a c l e s a n d o p a c i t i e s t o b e o v e r e ó m e o r t o b e
s h a r p l y d e l i n e a t e d in t h e s p a c e b e t w e e n h i m s e l f a n d t h e t e x t . (10) T h e r e are, c o n v e r s e l y , t r a n s l a t i o n s t o
b e m a d e o f his t e x t i n t o a n a l o g o u s o r i n t e r p r e t a t i v e m o d e s o f s t a t e m e n t . (11) I n h i b i t i o n a n d t r a n s l a t i o n
are c o g n a t e b e c a u s e it is t h e o b s t a c l e " i n f r o n t o f t h e t e x t w h i c h c o m p e l s c i r c u m v e n t i o n a n d transfer,
w h i c h p r e v e n í s t h e critic's t o t a l , e x h a u s t i v e r e s t a t e m e n t a n d r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t . (12) S u c h
t a u t o l o g o u s r e p e t i t i o n , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , is o n e o f t h e c a r d i n a l i n s t a n c e s o f ' r e a d i n g " . (13)

T h e c r i t i c argües h i s d i s t a n c e f r o m a n d t o w a r d s t h e t e x t . (14) To c r i t i c i z e m e a n s t o p e r c e i v e a t a d i s t a n c e ,
a t t h e o r d e r o f r e m o v e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e t o clarity. (15) T h e m o t i o n o f c r i t i c i s m is o n e o f " s t e p p i n g b a c k
f r o m " in e x a c t l y t h e s e n s e t h a t o n e s t e p s b a c k f r o m a p a i n t i n g o n a w a l l in o r d e r t o p e r c e i v e it b e t t e r .
(16) B u t t h e g o o d c r i t i c m a k e s t h i s m o t i o n c o n s c i o u s t o h i m s e l f a n d t o his p u b l i c . (17) H e d e t a i l s his
r e c e s s i o n a l s t e p s s o as t o m a k e t h e r e s u l t a n t d i s t a n c e , t h e p r e s c r i p t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e e x p l i c i t , r e s p o n s i b l e ,
a n d , t h e r e f o r e , o p e n t o a r g u m e n t . (18) It is t h i s a c t i v a t i o n o f d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n c r i t i c a n d o b j e c t t h a t
m a k e s all s e r i o u s c r i t i c i s m e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l . (19) C r i t i c i s m d e m a n d s t h a t w e a s k o f a n d w i t h it: (20) " H o w
d o e s p e r c e p t i o n traverse the c h o s e n distance?"(21) " H o w was this particular d i s t a n c e chosen?"(22)

T h e u s e f u l c r i t i c d o e s t w o t h i n g s . (23) First, h e m a k e s t h e t e n o r o f his a r b i t r a r i n e s s t r a n s p a r e n t . (24)

T h e a n g l e o f his o r d e r i n g visión is c l e a r l y m a n i f e s t . (25) T h e r e a r e as m a n y r a t i o n a l , a r g u a b l e s p a c e s a s
t h e r e a r e g e o m e t r i e s . (26) T h e c r i t i c m a y a d o p t a p o s t u r e w h o s e c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s m a i n l y m o r a l i s t i c . (27)
H e c a n s t e p b a c k f r o m t h e o b j e c t a n d a s k : (28) O f w h a t b e n e f i t is it t o m a n a n d s o c i e t y ? ( 2 9 ) Is it finally
e d u c a t i v e ? ( 3 0 ) Is it l i f e - e n h a n c i n g i n its i m p l i c i t o r e x p l i c i t p r o p o s a l s ? ( 3 1 ) T h e c r i t i c m a y f u n c t i o n a t
d i s t a n c e s a n d p e r s p e c t i v e s w h i c h a r e h i s t o r i c i s t , b i o g r a p h i c a l i n t h e oíd s e n s e , p s y c h o a n a l y t i c in t h e
n e w , M a r x i s t , o r f o r m a l i s t . (32) H i s m a p p i n g m a y b e l a r g e l y r h e t o r i c a l . (33) H e c a n b e e c l e c t i c a n d
v a r i a b l e i n h i s a d j u s t m e n t s o f f o c u s a n d a p e r t u r e . (34) B u t w h a t e v e r his s t a n c e o f i n t e n t i o n a l i t y , t h e
u s e f u l c r i t i c o f f e r s t h i s s t a n c e f o r ¡dentrfication. (35) H e m u s t r e n d e r u n m i s t a k a b l e its p a r t i a l i t y . (36)

T h e h o n e s t c r i t i c d o e s a s e c o n d t h i n g : h e r a n k s . (37) T h e i n t e n t i o n a l i t y o f his v i s i ó n , t h e a c t o f a s s u m i n g
a s t a n c e i n f r o n t o f o n e o b j e c t r a t h e r t h a n a n o t h e r , is b y d e f i n i t i o n p r e f e r e n t i a l a n d d i s c r i m i n a t o r y .
(38) W h e t h e r e x p l i c i t l y , i n t h e m a g i s t e r i a l v e i n , o r i m p l i c i t l y , v i a t h e f u n c t i o n a l t r o p e o f a n " e p i p h a n y " ,
t h e c r i t i c ' s p l a c e is h i e r a r c h i c a l . (39) T h e g o o d c r i t i c is o n e w h o w i l l r u n s p e c u l a t i v e risks. (40) H e w i l l
d e c l a r e h i s i n t e r e s t s a n d lay h i m s e l f o p e n t o l o s s . (41) T h i s l o s s c a n t a k e v a r i o u s f o r m s : t h e c o n t e m p t
o f t h e a r t i s t w h o m h e is c r i t i c i z i n g , t h e i n d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e m a r k e t t o t h e v a l ú e s w h i c h h e p r o p o s e s ,
t h e r i d i c u l e o r o b l i v i o n w h i c h l a t e r h i s t o r y w i l l v i s i t o n h i s j u d g m e n t s . (42) T h i s d e c l a r a t i o n o f i n t e r e s t
a n d s p e c u l a t i v e c o m m i t m e n t p r o d u c e s a l i s t i n g . (43) It p r o d u c e s " t h e g r e a t t r a d i t i o n " , " t h e h u n d r e d
b e s t b o o k s " , " t h e m o d e r n m a s t e r s . " (44)

[From G. Steiner, " C r i t i c V R e a d e r " , adapted]

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QUESTIONS

1. I n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s a n d q u e s t i o n s . S t u d y s e n t e n c e s (21), (22), (29), (30), (31) a n d e x p l a i n (a) t h e i r

s u b c l a s s e s , (b) t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e w h - w o r d a n d (c) t h e i r i l l o c u t i o n a r y forcé.

2. K e r n e l a n d n o n - k e r n e l s e n t e n c e s . L i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s (e.g., b y m e a n s o f t r e e d i a g r a m s ) is m a d e
m a n a g e a b l e b y d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n k e r n e l a n d n o n - k e r n e l c l a u s e s . K e r n e l c l a u s e s (a) f o r m
s e n t e n c e s o f t h e i r o w n , (b) a r e s t r u c t u r a l l y c o m p l e t e , (c) a r e d e c l a r a t i v e a n d p o s i t i v e , (d) a r e
u n m a r k e d t h e m a t i c a l l y . G i v e t h e k e r n e l c o u n t e r p a r t s of:

(i) These two terms are being used with stringency.

(ii) It may be that the reciproca! relations ofthe "critic" and ofthe "reader" to the text are antithetical.

(ni) It makes sensible its own inhibitory or translational status.

(iv) It is this activation of distance between critic and object that makes all serious criticism
epistemológica!.

(v) Isn't it fínally educative?

(vi) There are many arguable spaces.

3. T h e m a t i s a t í o n . W h y a r e s e n t e n c e s (i), (ii), (iíi), (¡v) a n d (vi) p r e f e r r e d t o t h e i r k e r n e l c o u n t e r p a r t s ?

