THINKING SKILLS ASSESSMENT (TSA)

TEST SPECIFICATION
Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking in the context of the TSA can best be made clear by the following definition: In an
argument, reasons are put forward as grounds for a conclusion. The argument is a good argument
provided its conclusion follows from the reasons. That is to say, if you accept the reasons, you must accept
the conclusion. For the purposes of the Critical Thinking assessment, the reasons given should be
accepted as being true.

Here is an example of a simple argument:

Jill promised she would attend the meeting or send a substitute. We know she can't attend the meeting. So
we are expecting a substitute.

The structure of this argument is as follows:

Reasons: Jill promised she would attend the meeting or send a substitute. We know she can't attend the
meeting.

Conclusion: So we are expecting a substitute.

In this case, the conclusion appears at the end of the argument, and is introduced by the word "so".
Sometimes a conclusion may be introduced by words such as "therefore", "thus", "it follows that". However,
sometimes a conclusion may not contain any such word. It is also important to note that a conclusion may
appear at the beginning of, or in the middle of, an argument, rather than at the end. For example, the above
argument could have been written in this way:

We know Jill cannot attend the meeting. We are expecting a substitute. She promised she would attend the
meeting or send a substitute.

or in this way:

We are expecting a substitute for Jill. We know she cannot attend the meeting, and she promised she
would attend or send a substitute.

In both these cases, "We are expecting a substitute (for Jill)" is the conclusion, because it is the statement
which follows from, or is supported by, the rest of the passage.

Some arguments may omit a crucial stage in the reasoning - an assumption which must be made in order
for the conclusion to follow. Here is an example:

She doesn't stand much of a chance. The polar bear is right behind her.

In this argument it is not explicitly stated that polar bears are dangerous, but the conclusion that "she
doesn't stand much of a chance" depends upon the belief that polar bears are dangerous. This belief is
taken for granted, or assumed.

In summary, the features of arguments are:

reason(s)
conclusion(s) (which may or may not be introduced by words such as "so", "therefore")
assumption(s) i.e. crucial parts of the argument which have not been stated.

Arguments can be much more complex in structure than the examples given so far and they can be
lengthy. But whatever their length and complexity, there are certain skills involved in understanding and
evaluating arguments. These include: drawing and summarising conclusions, identifying assumptions and
reasoning errors, and assessing the impact of additional evidence.

The following examples show the seven kinds of questions you will find in the Thinking Skills Assessment.

10
Example 1: Summarising the Main Conclusion

In this type of question you have to judge which one of the statements A to E best expresses the main
conclusion of the argument. So the first important step is to read the passage carefully and pick out the
sentence which is the conclusion. Remember that the conclusion can appear anywhere within an
argument - not necessarily at the end. Remember also that what you are looking for is the statement which
follows from, or is supported by, the rest of the passage.

It may be helpful to ask yourself: "What is the main message which this passage is trying to get me to
accept?". When you think you have answered this question, underline the sentence which expresses this
main message, then look to see if the rest of the passage gives you reasons for believing this. Sometimes
a passage may have an intermediate conclusion which is just one of the steps in the reasoning towards the
main conclusion. Be careful to check this. If the sentence you have underlined gives reason to believe
some other statement in the passage, then it will not be the main conclusion. Do not worry about whether
the reasons are true. Just ask yourself: "If these reasons were true, would they give me good reason to
accept the sentence I have underlined?".

Vegetarian food can be healthier than a traditional diet. Research has shown that vegetarians are
less likely to suffer from heart disease and obesity than meat eaters. Concern has been expressed
that vegetarians do not get enough protein in their diet but it has been demonstrated that, by selecting
foods carefully, vegetarians are able to amply meet their needs in this respect.

Which of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the above argument?

A A vegetarian diet can be better for health than a traditional diet.

B Adequate protein is available from a vegetarian diet.

C A traditional diet is very high in protein.

D A balanced diet is more important for health than any particular food.

E Vegetarians are unlikely to suffer from heart disease and obesity.

