Technique and Speed

Development for Running

By John M. Cissik, MS, CSCS

R unning speed is an important factor

for success in athletics. Obviously in

track and field events the fastest

athlete will usually win the race,

jump the farthest or throw the javelin the farthest2. But speed
is critical in almost every sport. Faster athletes will be able

to get to the ball first, elude defenders, score, or catch the

Let’s look at each of these factors in a bit more depth.

Muscle Structure and make-up

Muscles are made up of a combination of fast-twitch and
slow-twitch fibers. Fast-twitch fibers contract rapidly and
forcefully while slow-twitch fibers contract more slowly and
with lower levels of force. However, slow-twitch fibers do
not fatigue as rapidly as the fast-twitch fibers. Different mus-
cles, even within the same athlete, will have different per-
centages of fast and slow twitch fibers. Similarly, every ath-
lete will have different percentages of fast and slow twitch
fibers in a given muscle. The fiber-type make-up and the
person with the ball more effectively. Running speed is so length of the fibers in a muscle is an inherited quality. If all
important that it is frequently used to evaluate athletic poten- other things are equal, athletes with longer muscle fibers and
a greater percentage of fast-twitch fibers should have the
tial and to help in the selection of athletes for a team. While ability to run faster5 than athletes with shorter slow twitch
fibers.
you will see that some aspects of speed are genetic, or inher-

ited, there are certain things you can do to develop and Using fuel
While muscle’s architecture is genetic, its ability to use fuel
improve an athlete’s speed. is trainable. ATP (Adenosine Tri-Phosphate) is the substance
that drives muscle contraction and there are three different
What contributes to speed? “energy pathways” that the body can use to create ATP.
These three systems are the creatine phosphate system (CP),
Before talking about how to improve speed it is important to
first understand the factors that influence speed. As you the glycolitic/anaerobic system and the oxidative/aerobic
might imagine, there are many things that impact speed, system. The energy pathway that provides ATP for muscle
including: contraction depends mainly on the intensity and the duration
of the activity being performed. The CP energy pathway has
the greatest impact on speed since it produces ATP rapidly,
! The structural make-up of the athlete’s muscles; but only for a short period of time. Speed depends on how
! How well the muscles are able to use fuel; much ATP is on hand in the working muscles and on how
! Flexibility; much CP is available to create “new” ATP as it is used. The
effectiveness of the CP system can be improved by making
! Fatigue;
short, high intensity training a regular part of your running
! Stride length and stride frequency; and program.
! Technique.

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Flexibility Finally, proper technique is paramount to performance, and
Flexibility is also important for speed development and poor technique is actually the limiting factor in most athletes’
injury prevention1; it is important that the limbs be able to speed development. Good technique will allow a runner to
travel through a full range of motion without impediment to move his or her limbs quickly and safely. Poor technique will
make the running movement fluid and efficient. To develop result in poor movement efficiency, braking forces, and the
speed a runner should emphasize improving flexibility at the overloading of certain muscles and joints that could possibly
hip (the hip flexor and extensor muscles), the thigh muscles lead to injury. As technique is probably the most trainable
(hamstrings and quadriceps), and the muscles of the lower and essential component mentioned above, the rest of this
leg (both the calf muscles and the muscles at the front of the article will examine good running technique and outline
shin). While static stretching can be done, it is usually more drills to help develop an athlete’s technique.
effective to combine static stretching with dynamic stretch-
ing (stretching with movement). This will allow greater car-
ryover to the running movement and speed development.
Sprint Technique
According to Jarver4, speed performance will largely depend
Being flexible will also allow a runner to increase stride on the ability to improve the functioning of the nervous sys-
length and stride frequency7. tem and the coordination of muscles used to produce a move-
ment pattern. The ability to coordinate muscle actions direct-
Fatigue ly impacts technique. Failure to coordinate the muscles
Muscle fatigue occurs after repeated contractions because quickly and efficiently will result in slow speeds and possible
ATP is depleted and metabolic waste products accumulate in injury.
the muscle. As you might imagine, fatigue interferes with a
muscle’s ability to contract and negatively impacts technique. For purposes of this article, we’re going to divide running
Just as you would not want to perform Olympic-style lifts or into two phases: the support phase and the recovery phase.
lift heavy weights when fatigued, performing speed work Each leg has support and recovery phases. The support phase
under fatigued conditions will reinforce improper technique begins when the foot hits the ground and lasts until it breaks
and possibly lead to injury. Speed work should be performed contact with the ground. The recovery phase begins when
when the athlete is fresh so that he may learn good technique the foot breaks contact with the ground and lasts until it
and run quickly. When fatigue sets in and performance of the again makes contact with the ground.
exercises begins to suffer, the speed workout should be ter-
minated for that day. In the support phase, the leading foot should land on the
ground slightly ahead of the athlete’s center of gravity
Stride length and stride rate (slightly in front of the hips). The foot should be driven
Stride length refers to the distance a runner’s center of mass down towards the ground by the hip extensor muscles; the
travels with each stride2. Stride frequency refers to the num- hamstrings and gluteal muscles should be performing the
ber of foot contacts that are made per unit of time. Both majority of the work during the hip extension. The quadri-
stride frequency and stride length directly contribute to run- ceps (knee extensors) are also important at foot contact since
ning speed. Essentially, Speed = Stride Length x Stride they keep the athlete’s knee from flexing excessively and dis-
Frequency. From this equation it should be obvious that sipating elastic energy. As the foot contacts the ground it
speed will increase if an athlete is able to take longer strides should be dorsiflexed, with the big toe pulled up towards the
while maintaining stride frequency, and vice versa. Both shinbone. This helps to maximize the amount of energy that
stride length and frequency are trainable. With this said, it is can be stored by the calf muscles and then released to gen-
important to realize that you reach a point of diminishing erate propulsion in a later phase of the running stride. The
returns if you increase your stride length too much. outside of the forefoot, not the heel, should contact the
ground.
After a certain point, too long a stride length will slow an
athlete down because he will begin to experience braking The athlete should then think about pulling himself over the
forces3. Newton’s third law states that “for every action there support foot. The athlete should continue exerting force with
is an equal and opposite reaction.” When the foot hits the the hip and knee extensors until his center of gravity passes
ground in front of the body, the force generated by the over the support foot. At this point, the runner should focus
ground is directed back towards the runner, effectively slow- on plantarflexing the foot (pointing the toes) with the calf
ing him or her down. Elite sprinters, who have already opti- muscles. When the toes leave the ground, the support phase
mized their stride length, focus on increasing stride frequen- has ended.
cy to improve their speed. For most athletes, the trick is to
find the optimal relationship between these two variables. As an athlete enters the recovery phase, the ankle should
immediately be dorsiflexed with the big toe pulled up toward
Technique the shin. As the foot leaves the ground, the athlete should flex