4. A n a l y s e s e n t e n c e (18) u s i n g a t r e e - d i a g r a m .

5. L i t e r a t u r e c a n b e t a u g h t i n i n t e r m e d í a t e c o u r s e s a n d e v e n i n e l e m e n t a r y c o u r s e s u s i n g r e a d e r s .
L e a r n i n g activitíes c a n f o c u s o n a n a l y s i s b u t a l s o o n r e s p o n s e , a n d u s u a l l y d e v e l o p i n t h r e e s t a g e s :
pre-reading, while reading, and after reading. Prepare a fifteen-mínute c l a s s activíty a s k i n g y o u r
students t o s u m m a r i s e their i m p r e s s i o n s o f a b o o k c h a p t e r o r a s h o r t story.

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ENGLISH L I N G U I S T I C S : G R A M M A R

5 TEXT ANALYSIS

I d e n t i f y a l l t h e c a n o n i c a l s i m p l e c l a u s e s in t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h , a n a l y z e t h e m i n f u l l , s p e c i f y i n g
their type, structure a n d constituents and explain y o u r analyses.

It was probably always there, hidden away somewhere. But when the time comes it silently rushes out,
chilling every cell in your body. You drown in that cruel flood, gasping for breath. [...]

[...] You seek a voice, but what do you get? Silence. You look for silence, but guess what. All you hear over
and over and over is the voice ofthis ornen. And sometimes this prophetic voice pushes a secret switch
hidden deep insideyour brain.

[Extract retrieved f r o m M u r a k a m i , Haruki (2005). Kafka on theShore. L o n d o n : Vintage, p p . 8-9]

QUESTIONS

1. S i m p l e c l a u s e t y p e s

a) It was probably always there. -*

b) (It was) hidden away somewhere -*

c) it silently rushes out-*

d) You drown in that cruel flood-*

e) You seek a voice -*

f) What do you get?-*

g) You look for silence -*

h) Guess what-*

i) All you hear over and over and over is the voice ofthis ornen -*

j) Sometimes this prophetic voice pushes a secret switch hidden deep inside your brain -*

2. E x p l a i n t h e s e c l a u s e s t r u c t u r e s a n d c o n s t i t u e n t s

a) [lt] (¡) [[was] (ptor) [probably]^, [always]^ [there] J (C iPte)

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b)
A N A L Y S I S # 1:

Wt] [[was] J [hidden]

(í¡ (pt (Cs¡ [away] (M¡unct¡ [somewhere] J IM¡u (Pte¡

A N A L Y S I S # 2:

([lt] (s) [[was h i d d e n ] (ptor) ] [away] ( A d j u n c t ) [somewhere] ( A d j u n r t ) ] ( P t e )

c) [lt] (s) [suddenly] ( A d j u n r t ) [rushes] (ptor) [out] (Adj

d) [You] (s) [[drown] (ptor) ] [in t h a t c r u e l f l o o d ] ( A d j u n c t ) ] ( P t e )

e) [You] [[seek]
( s ) ( p t o r ) ][avoice] ( 0 d ) ]
(Pte)
f) [What] ( 0 d ) [do] (Ptor) ] [you] (s) [get] (ptor) [0] (Od) ?

g) [You] (s) [[look] (Ptor) ] [for s i l e n c e ] ( P r e p o s ¡ t i o n a l 0 d ) ] ( P t e )

h) [[Guess] (Ptor) [what] ( 0 d ) ] ( P t e )

i) [[Sometimes] ( A d j u n c t ) ] ( P t e ) [this p r o p h e t i c v o i c e ] (s) [[pushes] (Ptor) [a s e c r e t s w i t c h h i d d e n d e e p

inside your brain] ( 0 d ) ] ( P t e )

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E N G L I S H LINGUISTICS: P H O N E T I C S A N D P H O N O L O G Y

PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTIONS

AFEWTIPS

• S t i c k t o o n e o f t h e t w o m a i n s t a n d a r d s o f r e f e r e n c e — e i t h e r B.E. o r A . E . — f o r y o u r t r a n s c r i p t i o n
as t h e y are c i t e d i n t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l p h o n e t i c d i c t i o n a r i e s p u b l i s h e d b y C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y
Press, L o n g m a n - P e a r s o n o r O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

• O n c e you h a v e c h o s e n y o u r m o d e l of reference be c o n s i s t e n t t h r o u g h o u t your transcription (do

n o t s h i f t f r o m B r i t i s h o n t o A m e r i c a n E n g l i s h o r v i c e versa).

• Use a n u p d a t e d t a b l e o f p h o n e t i c s y m b o l s s u c h as t h e o n e s a p p e a r i n g in t h e latest e d i t i o n s o f
Longman, C a m b r i d g e a n d Oxford Dictionaries.

• Pay particular a t t e n t i o n t o w e a k f o r m s a n d t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g s t r o n g o n e s .

• D o n o t f o r g e t t o m a r k t h e m a i n s t r e s s ( p r i m a r y stress) o n t h e s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s o f c o n t e n í w o r d s
(nouns, adjectives, m a i n verbs a n d adverbs).

• M i n d t h a t y o u u s e t h e n e u t r a l i z e d f o r m s / i / a n d / u / at w o r d a n d m o r p h e m e b o u n d a r i e s i n s t e a d
o f t h e f o r m e r / i / a n d / u / , a s t h e y a r e t h e o n e s t h a t a r e c u r r e n t l y b e i n g u s e d in t h e p h o n e t i c
transcriptions of m o s t recently p u b l i s h e d dictionaries (example lady / ' l e i d i / ladies /'leidiz/.

• Pay p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e p l u r a l m o r p h e m e ( r e g u l a r f o r m a t i o n ) , t h e
genitives, and 3 r d p e r s o n singular o f t h e present tenses.

• Pay p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e p a s t t e n s e a n d p a s t p a r t i c i p l e m o r p h e m e s
(regular verbs).

• U s e l i n k i n g Y ' w h e n e v e r it is c o n v e n i e n t if y o u r t r a n s c r i p t i o n a d j u s t s t o t h e B r i t i s h E n g l i s h m o d e l
of reference.

1W\V. USE YOUR LOAF

" C h i n a p l a t e s , R o m a n s , c o u n t r y p o t s a n d p a n s , l e n d m e y o u r K i n g L e a r s . ' T h a t is w h a t M a r k A n t h o n y
w o u l d h a v e s a i d , h a d h e b e e n a L o n d o n e r or, m o r e ¡mportantly, h a d h e b e e n c o n v e r s a n t w i t h t h a t
p e c u l i a r L o n d o n d i a l e c t k n o w n a s c o c k n e y r h y m i n g s l a n g . A l l v e r y w e l l a n d g o o d , y o u m a y say b u t
w h e r e ' s t h e r h y m e ? A q u e s t i o n e a s i l y a n s w e r e d . T h e r h y m e is w i t h t h e w o r d t h a t t h e d i a l e c t i c a l p h r a s e
r e p l a c e s : s o " C h i n a p l a t e s " r h y m e s w i t h m a t e s (i.e. f r i e n d s ) , " p o t a n d p a n " r h y m e s w i t h m a n a n d " K i n g
L e a r " r h y m e s w i t h ear. In S h a k e s p e a r e ' s versión M a r k A n t h o n y ' s w o r d s w e r e : " F r i e n d s , R o m a n s a n d
countrymen, lend m e y o u r ears"

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TEXT 2: EDWARD THE VIIIRESIGNATION TO THE THRONE

"WITHOUT THE WOMANILOVE"

" A t l o n g last I a m a b l e t o say a f e w w o r d s o f m y o w n . I h a v e n e v e r w a n t e d t o w l t h h o l d a n y t h i n g , b u t

u n t l l n o w it h a s n o t b e e n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y p o s s i b l e f o r m e t o s p e a k . A f e w h o u r s a g o I d i s c h a r g e d m y
last d u t y as K i n g a n d E m p e r o r , a n d n o w t h a t I h a v e b e e n s u c c e e d e d b y m y b r o t h e r t h e d u k e o f Y o r k ,
m y first w o r d s m u s t b e t o d e c l a r e m y a l l e g i a n c e t o h i m . T h i s I d o w i t h all m y h e a r t . Y o u all k n o w t h e
r e a s o n s w h i c h h a v e ¡mpelled t o r e n o u n c e t h e t h r o n e , b u t I w a n t y o u t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t i n m a k i n g
u p m y m i n d i d i d n o t f o r g e t t h e c o u n t r y o r t h e E m p i r e , w h i c h as p r i n c e o f w a l e s a n d l a t e l y as k i n g I
h a v e f o r t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s t r i e d t o s e r v e . B u t y o u m u s t b e l i e v e m e w h e n I t e l l y o u t h a t i h a v e f o u n d it
i m p o s s i b l e t o c a r r y t h e h e a v y b u r d e n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d t o d i s c h a r g e m y d u t i e s as k i n g a s I w o u l d
h a v e w i s h e d t o d o , w i t h o u t t h e h e l p a n d s u p p o r t o f t h e w o m a n I love."