Answer and explanation

What does this argument seem to be trying to get us to accept? It seems to be trying to persuade us that
vegetarian food can be healthier than a traditional diet, so we should underline the first sentence. Then we
need to see whether the rest of the passage gives us reason to believe this. Two reasons are given:
1. Vegetarians are less likely to suffer from heart disease and obesity than meat eaters.
2. A vegetarian diet can contain sufficient protein.

We may not know whether these reasons are true, but if they were true, they would indicate that vegetarian
food is healthier in one respect than a traditional diet which includes meat, and that a vegetarian diet does
not necessarily have the disadvantage to health (providing insufficient protein) which we may have thought.
So it seems clear that the first sentence of the passage is being offered as a conclusion.

A is the statement which best expresses this conclusion.

B is not the main conclusion, but it is one of the reasons for the main conclusion - labelled above as
reason (2).
C is not the main conclusion, because it is not even stated in the passage. It is taken for granted that a
traditional diet provides enough protein, but even this is not explicitly stated.
D is not the main conclusion, as it is not stated in the passage. No attempt is made to define a balanced
diet. The passage simply makes a comparison between a traditional diet and a vegetarian diet.
E is not the main conclusion, but it is close in meaning to one of the reasons for the main
conclusion - labelled above as reason (1).
1 The motor-car, that at first brought such freedom of private travel, has become a monster
that is damaging our cities. The motor-car used to be affordable only by the rich, but
there are now 21 million cars in this country, and the number is still rising steeply. The
huge number of cars in city centres has produced intolerable congestion and
pollution. We have reached the stage where the use of private cars must be
curbed. Otherwise, we will see a worsening of the current situation, where it is already
becoming quicker to walk through a city in the rush hour than to drive through it.

Which of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the argument above?

A The motor car no longer gives us freedom of travel.

B Increasing provision of public transport would solve traffic problems in city
centres.
C It is necessary to limit the use of motor cars by private individuals.
D Pollution and congestion are damaging our city centres.
E The number of people who can afford to own a motor-car has risen, and is
continuing to rise.
In this argument, the word ‘must’ appears in the fourth sentence. Is this sentence a recommendation that is 
supported by other statements in the passage? The first sentence claims that the motor‐car has become a monster 
that is damaging our cities, and sentences two and three explain the sense in which the car is a monster, i.e. that the 
number of cars has hugely increased, causing intolerable pollution and congestion. These claims provide good 
reasons for claiming that something should be done about the problem, but not necessarily for a conclusion that we 
must curb the use of private cars. The word ‘otherwise’ in the final sentence implies that if the action recommended 
in the previous sentence is not done, the problem will get worse. Thus the final sentence gives an additional reason 
for the conclusion that the use of private cars must be curbed.   

We could summarise this argument as follows: the huge increase in the use of private cars has caused intolerable 
congestion and pollution; unless we limit the use of private cars this problem will become even worse; therefore we 
should limit the use of private cars.  

C expresses this claim; A is not actually stated in the passage; B suggests a solution that is not offered in the passage; 
D and E are reasons for the recommendation that is expressed in the main conclusion. 

   
2 Organic farming of animals and crops improves the environment through a reduced use
of chemical fertilisers and pesticides but this does not go far enough. It would be
preferable to have a totally vegetarian agriculture. Ninety per cent of the vegetable matter
fed to farm animals passes straight through with its calorific content intact. By eating
vegetables directly, rather than feeding them to animals, substantially less land would
have to be farmed. The remaining land could be returned to its historical state - mixed
deciduous woodland, which is what the countryside needs most of all.

Which of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the above argument?

A Organic farming enhances the environment.

B It would be preferable to have a totally vegetarian agriculture.
C A totally vegetarian agriculture would reduce the need for pesticides.
D There would be a need for less land under cultivation if we ate vegetables
directly.
E Land could be returned to mixed deciduous woodland.
The passage concerns the effect on the environment of using land to grow vegetable matter that is fed to animals. 
We are told that if we did not feed vegetables to animals, and thus ate only vegetables, less land would need to be 
farmed in order to feed the human population. This would allow land to be returned to mixed deciduous woodland, 
which is what the countryside needs. The conclusion drawn is that it would be preferable to have a totally vegetarian 
agriculture, as stated in B. 