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the knee and bring the heel up towards the hips/ buttocks as Ankling Drill
quickly as possible. This helps to “make the leg shorter” and “Ankling” teaches an athlete how to lift the foot off the
allows the athlete to swing the recovery leg forward faster ground during the running motion. During ankling, the
than he or she could if the limb was kept straight during the knees should remain straight. The athlete should step for-
recovery phase. Remember, speed is what we are looking for, ward with the right leg with the foot dorsiflexed and big toe
so even relatively “small” things like flexing the leg can help lifted up towards the shin. The outside of the right forefoot
a runner gain valuable time in a race or competition. should contact the ground just in front of the athlete’s cen-
ter of gravity. The athlete should pull himself over the foot.
As the heel is drawn towards the hip, the leg should be swung As the athlete’s center of gravity passes over the right foot
forward. The athlete should imagine he is trying to step over (i.e. when the foot is now behind the athlete), the foot should
the opposite knee with the ankle. This will keep the leg go into plantarflexion (pointing the toes and pushing off the
“short” and speed high for as long as possible. As the ankle ground) until it leaves the ground. As the right foot leaves
steps over the opposite knee the athlete should begin unfold- the ground, the ankle should immediately be dorsiflexed and
ing, or extending, the swing leg. It should be noted that the the big toe should be lifted up in preparation for moving it in
hip and knee extension that occur during this phase are due front of the athlete again. Begin practicing this drill with just
to a transfer of momentum, not an active contraction of the the right foot for 10 - 20 yards. Then perform it with the left
lower limb muscles8. As the leg unfolds and the athlete pre- foot. After the athlete is comfortable with this approach, have
pares for the next support phase, he should again focus on him perform this drill alternating between the right and left
activating the hip extensors to drive the foot down toward sides.
the ground.
Butt Kick Drill
In addition to the lower body action, there are a few other “Butt kick” drills that are performed for running are slightly
pointers that an athlete should focus on. The first of these is different than what most of us are used to. The goal of butt
posture. The athlete should run with the trunk erect. The kicks is to teach the athlete to lift the heel up to the hips
head should be level and the hips should remain tall with very quickly during the recovery phase of running. The athlete
little vertical movement. Second, arm swing contributes to should step forward with his or her right leg with the foot
running speed. The athlete should focus on driving the arms dorsiflexed and big toe lifted up, and proceed through the
both backward and forward to provide balance and generate support phase as was discussed in the ankling drill above. As
momentum. The elbow angle should range from 60 degrees the right foot leaves the ground, it should immediately be
in front to 140 degrees in back8 and the athlete should avoid dorsiflexed and the big toe should be lifted up. The heel
swinging the arms across the midline of the body. should quickly be brought up to the athlete’s hip. Note that
as this is done the right knee will be lifted up. Unlike more
Obviously an athlete has to think about a lot of things going traditional butt kick drills, the goal here is not to stretch the
on in a short period of time when sprinting. This can be an quadriceps, it is to practice getting the heel to the hips as
overwhelming skill for many athletes to learn. Drills are a quickly as possible. Initially this drill should be performed
valuable tool and can aid the athlete in the learning and per- with the right leg for 10 - 20 yards. The athlete should then
fecting of specific running skills. Drills can help in the devel- perform it with the left leg. After the athlete is comfortable
opment of “ideal” sprinting technique and speed9. Note that with this approach, he should perform the drill alternating
while drills are important in the development of technique, between the right and left sides.
and while they serve as a useful tool in the warm up, they are
not a substitute for actual running and sprint training. By
definition, drills are a part of the movement. Remember that
A Drills
“A drills” combine the skills learned through ankling and butt
the entire skill must be put together and practiced in order kicks and add the high knee action that is important for run-
for an athlete to become faster. ning. Focusing on the right leg, proceed through the foot
contact and support phase as described in the ankling drill
Sprint Technique Drills above. As the right foot leaves the ground it should immedi-
The following technique drills will be described in this arti- ately be dorsiflexed and the big toe should be lifted up. The
cle: heel should quickly be brought up to the athlete’s hip. As the
heel is brought to the hip, the leg should be swung forward
1. Ankling, attempting to lift the knee as high as possible. When the knee
2. Butt kicks, and is in its highest position, the foot should still be dorsiflexed
with the big toe lifted up. As the leg is swung forward, the leg
3. A drills. will naturally start to “unfold.” Once the limb has swung for-
ward the athlete should drive the foot down, using the hip
extensor muscles.