TEXT 3: THEARCHERS

B a r w i c k g r e e n , t h e t h e m e m u s i c t o t h e l o n g - r u n n i n g r a d i o s e r i a l , T h e A r c h e r s , is p r o b a b l y t h e b e s t -
k n o w n t u n e i n E n g l a n d . It's m o r e f a m i l i a r t h a n a n y p o p s o n g . It is m o r e r e c o g n i s a b l e t h a n a n y c l a s s i c a l
m e l o d y . It is p r o b a b l y m o r e f a m o u s t h a n t h e N a t i o n a l A n t h e m .

B u t , i n a s e n s e , it is t h e N a t i o n a l A n t h e m . T h e A r c h e r s is a n E n g l i s h i n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h is m o r e
i m m e d i a t e , m o r e a c c e s s i b l e a n d m o r e r e l i a b l e t h a n t h e R o y a l f a m i l y e v e r w a s . It r e p r e s e n t s w h a t
B r i t a i n is all a b o u t . It is E n g l a n d p e r s o n i f i e d . A s t h e p r o g r a m m e ' s c u r r e n t e d i t o r , V a n e s s a W h i t b u r n ,
e x p l a i n s : " t h e c h a r m o f t h e p r o g r a m m e is t h a t it is s o m e h o w c e n t r a l t o t h e E n g l i s h p s y c h e . It is c e n t r a l
t o o u r c h a r a c t e r in a n elusive w a y t h a t n o b o d y can q u i t e explain."

T h e A r c h e r s first w e n t o n t h e a i r o n M o n d a y , 1 st J a n u a r y 1 9 5 1 , a t 1 1 : 4 5 a . m . R e p l a c i n g t h e l o n g -
r u n n i n g D i c k B a r t o n a d v e n t u r e s e r i a l , it h a d b e e n c o n c e i v e d as a j o i n t e f f o r t b y t h e B B C a n d t h e
Ministry of Agriculture to i n s t r u c t British farmers o n t h e benefits of n e w f a r m i n g m e t h o d s . This
w a s n o t p e r h a p s , t h e best b a c k g r o u n d f r o m w h i c h t o start. A n d yet, b e f o r e l o n g , t h e A r c h e r s w a s
a t t r a c t i n g a w i d e r a u d i e n c e t h a n a n y o n e h a d i m a g i n e d . A d v e r t i s e d as a p r o g r a m m e a b o u t " t h e d a i l y
e v e n t s i n t h e lives o f c o u n t r y f o l k " , it e n j o y e d a n a u d i e n c e o f n i n e m i l l i o n a n d w a s t h e m o s t p o p u l a r
p r o g r a m m e o n t h e airwaves. O f course, not m a n y listeners cared a b o u t t h e w o n d e r s of m o d e r n
herbicides, b u t t h e y were f a s c i n a t e d by t h e loves, joys, s q u a b b l e s a n d heartaches of t h e A r c h e r
f a m i l y . It b e c a m e a n a t i o n a l a d d i c t i o n .

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ENGLISH LINGUISTICS: P H O N E T I C S A N D P H O N O L O G Y

PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTIONS

ARTHURTHERAT

O n c e t h e r e w a s a y o u n g rat n a m e d A r t h u r , w h o c o u l d n e v e r m a k e u p h i s m i n d . W h e n e v e r his f r i e n d s
a s k e d h i m if h e w o u l d l i k e t o g o o u t w i t h t h e m , h e w o u l d o n l y a n s w e r , "I d o n ' t k n o w " . H e w o u l d n ' t s a y
"yes" o r " n o " either. H e w o u l d always shirk m a k i n g a c h o i c e .

H i s a u n t H e l e n s a i d t o h i m , " N o w l o o k h e r e . N o o n e is g o i n g t o c a r e f o r y o u if y o u c a r r y o n like t h i s .
Y o u h a v e n o m o r e m i n d t h a n a b l a d e o f grass".

O n e r a i n y d a y , t h e rats h e a r d a g r e a t n o i s e i n t h e l o f t . T h e p i n e rafters w e r e a l l r o t t e n , s o t h a t t h e b a m
w a s r a t h e r u n s a f e . A t last t h e j o i s t s g a v e w a y a n d fell t o t h e g r o u n d . T h e w a l l s s h o o k a n d all t h e rats'
h a i r s t o o d o n e n d w i t h f e a r a n d h o r r o r . T h i s w o n ' t d o , s a i d t h e c a p t a i n . NI s e n d o u t s c o u t s t o s e a r c h
for a n e w h o m e .

W i t h i n f i v e h o u r s t h e t e n s c o u t s c a r n e b a c k a n d s a i d , " w e f o u n d a s t o n e h o u s e w h e r e t h e r e is r o o m
a n d b o a r d f o r us a l l . T h e r e is a k i n d l y h o r s e n a m e d N e l l y , a c o w , a calf, a n d a g a r d e n w i t h a n e l m tree".
T h e rats c r a w l e d o u t o f t h e i r little h o u s e s a n d s t o o d o n t h e f l o o r in a l o n g l i n e . J u s t t h e n t h e oíd o n e
s a w A r t h u r . "Stop", h e o r d e r e d coarsely. " Y o u are c o m i n g , o f course?". "I'm n o t certain", said A r t h u r ,
u n d a u n t e d . ' T h e roof m a y n o t c o m e d o w n yet"."Well", said t h e a n g r y oíd r a t , " w e can't w a i t for y o u t o
j o i n us. Right a b o u t face. March!".

A r t h u r s t o o d a n d w a t c h e d t h e m h u r r y a w a y . " l t h i n k NI g o t o m o r r o w " , h e c a l m l y s a i d t o h i m s e l f , b u t
t h e n a g a i n "I d o n ' t k n o w , it's s o n i c e a n d s n u g h e r e " . T h a t n i g h t t h e r e w a s a b i g c r a s h . In t h e m o r n i n g ,
s o m e m e n w i t h s o m e b o y s a n d g i r l s r o d é u p a n d l o o k e d at t h e b a m . O n e o f t h e m m o v e d a b o a r d a n d
h e s a w a y o u n g rat, q u i t e d e a d , h a l f i n a n d h a l f o u t o f his h o l e . T h u s t h e s h i r k e r g o t h i s d u e .

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ENGLISH LINGUISTICS: P H O N E T I C S A N D P H O N O L O G Y

g PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTIONS

QUESTIONS

T h e f o l l o w i n g is a s h o r t e x t r a c t f r o m The Body b y S t e p h e n K i n g :

T h e r e w e r e a n t s a n d b u g s all o v e r his f a c e a n d n e c k . T h e y r a n b r i s k l y in a n d o u t o f t h e r o u n d c o l l a r o f
his t e e shirt. His e y e s w e r e o p e n , b u t t e r r i f y i n g l y o u t o f sync. O n e w a s rolled b a c k s o f a r t h a t w e c o u l d
s e e o n l y a t i n y a r e o f iris; t h e o t h e r s t a r e d s t r a i g h t u p i n t o t h e s t o r m . T h e r e w a s a d r i e d f r o t h o f b l o o d
a b o v e h i s m o u t h a n d o n h i s c h i n — " f r o m a b l o o d y nose", I t h o u g h t — a n d t h e r i g h t s i d e o f his f a c e
w a s l a c e r a t e d a n d d a r k l y b r u i s e d . Still, I t h o u g h t , h e d i d n ' t r e a l l y l o o k b a d . I h a d o n c e w a l k e d o v e r a
d o o r m y brother D e n n i s was s h o v i n g o p e n , carne off with bruises even w o r s e t h a n this kid's, plus t h e
b l o o d y n o s e , a n d still h a d t w o h e l p i n g s o f e v e r y t h i n g f o r s u p p e r a f t e r it h a p p e n e d .