Although the argument states that organic farming improves the environment, A is not the conclusion, because the 
argument goes on to say that organic farming does not go far enough. 

If less land would have to be farmed in a totally vegetarian agriculture, then possibly fewer pesticides would need to 
be used. But the argument does not make this point, so C is not the conclusion. 

D and E are both reasons for the conclusion. 

3 Peat is organic matter which develops in wetland areas. It is the ideal growing medium
for plants, and there is a tremendous demand for it from gardeners, both amateur and
professional. But only three per cent of the earth's land surface is covered in peatland,
and continued harvesting of peat will endanger these unique wetland habitats. Peat
harvesting should be stopped immediately and gardeners should be encouraged to use
an alternative.

Which of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the argument above?

A Only three per cent of the land on our planet is covered in peatland.
B Taking too much peat will destroy the unique wetland areas in which it
develops.
C Peat cannot develop except in wetland areas.
D No more peat should be extracted and a different growing medium for plants
should be promoted.
E Peat is a very popular growing medium used by amateur gardeners and
professional growers.

The word ‘should’ in the last sentence indicates that a recommendation is being made. In the rest of the passage 
there are reasons as to why this recommendation should be followed. They are that peat is an ideal growing 
medium, and in great demand; that peatland covers only three percent of the earth’s land surface; that peat 
develops in wetland areas that are unique habitats which will be endangered by continuing peat harvesting. Thus the 
main conclusion is that peat harvesting should be stopped immediately and gardeners should be encouraged to use 
an alternative. This is expressed in D. 

A, B and E are reasons for the conclusion. It is not explicitly stated that peat cannot develop in areas other than 
wetland, but C is related to the first sentence of the passage, which is one of the reasons.  

   
 4 There has been a decline in the rate of many of the illnesses of old age. For example,
arthritis, dementia, and strokes are all declining year by year. The causes of this decline
include such medical advances as beta-blockers to control high blood pressure and the
fitting of hip replacements. There is, however, another factor. The present generation of
60- and 70- year-olds had much better nutrition as children than did their parents. Good
nutrition in childhood is important in laying the foundations of good health in
adulthood. Since improvements in nutrition have continued over the past sixty years, we
can expect that many of the illnesses of old age will continue to decline.

Which one of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the above
argument?

A We can expect that improvements in nutrition will continue.

B The rate of many of the illnesses of old age has declined.
C Medical advances have significantly reduced the rate of diseases of old age.
D The fall in the rate of many of the illnesses associated with old age will
continue.
E Improvements in nutrition have been very important in maintaining good
health in old age.
The first part of the argument mentions some of the factors, i.e. medical advances, which are contributory causes of 
the decline in the incidence of illnesses of old age. It tells us that there is another important factor, and gives the 
following reasons: 

 the present generation of 60‐ and 70‐year‐olds had much better nutrition as children than did their parents; 
 good nutrition in childhood is important in laying the foundations of good health in adulthood; 
 improvements in nutrition have continued over the past sixty years. 
 

These, taken together, support the conclusion that we can expect that many of the illnesses of old age will continue 
to decline. D expresses this conclusion. 

A is not stated in the argument, B is a sentence that introduces the topic of the argument, C is a partial explanation 
as to why the diseases of old age have declined, E is an unstated assumption that follows from the reasons and also 
gives support to the conclusion.  
   

2008

1 Sometimes poverty is defined in relation to average income. For example, people may be
said to be poor if their income is less than 60 per cent of the average income for the
population. This is not a legitimate definition, because it is a measure of inequality rather
than poverty. This is obvious if we consider the consequences of using the definition. It
means that a huge pay rise for middle managers automatically throws some people into
poverty, even though their income has not changed. On the other hand, the definition
implies that in a society where almost everyone is starving, no one is poor.

Which of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the above argument?

A Having a relatively low income is not the same as being poor.