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The athlete should practice this drill as a “walk,” initially About the Author
with the right side, for 10 - 20 yards. The athlete should then John M. Cissik, MS, CSCS, NSCA-CPT runs Fitness and
switch to the left side. When the athlete is comfortable with Conditioning Enterprises, which specializes in speed and agility
this, he should alternate between the right and left sides. instruction for young athletes. He is the NSCA’s State Director for
When the athlete is comfortable with the A Walk, he can Texas and is a Level II Coach (Sprints) with USA Track and
make it more difficult by performing the drill as a “skip.” Field. He can be reached at: john@fitnessconditioning.net .
Initially the athlete should train first the right side, then the
left. Once he or she is comfortable then he may alternate
between the right and left sides6, 7.

Summary
Being able to run fast is extremely important for success in
many sports. While many factors may be trained to help
improve running speed, technique is one of the most train-
able and one of the most important. Solid technique will
result in a faster, more efficient runner. Poor technique will
limit an athlete’s speed. To help an athlete master the skill,
the sprinting motion may be broken down into drills that
train parts of the motion. Drills simplify a complicated skill,
helping with mastery. They may also serve as warm up and
conditioning exercises.

References
1. Barbaro, R. (2000). Elements of speed development. In
Jarver, J. (Ed.) Sprints and Relays 5th Edition. Mountain
View, CA: TAFNEWS Press, pg. 15 - 18.
2. Cunningham, M. (2001). Pure speed training. Coaches
Review, 74(2), 26 - 28.
3. Faccioni, A. (1995). Assisted and resisted methods for
speed development. In Jarver, J. (Ed.) Sprints and Relays
4th Edition. Mountain View, CA: TAFNEWS Press, pg.
63 - 69.
4. Jarver, J. (1978). Sprinting in a nutshell. In Jarver, J. (Ed.)
Sprints and Relays 1st Edition. Mountain View, CA:
TAFNEWS Press, pg. 9 - 13.
5. Kumagai, K., T. Abe, W.F. Brechue, T. Ryoshi, S. Takano,
& M. Mizuno. (2000). Sprint performance is related to
muscle fascicle length in male 100-m sprinters. Journal of
Applied Physiology, 88, 811 - 816.
6. McFarlane, B. (1995). Speed…A basic and advanced tech-
nical model. In Jarver, J. (Ed.) Sprints and Relays 4th
Edition. Mountain View, CA: TAFNEWS Press, pg. 14 -
19.
7. McFarlane, B. (1987). A look inside the biomechanics of
speed. NSCA Journal, 9(5), 35 - 42.
8. USA Track and Field. (2001). Coaching Education Program
Level II Course: Sprints, Hurdles, Relays.
9. West, T. & S. Robson. (2000). Running drills - are we
reaping the benefits? In Jarver, J. (Ed.) Sprints and Relays
5th Edition. Mountain View, CA: TAFNEWS Press, pg.
64 - 67.

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