T e d d y a n d V e r n s t o o d b e h i n d u s , a n d if t h e r e h a d b e e n a n y s i g h t a t all left i n t h a t o n e u p w a r d s t a r i n g
e y e , I s u p p o s e w e w o u l d h a v e l o o k e d t o Ray B r o w e r l i k e p a l l b e a r e r s in a h o r r o r m o v i e .

" D ' j o o s e e t h a t ? " T e d d y a s k e d i n a h i g h , s t r a n g e , f a i n t i n g v o i c e . "I b e t he's f u c k i n f u l l a b u g s ! I b e t h i s

brains re..."

"Shut up, Teddy", Chris said, a n d Teddy d i d l o o k i n g relieved.

L i g h t n i n g f o r k e d b l u e a c r o s s t h e sky, m a k i n g t h e b o y ' s s i n g l e e y e l i g h t u p , y o u c o u l d a l m o s t b e l i e v e
h e w a s h e w a s g l a d t o b e f o u n d , a n d f o u n d b y b o y s his o w n a g e . His t o r s o h a d s w e l l e d u p a n d t h e r e
w a s a f a i n t g a s s y o d o u r a b o u t h i m , like t h e s m e l l o f oíd f a r t s .

I t u r n e d a w a y , s u r e I w a s g o i n g t o b e sick, b u t m y s t o m a c h w a s d r y , h a r d , s t e a d y . I s u d d e n l y r a m m e d
t w o f i n g e r s d o w n m y t h r o a t , t r y i n g t o m a k e m y s e l f h e a v e , n e e d i n g t o d o it, a s if I c o u l d s i c k it u p a n d
g e t r i d o f if. B u t m y s t o m a c h o n l y h i t c h e d a l i t t l e a n d t h e n w a s s t e a d y a g a i n .

T h e r o a r i n g d o w n p o u r a n d t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g t h u n d e r h a d c o m p l e t e l y c o v e r e d t h e s o u n d of cars
a p p r o a c h i n g a l o n g t h e B a c k H a r l o w R o a d , w h i c h l a y b a r e y a r d s b e y o n d t h i s b o g g y t a n g l e . It l i k e w i s e
c o v e r e d t h e c r a c k l e - c r u n c h o f t h e u n d e r b u s h as t h e y b l u n d e r e d t h r o u g h it f r o m t h e d e a d e n d w h e r e
they had parked.

A n d t h e first w e k n e w o f t h e m w a s A c e Merrill's v o i c e raised a b o v e the t u m u l t o f t h e s t o r m , s a y i n g .

"Well w h a t t h e f u c k d o y o u k n o w about this?"

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E N G L I S H LINGUISTICS: F U N C T I O N A L C O M P E T E N C E

ESSAY

W h e n you c o m e back to England from any forelgn country, you have immedlately the sensation of
b r e a t h i n g a d i f f e r e n t air. (1) E v e n in t h e f i r s t f e w m i n u t e s d o z e n s o f s m a l l t h i n g s c o n s p i r e t o g i v e y o u
t h i s f e e l i n g . (2) T h e b e e r is b i t t e r e r , t h e c o i n s a r e h e a v i e r , t h e g r a s s is g r e e n e r , t h e a d v e r t i s e m e n t s a r e
m o r e b l a t a n t . (3) T h e c r o w d s i n t h e b i g t o w n , w i t h t h e i r m i l d k n o b b y f a c e s , t h e i r b a d t e e t h a n d g e n t l e
m a n n e r s , a r e d i f f e r e n t f r o m a E u r o p e a n c r o w d . (4) T h e n t h e v a s t n e s s o f E n g l a n d s w a l l o w s y o u u p ,
a n d y o u l o s e f o r a w h i l e y o u r f e e l i n g t h a t t h e w h o l e n a t i o n h a s a s i n g l e i d e n t i f i a b l e c h a r a c t e r . (5) A r e
t h e r e really s u c h t h i n g s a s n a t i o n s ? (6) A r e w e n o t f o r t y - s i x m i l l i o n individuáis, all d i f f e r e n t ? (7) A n d
t h e d i v e r s i t y o f it, t h e c h a o s ! (8) T h e c l a t t e r o f c l o g s i n t h e L a n c a s h i r e m i l i t o w n s , t h e t o - a n d - f r o o f t h e
l o r r i e s o n t h e G r e a t N o r t h R o a d , t h e q u e u e s o u t s i d e t h e L a b o u r E x c h a n g e s , t h e rattle o f p i n - t a b l e s i n
t h e S o h o p u b s , t h e oíd m a i d s h i k i n g t o H o l y C o m m u n i o n t h r o u g h t h e mists o f t h e a u t u m n m o r n i n g
(9) - all t h e s e a r e n o t o n l y f r a g m e n t s , b u t characterístic f r a g m e n t s , o f t h e E n g l i s h s c e n e . (10) H o w c a n
o n e m a k e a p a t t e r n o u t o f t h i s m u d d l e ? (11)

But talk to f o r e i g n e r s , read foreign b o o k s o r n e w s p a p e r s , a n d y o u are b r o u g h t back to t h e s a m e

t h o u g h t . (12) Y e s , t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g d i s t i n c t i v e a n d r e c o g n i z a b l e in E n g l i s h c i v i l i z a t i o n . (13) It is a
c u l t u r e as i n d i v i d u a l a s t h a t o f S p a i n . (14) It is s o m e h o w b o u n d u p w i t h s o l i d b r e a k f a s t s a n d g l o o m y
S u n d a y s , s m o k y t o w n s a n d w i n d i n g r o a d s , g r e e n f i e l d s a n d r e d p i l l a r - b o x e s . (15) It h a s a f l a v o u r o f its
o w n . (16) M o r e o v e r it is c o n t i n u o u s , it s t r e t c h e s i n t o t h e f u t u r e a n d t h e past, t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g in it t h a t
persists, as i n a l i v i n g c r e a t u r e . (17) W h a t c a n t h e E n g l a n d o f 1 9 4 0 h a v e in c o m m o n w i t h t h e E n g l a n d o f
1840?(18) B u t t h e n , w h a t h a v e y o u in c o m m o n w i t h t h e c h i l d o f f i v e w h o s e p h o t o g r a p h y o u r m o t h e r
k e e p s o n t h e m a n t e l p i e c e ? (19) N o t h i n g , e x c e p t t h a t y o u h a p p e n t o b e t h e s a m e p e r s o n . (20)

A n d a b o v e a l l , it is your c i v i l i z a t i o n , it is y o u . (21) H o w e v e r m u c h y o u h a t e it o r l a u g h a t it, y o u w i l l

n e v e r b e h a p p y a w a y f r o m it f o r a n y l e n g t h o f t i m e . (22) T h e s u e t p u d d i n g s a n d t h e r e d p i l l a r - b o x e s
h a v e e n t e r e d i n t o y o u r s o u l . (23) G o o d o r e v i l , it is y o u r s , y o u b e l o n g t o it, a n d t h i s s i d e o f t h e g r a v e
y o u w i l l n e v e r g e t a w a y f r o m t h e m a r k s t h a t it h a s g i v e n y o u . (24)