B It is impossible to find an appropriate definition of poverty.
C It is wrong to define poverty in relation to average income.
D A huge pay rise for middle managers makes other people poor.
E There is no inequality in a society where most people are starving.
 11 There is much evidence to suggest that cannabis has therapeutic uses for people
suffering from conditions such as multiple sclerosis. Given this, the prescription of
cannabis should be made legal. If doctors were legally allowed to prescribe cannabis,
multiple sclerosis sufferers and others might be spared much pain. Moreover, if cannabis
could be legally prescribed, it would be possible to conduct large-scale surveys to
establish whether cannabis really is of benefit in such cases.

Which of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the above argument?

A There is no justification for existing laws against cannabis.

B Cannabis can relieve the suffering of people with multiple sclerosis.
C Doctors are opposed to existing laws on cannabis.
D It should be legal for doctors to prescribe cannabis.
E Large-scale surveys are needed to establish whether cannabis really is
beneficial.
27 The quantity of food produced has always fluctuated according to environmental
conditions: gluts and shortages have been with us for five hundred years or more. In the
past, the free operation of market forces limited the adverse effects of these fluctuations,
usually with far more success than any attempts at planned responses. But now we are
changing the environment irreversibly. These changes will not only be permanent, but
will have such devastating effects on world agriculture that market forces alone will be
unable to prevent a global famine. So it is now vital to seek some sort of planned
response.

Which one of the following summarises the main conclusion of the argument above?

A Environmental changes will have devastating effects on world agriculture.

B Market forces cannot prevent global famine.
C A planned response to current environmental changes is necessary.
D The recent environmental changes cannot be reversed.
E Market forces have limited the adverse effects of the environment on food
production.

35 All's fair in love and war - and motor racing. That's how some commentators view the
failed attempt by a great driver to disable his main rival's car by steering into it. Had he
succeeded, he would have won the championship, because he was ahead on
points. Fair? Why not? It may have been dangerous and irresponsible but it was not
unfair. This driver had earned his one-point lead in the championship and was trying, like
any serious competitor, to defend it. In a reversed situation, the other driver could - and
arguably would - have done the same. Motor racing is a tough and uncompromising sport
with huge incentives to win at all costs and all the drivers know what to expect.

Which of the following best summarises the main conclusion of the argument above?

A It was not unfair of the leading driver to steer into his rival's car.
B Motor racing is a fierce and ruthless sport with big rewards for winning.
C It is not irresponsible to try to win at all costs.
D Some commentators thought that the race had been fought fairly.
E Another driver in the same position would have acted in the same way.
45 Over the past few years in parts of the South West, a number of farm animals have been
found killed in the fields. The nature of the injuries indicates that a large predator must
have been responsible. Local people talk of a number of 'big cats' such as pumas being
responsible, claiming that such animals have indeed been seen. Official investigations
into these claims have dismissed them, concluding that any sightings have been of
domestic rather than of big cats. But these investigations have failed to deal with the
point that, even if the sightings can be explained in terms of domestic cats, the injuries on
the carcasses of the farm animals cannot be. Big cats such as pumas must be
responsible for these attacks.

Which of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the above argument?

A Recent attacks on farm animals must have been by big cats such as pumas.
B Sightings of big cats cannot be explained as sightings of domestic cats.
C The injuries on the carcasses of farm animals cannot have been caused by
domestic cats.
D There must be a large population of big cats such as pumas in the South
West.
E Official investigations into the deaths of farm animals in the South West
should have been more thorough.

2009

1 In the twenty-first century, many people aged over 65 are perfectly capable of working,
and also are likely to live longer than individuals did in previous times. If people work after
age 65, there is more chance that they will be financially self-sufficient when they do
retire. Compulsory retirement ages have long been banned in the USA, and we should
get rid of them in the UK also. This would be good for individuals and for the country. We
should ignore those employers who complain that they would be unable to get rid of older
and inefficient employees. After all, those who are really incompetent to do a job can be
dismissed on the grounds of merit, rather than of age.

Which of the following expresses the main conclusion of the above argument?

A It is unfair to prevent people working after age 65.