M e a n w h i l e E n g l a n d , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e rest o f t h e w o r l d , is c h a n g i n g . (25) A n d l i k e e v e r y t h i n g e l s e it
c a n c h a n g e o n l y i n c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n s , w h i c h u p t o a p o i n t c a n b e f o r e s e e n . (26) T h a t is n o t t o s a y t h a t
t h e f u t u r e is f i x e d , m e r e l y t h a t c e r t a i n a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e p o s s i b l e a n d o t h e r s n o t . (27) A s e e d m a y g r o w
o r n o t g r o w , b u t a t a n y r a t e a t u r n i p s e e d n e v e r g r o w s i n t o a p a r s n i p . (28) It is t h e r e f o r e o f t h e d e e p e s t
¡ m p o r t a n c e t o t r y a n d d e t e r m i n e w h a t E n g l a n d is, b e f o r e g u e s s i n g w h a t p a r t E n g l a n d canplay in t h e
h u g e e v e n t s t h a t a r e h a p p e n i n g . (29)

National characteristics are n o t easy t o p i n d o w n , a n d w h e n p i n n e d d o w n t h e y often t u m o u t t o b e

trivialities o r s e e m t o h a v e n o c o n n e x i o n w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . (30) S p a n i a r d s a r e c r u e l t o animáis, Italians
c a n d o n o t h i n g w i t h o u t m a k i n g a d e a f e n i n g n o i s e , t h e Chínese a r e a d d i c t e d t o g a m b l i n g . (31) O b v i o u s l y
s u c h t h i n g s d o n ' t m a t t e r i n t h e m s e l v e s . (32) N e v e r t h e l e s s , n o t h i n g is c a u s e l e s s , a n d e v e n t h e f a c t t h a t
Englíshmen h a v e b a d t e e t h c a n t e l l s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e realities o f E n g l i s h life. (33)

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Here are a c o u p l e o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a b o u t E n g l a n d t h a t w o u l d b e a c c e p t e d b y a l m o s t all o b s e r v e r s .

(34) O n e is t h a t t h e E n g l i s h a r e n o t g i f t e d a r t i s t i c a l l y . (35) T h e y a r e n o t a s m u s i c a l a s t h e G e r m a n s
o r Italians, p a i n t i n g a n d s c u l p t u r e h a v e n e v e r f l o u r i s h e d i n E n g l a n d a s t h e y h a v e i n F r a n c e . (36)
A n o t h e r is t h a t , a s E u r o p e a n s g o , t h e E n g l i s h a r e n o t i n t e l l e c t u a l . (37) T h e y h a v e a h o r r o r o f a b s t r a c t
t h o u g h t , t h e y f e e l n o n e e d f o r a n y p h i l o s o p h y o r s y s t e m a t i c ' w o r l d - v i e w ' . (38) Ñ o r is t h i s b e c a u s e
t h e y a r e ' p r a c t i c a l ' , a s t h e y a r e s o f o n d o f c l a i m i n g f o r t h e m s e l v e s . (39) O n e h a s o n l y t o l o o k a t t h e i r
m e t h o d s o f t o w n p l a n n i n g a n d w a t e r s u p p l y , t h e i r o b s t í n a t e c l i n g í n g t o e v e r y t h i n g t h a t is o u t o f
date a n d a nuisance, a spelling system that defies analysis, a n d a system o f weights a n d measures
t h a t is i n t e l l i g i b l e o n l y t o t h e c o m p i l e r s o f a r i t h m e t i c b o o k s , t o s e e h o w l i t t l e t h e y c a r e a b o u t m e r e
e f f i c i e n c y . (40)

[From George Orwell, England, Your England]

SUMMARY

" E n g l a n d , y o u r E n g l a n d " is t h e first p a r t o f t h e l o n g e r e s s a y The Lion and the Unicorn and deals with
t h e r o l e o f B r i t a i n i n W o r l d W a r II, m e n t i o n e d i n t h e f r a g m e n t as " t h e h u g e e v e n t s t h a t a r e h a p p e n i n g " .
T h e t i t l e is a n a l l u s i o n t o D. H . L a w r e n c e ' s s h o r t s t o r y " E n g l a n d , m y E n g l a n d " , w r i t t e n a g a i n s t t h e
b a c k g r o u n d o f W o r l d W a r I.The w r i t e r is a d d r e s s i n g h i s c o m p a t r i o t s t r y i n g t o p e r s u a d e t h e m t o t a k e
a particular course o f a c t i o n b u t this f r a g m e n t focuses o n t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f Englishness in t h e 1940s.
T h e a u t h o r struggles t o m a k e sense o f t h e diversity that makes u p E n g l a n d so a n analysis o f n o u n s
a n d n o u n p h r a s e s w i l l p r o v e u s e f u l t o e x p l a i n h o w t h e e s s a y a c h i e v e s its c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t . A s g e n r e ,
a r g u m e n t a t i v e e s s a y s m a k e a c a s e , it is t h e r e f o r e r e l e v a n t t o s t u d y h o w t h e w r i t e r s e e k s a g r e e m e n t .
Logical connectors a n d other cohesive devices will also deserve attention.

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ENGLISH LINGUISTICS: F U N C T I O N A L C O M P E T E N C E

10
TEXT ANALYSIS

T h e t r u e m e a n i n g o f m o n e y y e t r e m a i n s t o b e p o p u l a r l y e x p l a i n e d a n d c o m p r e h e n d e d . (1) W h e n
e a c h i n d i v i d u a l realises f o r h i m s e l f t h a t t h i s t h i n g p r i m a r i l y s t a n d s f o r a n d s h o u l d o n l y b e a c c e p t e d
as a m o r a l d u e - t h a t it s h o u l d b e p a i d o u t as h o n e s t l y s t o r e d e n e r g y , a n d n o t a s a u s u r p e d p r i v i l e g e -
m a n y o f o u r s o c i a l , r e l i g i o u s , a n d p o l i t i c a l t r o u b l e s w i l l h a v e p e r m a n e n t l y p a s s e d . (2) A s f o r C a r r i e , h e r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m o r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f m o n e y w a s t h e p o p u l a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g , n o t h i n g m o r e . (3)
T h e oíd d e f i n i t i o n : " M o n e y : s o m e t h i n g e v e r y b o d y e l s e h a s a n d I m u s t get," w o u l d h a v e e x p r e s s e d h e r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f it t h o r o u g h l y . (4) S o m e o f it s h e n o w h e l d i n h e r h a n d - t w o s o f t , g r e e n t e n - d o l l a r
b i l i s - a n d s h e f e l t t h a t s h e w a s i m m e n s e l y b e t t e r o f f f o r t h e h a v i n g o f t h e m . (5) It w a s s o m e t h i n g
t h a t w a s p o w e r i n itself. (6) O n e o f h e r o r d e r o f m i n d w o u l d h a v e b e e n c o n t e n í t o b e c a s t a w a y u p o n
a desert island with a bundle of money, a n d only the long strain of starvation w o u l d have taught
h e r t h a t i n s o m e c a s e s it c o u l d h a v e n o v a l u é . (7) E v e n t h e n s h e w o u l d h a v e h a d n o c o n c e p t i o n o f
t h e r e l a t i v e v a l u é o f t h e t h i n g ; (8) h e r o n e t h o u g h t w o u l d , u n d o u b t e d l y , h a v e c o n c e r n e d t h e p i t y o f
h a v i n g s o m u c h p o w e r a n d t h e i n a b i l i t y t o u s e it. (9)

T h e p o o r g i r l t h r i l l e d as s h e w a l k e d a w a y f r o m D r o u e t . (10) S h e f e l t a s h a m e d i n p a r t b e c a u s e s h e h a d
b e e n w e a k e n o u g h t o t a k e it, b u t h e r n e e d w a s s o diré, s h e w a s still g l a d . (11) N o w s h e w o u l d h a v e
a n i c e n e w j a c k e t ! (12) N o w s h e w o u l d b u y a n i c e p a i r o f p r e t t y b u t t o n s h o e s . (13) S h e w o u l d g e t
s t o c k i n g s , t o o , a n d a skirt, a n d , a n d - u n t i l a l r e a d y , as in t h e m a t t e r o f h e r p r o s p e c t i v e salary, s h e h a d
g o t b e y o n d , i n h e r d e s i r e s , t w i c e t h e p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r o f h e r b i l i s . (14)

S h e c o n c e i v e d a t r u e e s t í m a t e o f D r o u e t . (15) T o her, a n d i n d e e d t o a l l t h e w o r l d , h e w a s a n i c e ,
g o o d - h e a r t e d m a n . (16) T h e r e w a s n o t h i n g e v i l i n t h e f e l l o w . (17) H e g a v e h e r t h e m o n e y o u t o f
a g o o d h e a r t - o u t o f a r e a l i s a t i o n o f h e r w a n t . (18) H e w o u l d n o t h a v e g i v e n t h e s a m e a m o u n t
t o a p o o r y o u n g m a n , b u t w e m u s t n o t f o r g e t that a p o o r y o u n g m a n c o u l d not, in t h e n a t u r e o f
t h i n g s , h a v e a p p e a l e d t o h i m l i k e a p o o r y o u n g g i r l . (19) F e m i n i n i t y a f f e c t e d h i s f e e l i n g s . (20) H e
w a s t h e c r e a t u r e o f a n i n b o r n d e s i r e . (21) Y e t n o b e g g a r c o u l d h a v e c a u g h t h i s e y e a n d s a i d , " M y
G o d , m i s t e r , l'm s t a r v i n g , " b u t h e w o u l d g l a d l y h a v e h a n d e d o u t w h a t w a s c o n s i d e r e d t h e p r o p e r
p o r t i o n t o g i v e b e g g a r s a n d t h o u g h t n o m o r e a b o u t it. (22) T h e r e w o u l d h a v e b e e n n o s p e c u l a t i o n ,
n o p h i l o s o p h i s i n g . (23) H e h a d n o m e n t a l p r o c e s s in h i m w o r t h y t h e d i g n i t y o f e i t h e r o f t h o s e t e r m s .
(24) In h i s g o o d c l o t h e s a n d f i n e h e a l t h , h e w a s a m e r r y , u n t h i n k i n g m o t h o f t h e l a m p . (25) D e p r i v e d
o f his p o s i t i o n , a n d s t r u c k b y a f e w o f t h e i n v o l v e d a n d b a f f l i n g f o r c e s w h i c h s o m e t i m e s p l a y u p o n
m a n h e w o u l d h a v e b e e n as h e l p l e s s as C a r r i e - a s h e l p l e s s , a s n o n - u n d e r s t a n d i n g , as p i t i a b l e , if y o u
w i l l , as s h e . (26)

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N o w , ¡n r e g a r d t o h i s p u r s u i t o f w o m e n , h e m e a n t t h e m n o h a r m , b e c a u s e h e d i d n o t c o n c e i v e o f
t h e r e l a t i o n w h i c h h e h o p e d t o h o l d w i t h t h e m as b e i n g h a r m f u l . (27) H e l o v e d t o m a k e a d v a n c e s t o
w o m e n , t o have t h e m s u c c u m b t o his charms, n o t because he w a s a c o l d - b l o o d e d , dark, s c h e m i n g
v i l l a i n , b u t b e c a u s e h i s i n b o r n d e s i r e u r g e d h i m t o t h a t as a c h i e f d e l i g h t . (28) H e w a s v a i n , h e w a s
b o a s t f u l , h e w a s as d e l u d e d b y fine c l o t h e s as a n y s i l l y - h e a d e d g i r l . (29) A t r u l y d e e p - d y e d v i l l a i n
c o u l d h a v e h o r n s w a g g l e d h i m as r e a d i l y as h e c o u l d h a v e f l a t t e r e d a p r e t t y s h o p - g i r l . (30) H i s fine
s u c c e s s as a s a l e s m a n l a y in h i s g e n i a l i t y a n d t h e t h o r o u g h l y r e p u t a b l e s t a n d i n g o f h i s h o u s e . (31)
He b o b b e d about a m o n g m e n , a veritable bundle of enthusiasm - n o power worthy t h e ñame of
i n t e l l e c t , n o t h o u g h t s w o r t h y t h e a d j e c t i v e n o b l e , n o f e e l i n g s l o n g c o n t i n u e d i n o n e s t r a i n . (32) A
M a d a m e S a p p h o w o u l d h a v e c a l l e d h i m a p i g ; (33) a S h a k e s p e a r e w o u l d h a v e s a i d " m y m e r r y c h i l d ; "
(34) o í d , d r i n k i n g C a r y o e t h o u g h t h i m a c l e v e r , s u c c e s s f u l b u s i n e s s m a n . (35) In s h o r t , h e w a s as g o o d
as h i s i n t e l l e c t c o n c e i v e d . (36)

[ F r o m T h e o d o r e Dreiser, Sister Carrie]

SUMMARY

C a r o l i n e M e e b e r , " s i s t e r Carrie", l e a v e s rural W i n s c o n s i n t o p u r s u e h e r A m e r i c a n D r e a m i n C h i c a g o ,

w h e r e s h e is t o l i v e w i t h h e r o l d e r s i s t e r a n d h e r h u s b a n d . O n t h e t r a i n s h e m e e t s C h a r l e d D r o u e t , a
t r a v e l i n g s a l e s m a n . O n c e in C h i c a g o , h e i n v i t e s h e r t o d i ñ e a n d " l o a n s " h e r t w e n t y d o l l a r s i n v i e w o f
her difficulties. T h e f r a g m e n t presents t h e narrative after Carrie l e a v e s Drouet. T h e narrator s e e m s
t o c o n t r o l p o i n t o f v i e w s o a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e p a i d t o lexis (to i d e n t i f y n a r r a t o r i a l s t y l e ) a n d t h e
narrative o f characters, actions a n d events (including speech a n d t h o u g h t presentation).

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E N G L I S H LINGUISTICS: VARIETIES A N D USE O F T H E E N G L I S H L A N G U A G E

LISTENING C O M P R E H E N S I O N
11

http://www.youtubexom/watch?v=mEkwNI6J8W8&NR=1&feature=fvwp

Y o u a r e g o i n g t o listen t o a lecture a b o u t charter s c h o o l s in t h e U n i t e d States. M a k e a s u m m a r y

o f it a n d a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n s b e l o w .

SUMMARY

This l e c t u r e d e a l s w i t h t h e so-called charter s c h o o l s in t h e U n i t e d States, t h e i r f u n c t i o n i n g , their

difference f r o m regular p u b l i c s c h o o l s a n d , ultimately, their possible i m p o r t a n t role in A m e r i c a n
e d u c a t i o n r e f o r m . T h e s p e a k e r s t a r t s b y e m p h a s i z i n g t h a t , e v e n if c h a r t e r s c h o o l s s e e m d i f f e r e n t f r o m
r e g u l a r p u b l i c s c h o o l s i n t h e w a y t h e y f u n c t i o n , t h a t is b e c a u s e t h e f o r m e r t r y t o i m p l e m e n t t h i n g s ,
s o m e t i m e s s u r p r i s i n g t h i n g s t h a t t h e latter are i n c a p a b l e o f c a r r y i n g o u t d u e t o politics a n d o t h e r
c o n s t r a i n t s , b u t t h a t are p r o d u c i n g p o s i t i v e effects. M o r e o v e r , t h e success o f c h a r t e r s c h o o l s d o e s
n o t r e s i d e o n a c e r t a i n t y p e o f c u r r i c u l u m t h a t is b e i n g f o l l o w e d , b e c a u s e t h e y a r e h e t e r o g e n e o u s in
that s e n s e , b u t o n t h e c o m p e t i t i v e pressure a n d t h e excellent g o v e r n a n c e a n d a u t o n o m y t h e y enjoy.
T h e s e f e a t u r e s c a n m a k e c h a r t e r s c h o o l s t h e p i o n e e r s o f f u t u r e c h a n g e s in t h e A m e r i c a n e d u c a t i o n
system.