B People who are incompetent to do a job can be dismissed.
C Raising the retirement age would be good for the country.
D The UK should abolish compulsory retirement ages.
E Those who work beyond age 65 can be financially self-sufficient.
 11 There is widespread and justified concern about the reliance on expert opinion in law
court cases. Where experts disagree on an interpretation of the facts, there is always the
possibility that the more charismatic and persuasive expert's opinion will prevail for this
reason alone. Their reason for holding the opinions they do could be more to do with their
own personal prejudices than their professional expertise. However, if we want justice to
be done, we should distinguish sharply between this and expert evidence which is not
reliant on interpretation. It would be a tragedy if key advances in tackling crime such as
matching DNA were regarded with suspicion just because such evidence came from an
expert witness.

Which of the following is a statement of the main conclusion in the above argument?

A The widespread concern about the use of expert opinion in legal cases is
justified.
B It would be most regrettable if evidence such as DNA became suspect in legal
cases.
C In the interests of justice we should distinguish between expert evidence and
expert opinion.
D Expert opinion may arise from personal views rather than professional
knowledge.
E Juries may be swayed by the personal characteristics of those presenting
expert opinions.

27 Over-qualification is sometimes cited as a reason for rejecting an applicant for a job. But
to qualify means to reach a certain standard regardless of the amount by which that
standard is surpassed. If someone holding a first-class honours degree is rejected for a
job on the grounds that academic excellence is less important than, say, a caring attitude,
this is not a case of over-qualification in one direction but of under-qualification in
another. For this reason, applicants should not be rejected because they are
over-qualified; any explanation for failure should always be in terms of shortcomings.

Which of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the argument above?

A There are no circumstances under which someone can be over-qualified for a

job.
B Holding the highest academic qualifications is not always as important as
having the right attitudes.
C The definition of the word 'qualify' sets no upper limits on the standard that
can be achieved.
D Employers should be honest with unsuccessful applicants when explaining
why they have not been appointed.
E Over-qualification should not be given as a reason for not appointing someone
to a job.
 35 It is possible to think that someone is right to do whatever serves his own ends, including
murder, theft and deceit, and to admire his ruthlessness. But one cannot think that this is
not morally wrong. The phrase 'morally wrong' is not meaningless. There are some
things, such as those mentioned above, which would have to be so described by anyone
who was not unaware of the meaning of the expression. That some things are morally
wrong can be shown to be true, every bit as decisively as, for instance, it can be shown
that snow is white. It is not true that every moral question is 'a matter of opinion', still less
of taste, personal preference, or choice.

Which of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the above argument?

A People are right to do whatever serves their own ends, even if it involves
murder, theft and deceit.
B The phrase 'morally wrong' is not meaningless.
C One must accept that acts such as murder, theft and deceit are morally wrong.
D It is always wrong to admire those who commit murder.
E It is as true that some things are morally wrong as it is that snow is white.

45 In Britain, wetland areas have traditionally been used for cattle farming, which requires
drainage of the land to allow cattle to graze in summer. However, maintaining the marshy
conditions in wetlands is vital to the survival of the varieties of wildlife and plants which
are exclusive to such areas. Because the interests of agriculture and of conservation are
thus in conflict in wetland areas, water levels should be regulated by an independent body
to enable a balance to be achieved.

Which of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the argument above?

A Water levels in wetlands should be regulated by an independent body.

B A balance should be maintained between agricultural and conservation
interests.
C The interests of the different groups using wetland areas are irreconcilable.
D Wetland areas have to fulfil the needs of agriculture and conservation.
E Wetland areas are a rare natural resource which needs special treatment.
 2010

1 In the case of plastic drink bottles, recycling is not the best answer to the problem of
garbage disposal. Ninety five per cent of soft-drink bottles sold in the United States are
made of a compound of polyethylene (PET) which poses recycling problems. They are
potentially carcinogenic if recycled into new food or drink containers. Recycled PET tends
to absorb other chemicals before re-melting and these chemicals could leach into food or
drink that is stored in a recycled container. However, if disposed of in landfill sites, plastic
is not harmful to the environment. It can be squashed flat, so that it occupies little space
and it is inert. Unlike other waste, it does not leach into soil or water, nor does it produce
a dangerous build-up of methane.

Which one of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the argument above?

A Plastic waste cannot be recycled safely.