QUESTIONS

1. T r y t o a n s w e r t h e f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e l e c t u r e :

a) W h a t is t h e m a i n s u b j e c t o f t h i s e x t r a c t f r o m t h e l e c t u r e ?

b) T h i s e x t r a c t c o m p r i s e s t w o m a i n p a r t s . W h a t is t h e m a i n p o i n t o f e a c h o n e o f t h e s e t w o p a r t s ?

c) W h a t is t h e m a i n c o n c l u s i ó n r e a c h e d ?

2. N o w t r y t o a n s w e r t h e s e m o r e s p e c i f i c q u e s t i o n s :

a) W h a t a r e s o m e o f t h e t h i n g s t h a t r e g u l a r p u b l i c s c h o o l s d o n o t d o b u t t h a t a r e s e n s i b l e t h i n g s
todo?

b) W h a t r e a s o n s d o p e o p l e n o r m a l l y g i v e f o r n o t d o i n g t h e m ?

c) A r e charter schools h o m o g e n e o u s or heterogeneous?

d) W h a t d o a l l o f t h e m h a v e i n c o m m o n ?

e) W h a t k e y r o l e c a n c h a r t e r s c h o o l s h a v e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s p e a k e r ?

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3. W h a t ¡s t h e m e a n l n g o f t h e f o l l o w i n g w o r d s a n d e x p r e s s i o n s ¡n t h i s c o n t e x t ?

a) c h a r t e r s c h o o l

• school norms

• A m e r c i a n pr íva t e s c h o o l

• s c h o o l in t h e US r u n b y p a r e n t s o r c o m p a n i e s , s u p p o r t e d b y t h e state g o v e r n m e n t

b) i n n e r - c i t y

• c i t y c e n t r e in t h e U n i t e d States

• t h e p a r t n e a r t h e c i t y c e n t r e w h e r e p o o r p e o p l e live a n d b u i l d i n g s a r e in b a d c o n d i t i o n

• t h e p a r t o f t h e city w h e r e w e a l t h y p e o p l e live

c) d i a g n o s t i c t e s t i n g

• a t y p e o f test carried o u t t o f i n d o u t w h a t t h e deficiencies are a m o n g s t u d e n t s or t h i n g s

• a t y p e o f test carried o u t at t h e e n d of a s c h o o l year

• a t y p e o f test carried o u t t o m e a s u r e t h e level of c o m p e t e n c y o f test t a k e r s in o r d e r t o

p l a c e t h e m in a p p r o p r i a t e l e a r n i n g g r o u p s o r levéis

d) s e n s i b l e t h i n g s

• t h i n g s that can b e easily d a m a g e d

• reasonable things

• offensive things

e) s u p e r i o r e d u c a t i o n

• college education

• high school education

• very g o o d education

f) range

• variety of things

• t h e limits w i t h i n w h i c h a m o u n t s or quantities vary

• a l a r g e área o f l a n d c o v e r e d w i t h g r a s s

g) governance

• t h e m a n n e r o r s y s t e m o f g o v e r n i n g or m a n a g i n g

• government

• school norms

h) t h e t h i n e n d o f t h e w e d g e

• s o m e t h i n g w h i c h is v e r y i n n o v a t i v e

• s o m e t h i n g w h i c h gives you advantage over others

• s o m e t h i n g which isthe beginning o f a harmful ordisruptive development

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4. H e r e y o u h a v e a n e x t r a c t f r o m t h e first h a l f o f t h e l e c t u r e . T r y t o fill in t h e g a p s w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
expressions:

a) N o o n e ever said t o t h e p u b l i c schools here t h a t t h e y c o u l d not have a

o f 2 2 0 days.

b) N o o n e e v e r s a i d t h a t y o u c o u l d n ' t u s e

c) I t h i n k t h i s is n o n so p r o b a b l y t h a t w o u l d n ' t b e a p p r o p r i a t e b u t m a y b e in
o f S a n F r a n c i s c o , right?, n o o n e e v e r s a i d t h a t t h a t c o u l d n ' t b e d o n e .

d) ... w h a t is it t h a t is g e t t i n g b e t w e e n o u r c h i l d r e n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d a s u p e r i o r e d u c a t i o n ,
a n d a l o t o f it is t h a t i n s t i t u t i o n s w e h a v e t h a t very difficult for t h e
r e g u l a r p u b l i c s c h o o l s i n t h e U n i t e d States t o .

e) ... p a r e n t s c a n ' t a n d t h e y c a n n o t m a k e t h a t - c a n n o t m a k e t h a t decisión

for themselves.

5. G i v e y o u r o p i n i ó n o n t h e t o p i c .

a) W h a t d o y o u t h i n k a b o u t s t u d e n t a c h i e v e m e n t i n S p a n i s h s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n ?

b) D o y o u b e l i e v e s c h o o l s s h o u l d h a v e m o r e a u t o n o m y a n d b e a b l e t o d e c i d e o n t h e i r o w n
curricula t a k i n g into a c c o u n t their special e d u c a t i o n a l n e e d s ? W h y ?

c) D o you think that the current Spanish e d u c a t i o n system needs t o be reformed?

d) D o y o u a g r e e w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t : " i f y o u t h i n k a l l k i d s s h o u l d b e s i t t i n g in s t r a i g h t
r o w s , in u n i f o r m , a n d r e a d i n g f r o m a t e x t b o o k , a n d I t h i n k a l l t h e k i d s s h o u l d b e s i t t i n g
o n p i l l o w s o n t h e f l o o r , a n d b i r d s s h o u l d b e f l y i n g t h r o u g h t h e c l a s s r o o m , [the r e s u l t s d o
n o t c h a n g e m u c h . R a t h e r , t h e k e y is c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s , e x c e l l e n t m a n a g e m e n t and high
autonomy.]"?

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E N G L I S H LINGUISTICS: USE O F ENGLISH A N D ITS V A R I E T E S

T E X T A N A L Y S I S : SCIENTIFIC P R O S E

[...] A s s p e c l e s a r e p r o d u c e d a n d e x t e r m i n a t e d b y s l o w l y a c t i n g a n d still e x i s t i n g c a u s e s , a n d n o t
b y m i r a c u l o u s a c t s o f c r e a t i o n ; a n d as t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f a l l c a u s e s o f o r g a n i c c h a n g e is o n e
w h i c h is a l m o s t i n d e p e n d e n t o f a l t e r e d a n d p e r h a p s s u d d e n l y a l t e r e d p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , n a m e l y ,
the mutual relation of o r g a n i s m to organism — t h e improvement of one organism entailing the
i m p r o v e m e n t o r t h e e x t e r m i n a t i o n o f o t h e r s ; it f o l l o w s , t h a t t h e a m o u n t o f o r g a n i c c h a n g e i n t h e
f o s s i l s o f c o n s e c u t i v e f o r m a t i o n s p r o b a b l y s e r v e s as a fair m e a s u r e o f t h e r e l a t i v e , t h o u g h n o t a c t u a l
l a p s e o f t i m e . (1) A n u m b e r o f s p e c i e s , h o w e v e r , k e e p i n g i n a b o d y m i g h t r e m a i n f o r a l o n g p e r i o d
u n c h a n g e d , whilst w i t h i n t h e s a m e period, several o f t h e s e species, b y migrating into new countries
a n d c o m i n g into c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h foreign associates, m i g h t b e c o m e modrfied; so that w e m u s t n o t
o v e r r a t e t h e a c c u r a c y o f o r g a n i c c h a n g e as a m e a s u r e o f t i m e . (2)

In t h e f u t u r e I s e e o p e n f i e l d s f o r f a r m o r e i m p o r t a n t r e s e a r c h e s . (3) P s y c h o l o g y w i l l b e s e c u r e l y b a s e d
o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n a l r e a d y w e l l laid by Mr. Herbert Spencer, that of t h e necessary a c q u i r e m e n t of
e a c h m e n t a l p o w e r a n d c a p a c i t y b y g r a d a t i o n . (4) M u c h l i g h t w i l l b e t h r o w n o n t h e o r i g i n o f m a n
a n d his h i s t o r y . (5)