B Plastic waste is not a danger to the environment.
C Food containers made from recycled plastic are potentially carcinogenic.
D There is sufficient space in landfill sites to accommodate plastic waste.
E Recycling is not the best method of disposing of plastic drink bottles.

11 Many people imagine that large country houses in the eighteenth century had smooth
lawns. But in those days there was no way of killing wild plants and weeds and, with the
lawnmower not invented, the only method of cutting a lawn was by teams of gardeners
with hand scythes; today's weed-free close cuts were unthinkable. Given this, lawns must
have been like flowery meadows.

Which one of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the argument above?

A Modern lawns are kept smooth only with the use of weedkillers and
lawnmowers.
B The upkeep of eighteenth century lawns required the employment of large
numbers of gardeners.
C In the eighteenth century, lawns were not smooth but more like flowery
meadows.
D It is more natural to have a lawn like a flowery meadow than one kept in
smooth condition.
E Modern lawns would seem boring to a person from the eighteenth century.
27 Store loyalty cards are designed to encourage customers to use one supermarket only.
But all the major supermarkets now have loyalty cards, so people are able to possess a
loyalty card for all of their local supermarkets. So it is pointless for the supermarkets to
continue using them and they might as well abandon the costly schemes, because they
cannot be the primary reason that people choose to shop at a particular store.

Which one of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the above argument?

A People obtain loyalty cards for all of their local supermarkets.

B Loyalty schemes are not the primary reason that people choose to shop at a
particular store.
C Supermarkets might as well abandon loyalty schemes.
D Loyalty card schemes cost too much to be worthwhile.
E Store loyalty cards are designed to encourage customers to use one
supermarket only.

35 Although the general public are demanding action to reduce the number of pedestrians
killed in road accidents in residential areas, road bumps in these areas should be
abolished. Road bumps were introduced to residential areas because they were cheap,
quick to implement, and showed that Local Authorities were acting to reduce road
deaths. They are admittedly effective at restricting the speed of traffic but they also hinder
emergency services. The London Ambulance Service has stated that they cause delays
in reaching critically ill people and this results in 500 deaths per year from heart failure
alone in the London area. Electronic speed signs, and more effective signing of speed
limits in residential areas, would be just as effective at reducing pedestrian deaths.

Which one of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the above argument?

A The general public are demanding action to reduce the number of pedestrians
killed in road accidents in residential areas.
B Road bumps are cheaper and easier to implement than other ways of
reducing traffic speed.
C Electronic speed signs are just as effective as road bumps.
D Road bumps should be abolished in residential areas.
E Road bumps interfere with the Emergency Services causing many deaths.
45 There is a proposal to change our passports from the present, rather imposing, book-type
documents to small plastic cards, a proposal which should be rejected. The cards are
seen as having many advantages. For example, they will be easier to fit into people's
pockets, something which will become more important as other countries move towards
compulsory identity cards. But this supposed advantage of smaller size is actually a
disadvantage. It is the very fact that passports cannot be slipped into a holidaymaker's
pocket (and from there into the sand on the beach) that makes us take special care of
them. It is, after all, a very important document.

Which one of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the above argument?

A The advantages of the smaller passports are fewer than people think.
B The proposals to replace our passports with plastic cards should be rejected.
C The importance of passports will diminish if they are small plastic cards.
D People will take less care of passports which are small plastic cards.
E The proposal to change our type of passports should be looked at more
carefully.

2011

1 11% of nurses across the country would like to leave the profession. However, this figure
rises to 39% amongst nurses who are working alternating shift systems, which mix day,
evening and night shifts. It was found that many nurses preferred one type of shift most of
the time, whether that involved working early, late or through the night. Employers should
urgently review staffing arrangements to avoid the compulsory, alternating patterns. This
would make nurses' working hours more compatible with their social and family lives. A
further benefit would be a reduction in the cost of training new nurses to replace those
leaving.

What is the best expression of the main conclusion of this argument?

A The health service should adapt shift patterns to suit nurses in order to retain
staff.
B Alternating shift systems cause nurses to want leave the health service.
C Many nurses prefer a regular pattern of work.
D Some nurses would like to leave the profession no matter what their shift
pattern.
E 61% of nurses prefer alternating shift patterns.
11 The differences between human beings are sometimes more striking than the similarities.
There is a minority of people who, driven by a competitive urge to be the first or the best,
undertake ambitious expeditions involving severe physical deprivations, high risk of
fatality, and extreme isolation. Compare these people to the majority who prefer an easy,
risk free life of comfort and we can see that one human being can be as different from
another in their behaviour as two different species of animal. Any attempt to form general
rules about human behaviour needs to bear this variation in mind.

Which one of the following best expresses the conclusion of the passage above?

A Members of the human race can be as different in their behaviour as two

separate species of animal.
B Humans who take risks in the interests of achieving unusual feats are
untypical.
C Variation in human behaviour makes it difficult to generalise.
D Differences between people can be more striking than similarities.
E Human beings are superior to all other animals.

27 Britain's property market is in the midst of a full-scale slump with house prices falling at
their fastest rate in 15 years, according to a new study. But why is there an assumption
that continuing rises in house prices is a good thing? Why not see the fall in house prices
as a welcome change? House prices as a percentage of income are grossly overpriced.
Low interest rates and cheap mortgages have led to the property market, particularly in
London, being overvalued. Surely this will make houses more affordable. First time
buyers will be happy beneficiaries of a housing slump. Others finding a silver lining in the
gloom are those in rural communities for whom a house had seemed simply out of reach.

Which one of the following is the main conclusion of the above argument?

A Low interest rates and cheap mortgages have led to an overvaluing of the
property market.
B It is always assumed that continually rising house prices are a good thing.
C Rural communities will no longer find buying a house out of reach.
D Surely a slump in prices will make buying a house more affordable.
E We should view the fall in house prices as a good thing.
35 England is set to become the most crowded country in Europe as its population grows by
a third over the next 50 years, according to official projections. There are currently some
50 million people in England, but in 50 years this could hit 68 million - 1,349 for every
square mile. Opposition political parties, who have obtained the data from the Office for
National Statistics, demanded restrictions on migration levels. The opposition
spokeswoman for immigration said "This demonstrates the real pressure public services
are being put under as a result of the failed immigration policy of the present government,
which the electorate are increasingly recognising." Continued unrestricted population
growth will lead to extremist political parties benefiting at the ballot box.

Which one of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the above argument?

A Extremist parties will gain political capital from the growth in population.
B England is set to become the most crowded country in Europe over the next
50 years.
C Public services will come under increasing pressure as a result of immigration
policy.
D The electorate are dissatisfied with the government's immigration policy.
E Opposition parties believe immigration is the sole reason for the projected rise
in population in England.

45 Although study leave in the run up to exams is traditional, and benefits well-motivated,
organised students, recent thinking suggests that it is not the best way to improve results.
Some students are required to do housework or help in the family business rather than
studying. Many others spend time playing computer games, watching daytime TV or
hanging around with friends instead of revising. Schools which provide in-school study
areas with teacher supervision and a programme of booster revision sessions are getting
more A*s and fewer Ds. It is time to ditch study leave.

Which one of the following best expresses the main conclusion of the argument?

A Many students do not make good use of their study leave.

B Students who work hard find study leave useful.
C Study leave is not the best way for students to gain high results.
D Study leave ought to be abandoned.
E Traditional methods of education need to be updated to improve results.
 2012

1 If people go to a foreign country, they should try to learn at least some of the language of that
country because, whilst it is difficult to pick up a good command of a foreign language in a short
time, learning just a little of a foreign language helps you to find out more about the country itself,
its people's customs and mannerisms. As well as this, it means that you can function more easily
by being able to ask for directions or just by being able to order what you want at a restaurant,
which is much less embarrassing than pointing and arm-waving.

Which one of the following is an expression of the main conclusion of the above argument?

A It is easier to function in a country if you have learnt the language of that country.

B You will find out more about a country if you learn the language of that country.

C It is difficult to learn a foreign language in a short time.

D When people visit a foreign country they should try to learn some of the language.

E Speaking a foreign language is easier than having to use sign language.

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