A u t h o r s o f t h e h i g h e s t e m i n e n c e s e e m t o be fully satisfied w i t h t h e v i e w that each species has b e e n

i n d e p e n d e n t l y c r e a t e d . (6) T o m y m i n d it a c c o r d s b e t t e r w i t h w h a t w e k n o w o f t h e l a w s i m p r e s s e d
o n matter by the Creator, that t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d extinction o f t h e past a n d present inhabitants of
t h e w o r l d s h o u l d h a v e b e e n d u e t o s e c o n d a r y causes, like t h o s e d e t e r m i n i n g t h e birth a n d d e a t h
o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . (7) W h e n I v i e w a l l b e i n g s n o t a s s p e c i a l c r e a t i o n s , b u t a s t h e l i n e a l d e s c e n d a n t s o f
s o m e f e w b e i n g s w h i c h l i v e d l o n g b e f o r e t h e first b e d o f t h e C a m b r i a n s y s t e m w a s d e p o s i t e d , t h e y
s e e m t o m e t o b e c o m e e n n o b l e d . (8) J u d g i n g f r o m t h e p a s t , w e m a y s a f e l y i n f e r t h a t n o t o n e l i v i n g
s p e c i e s w i l l t r a n s m i t i t s u n a l t e r e d l i k e n e s s t o a d i s t i n c t f u t u r i t y . (9) A n d o f t h e s p e c i e s n o w l i v i n g v e r y
f e w w i l l t r a n s m i t p r o g e n y o f a n y k i n d t o a f a r d i s t a n t f u t u r i t y ; (10) f o r t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h all o r g a n i c
b e i n g s a r e g r o u p e d , s h o w s t h a t t h e g r e a t e r n u m b e r o f s p e c i e s in e a c h g e n u s , a n d all t h e s p e c i e s i n
m a n y g e n e r a , h a v e l e f t n o d e s c e n d a n t s , b u t h a v e b e c o m e u t t e r l y e x t i n c t . (11) W e c a n s o f a r t a k e a
p r o p h e t i c g l a n c e i n t o f u t u r i t y a s t o f o r e t e l l t h a t it w i l l b e t h e c o m m o n a n d w i d e l y s p r e a d s p e c i e s ,
b e l o n g i n g t o t h e l a r g e r a n d d o m i n a n t g r o u p s w i t h i n e a c h class, w h i c h will u l t i m a t e l y prevail a n d
procréate n e w a n d d o m i n a n t s p e c i e s . (12) A s a l l t h e l i v i n g f o r m s o f life a r e t h e l i n e a l d e s c e n d a n t s o f
t h o s e w h i c h lived l o n g b e f o r e t h e C a m b r i a n e p o c h , w e m a y feel certain that t h e o r d i n a r y s u c c e s s i o n
by generation has n e v e r o n c e b e e n broken, a n d that no cataclysm has desolated t h e w h o l e w o r l d .
(13) H e n e e , w e m a y l o o k w i t h s o m e c o n f i d e n c e t o a s e c u r e f u t u r e o f g r e a t l e n g t h . (14) A n d as n a t u r a l
s e l e c t i o n w o r k s s o l e l y b y a n d f o r t h e g o o d o f e a c h b e i n g , all c o r p o r e a l a n d m e n t a l e n d o w m e n t s w i l l
t e n d t o p r o g r e s s t o w a r d s p e r f e c t i o n . (15)

cenoposidones
INGLÉS
práctica

It ¡s i n t e r e s t i n g t o c o n t é m p l a t e a t a n g l e d b a n k , c l o t h e d w i t h m a n y p l a n t s o f m a n y k i n d s , w i t h b i r d s
s i n g i n g o n t h e bushes, w i t h various insects flitting a b o u t , a n d w i t h w o r m s c r a w l i n g t h r o u g h t h e
d a m p e a r t h , a n d t o reflect t h a t t h e s e e l a b o r a t e l y c o n s t r u c t e d f o r m s , so d i f f e r e n t f r o m e a c h other, a n d
d e p e n d e n t u p o n e a c h o t h e r in s o c o m p l e x a manner, h a v e all b e e n p r o d u c e d b y laws a c t i n g a r o u n d
us. (16) T h e s e l a w s , t a k e n i n t h e l a r g e s t s e n s e , b e i n g G r o w t h w i t h r e p r o d u c t i o n ; I n h e r i t a n c e w h i c h
is a l m o s t i m p l i e d b y r e p r o d u c t i o n ; V a r i a b i l i t y f r o m t h e i n d i r e c t a n d d i r e c t a c t i o n o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s
o f life, a n d f r o m u s e a n d d i s u s e ; a R a t i o o f I n c r e a s e s o h i g h a s t o l e a d t o a S t r u g g l e f o r Life, a n d a s
a c o n s e q u e n c e t o N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n , e n t a i l i n g D i v e r g e n c e o f C h a r a c t e r a n d t h e E x t i n c t i o n o f less
i m p r o v e d f o r m s . (17) T h u s , f r o m t h e w a r o f n a t u r e , f r o m f a m i n e a n d d e a t h , t h e m o s t e x a l t e d o b j e c t
w h i c h w e are c a p a b l e o f c o n c e i v i n g , n a m e l y , the p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e h i g h e r animáis, d i r e c t l y f o l l o w s .
(18) T h e r e is g r a n d e u r in t h i s v i e w o f life, w i t h its s e v e r a l p o w e r s , h a v i n g b e e n o r i g i n a l l y b r e a t h e d b y
t h e C r e a t o r into a f e w forms or i n t o o n e ; a n d that, whilst t h i s p l a n e t has g o n e circling o n a c c o r d i n g t o
t h e f i x e d l a w of gravity, f r o m so s i m p l e a b e g i n n i n g e n d l e s s f o r m s m o s t b e a u t i f u l a n d m o s t w o n d e r f u l
h a v e b e e n , a n d a r e b e i n g e v o l v e d . (19)

[From Charles Darwin, The Foundations ofthe Origin of Species]

SUMMARY

T h e s e a r e t h e f i n a l p a r a g r a p h s o f The Origin of Species. In t h e m , D a r w i n s u m m a r i z e s t h e p o s i t i o n

f o r w h i c h h e h a s b e e n a r g u i n g o v e r h u n d r e d s o f p a g e s a n d d e f e n d s it a g a i n s t t h e o p p o s i t i o n ( a n d
r i d i c u l e ) h e e x p e c t e d it w o u l d p r o v o k e . A l t h o u g h it is a s c i e n t i f i c t e x t , w e c a n r e a d it n o w a s a p i e c e
of literature so t w o systems intersect: b e t w e e n the t e x t a s representative o f a register or type, a n d
t h e t e x t a s s o m e t h i n g u n i q u e . A s t o t h e field o f d i s c o u r s e , t h e t e x t is a s c i e n t i f i c t r e a t i s e p r o p o s i n g
t h e t h e o r y o f e v o l u t i o n . It w i l l b e r e l e v a n t t o c o n s i d e r h o w s u b j e c t m a t t e r is d e f i n e d , e x p l a i n e d a n d
e x e m p l i f i e d . T h e t e n o r relates t o the relationship e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n p a r t i c i p a n t s : i n this case a
major scientist addressing t h e scientific c o m m u n i t y , in w h i c h m a n y m e m b e r s a d v o c a t e d contrary
p o s i t i o n s . H o w t h e a u t h o r , a n d a u t h o r i t y , is p e r s o n a l i z e d ( p r o n o u n s ) a n d t h e r o l e s a n d a t t i t u d e s
( m o d a l i t y ) a r e k e y a s p e c t s t o e x p l a i n s u c h r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e m o d e is w r i t t e n t o b e r e a d l i n e a r l y (this is
n o t a reference work) so the a r r a n g e m e n t o f information i s d e c i s i v e t o a c h i e v e t h e d e s i r e d persuasive
effect.

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