● Period of Mahajanpadas

● Several developments in different parts of the subcontinent (India) the long span of 1500
● following the end of Harappan Civilization:
● • Rigveda was composed along the Indus and its tributaries.
● • Agricultural Settlements emerged in several parts of the subcontinent.
● • New mode of disposal of the dead like making Megaliths.
● • By C 600 BCE growth of new cities and kingdoms.
● • 600 BCE major turning point in early Indian history.
● • Growth of 16 Mahajanapadas. Many were ruled by kings.
● • Some known as ganas or sanghas were oligarchies
● • Between the 600 BCE and 400 BCE Magadha became the most powerful
Mahajanapada.
●
● • Strategies for increasing agricultural production - use of plough with iron plough share,
introduction of transplantation and use of irrigation through wells, tanks, less commonly
canals.
● • Land grants to religious institutions or Brahmanas, to extend agriculture to new areas
or to win allies by making grants of land.
● • Emergence of urban centres such as Pataliputra, Ujjayani, Puhar, Mathura etc.
● In the towns different types of people used to live such as washing folk, weavers,
scribes, carpenters, potters, religious teachers, merchants, kings.
● • Artisans and traders organized themselves in guild or shrenis.
● • Trade both in the subcontinent and with east and north Africa, West Asia, South East
Asia, China.
● • India used to export spices, fine pearls, ivory, silk cloth, medicinal plants.
● • Exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of the coinage.
● Punch marked coins made of silver and copper were amongst the earliest to be minted
and used.
● • Magadha (in present-day Bihar) became the most powerful mahajanapada.
● • Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
● • Iron mines were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons.
● • Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forests in the region.
● • The Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient
communication.

● Angutara Nikaya, a Buddhist scripture mentions 16 great kingdoms or Mahajanapadas

at the beginning of the 6th century BCE in India.
● They emerged during the Vedic Age. The history of the emergence of Mahajanapadas
can be linked to the development of eastern Uttar Pradesh and western Bihar during the
6th to 4th century BCE where agriculture flourished due to the availability of fertile lands
and iron production increased due to availability of iron ore in large quantities.
● This resulted in the expansion of the territories of the Janapadas (due to the use of iron
weapons) and later addressed as 16 highly developed regions or the Mahajanapadas.
● The Janapadas were the major kingdoms of Vedic India. During that period, Aryans
were the most powerful tribes and were called ‘Janas’.
● This gave rise to the term Janapada where Jana means ‘people’ and Pada means ‘foot’.
●
● By the 6th century BCE, there were approximately 22 different Janapadas. Socio-
economic developments chiefly due to the use of iron tools in agriculture and military,
along with religious and political developments led to the rise of the Mahajanapadas
from small kingdoms or Janapadas.
● The people gained a strong allegiance to the territory or Janapada they belonged to
rather than the tribe or the jana.
● This period is also known as the era of second urbanisation, first being the Harappan
civilisation.
●
● During that period, the political centre shifted from the west of the Indo-Gangetic plains
to the eastern side of it.
● This was due to better fertility of the land because of more rainfall and rivers. Also, this
region was closer to iron production centres.
●
● List of 16 Mahajanapadas that arose before the rise of Buddhism in India:
●
● Mahajanapadas - 600 BCE

● Kasi
● Kosala
● Anga
● Magadha
● Vajji
● Malla
● Chedi/Cheti
● Vatsa
● Kuru
● Panchala
● Matsya
● Surasena/Shurasena
● Assaka
● Avanti
● Gandhara
● Kamboja
●
● In the course of time, smaller or weak kingdoms, and the republics were eliminated by
the stronger rulers.
● Vajji and Malla were Gana-Sanghas. The Gana-Sanghas had a government by
assembly and within the assembly they had oligarchy.
● In the 6th century only 4 powerful kingdoms remained:
●
● Magadha (Important rulers: Bimbisara, Ajatashatru)
● Avanti (Important ruler: Pradyota)
● Kosala (Important ruler: Prasenjit)
● Vatsa (Important ruler: Udayana)
● Later, all of them were annexed to or became part of Magadha.

● The Janapadas were the major kingdoms of Vedic India. By the 6th century B.C. there
were approximately 22 different Janapadas.

● Janapada and Mahajanapada

● The key points related to the Janapadas and the Mahajanapadas are as following:

● 1. The Janapadas were the major kingdoms of Vedic India.

● 2. Aryans were the most influential tribes and were called as ‘janas’. This gave rise to
the term Janapada where Jana means ‘people’ and Pada means ‘foot’.

● 3. By the 6th century B.C. there were approximately 22 different Janapadas.

● 4. With the development of iron in parts of UP and Bihar, the Janapadas became more
powerful and turned into Mahajanapads.

● 5. In the sixth century BCE, there was a rise in the development of the Mahajanapada or
great country. There were sixteen such Mahajanapadas during 600 B.C. to 325 B.C. in
Indian Sub-continent. There were two types of states: Monarchical and Republican.
●
●
● Malla, Vajji, Kamboja and Kuru were Republican states while Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa,
Aanti, Anga, Kashi, Gandhara, Shursena, Chedi and Matsya were monarchical in nature.
●
● There were 16 Mahajanpadas during 600 B.C. to 325 B.C. which are mentioned in early
Buddhist (Anguttara Nikaya, Mahavastu) and Jain literature (Bhagvati Sutta).
●
● Among them Magadha, Vatsa, Avanti and Kosala were the most prominent ones. Out of
these four, Magadha emerged as the most powerful kingdom.

● (1) Political:
● During the period of the Sixteen Mahajanapadas, the political administration in different
parts of India varied widely.
● The names of the heads of states or administration also necessarily varied. These were
King, Samrat, Virat, Swarat etc.

● The person who ascended the throne after holding Rajasuya Yajna was called King. He
might assume the title of Emperor by performing Rajasuya Yajna again.
●
● The king who would receive Indra’s unction would assume the title of Virat. Every king
would try to conquer territories in the neighbourhood and if he would succeed, he would
become an Ekarat. Kingship in the Age of the Sixteen Mahajanapada was generally
hereditary, but in certain cases the king used to be elected by the people. A king could
take as many as four wives. The chief queen was called Rajamahishi.

● Theoretically and legally the power of the king was unlimited. But in practice the king had
to carry on administration with the advice of the Brahmanas, the Ministers, the
Rajasabha and the villagers. The king had to do obeisance to the Brahmanas in the
open Court by descending from the throne. It may be mentioned that the Brahmanas of
that time were the repositories of culture and education and were held in highest
esteem.

● The kings were Kshatriyas by caste but their ministers were Brahmanas. In all matters of
administration the opinion of the Ministers was consulted. Samiti that is, the Assembly of
the people had also to be consulted. Politically speaking the opinion of the Assembly
was of great importance. There are instances where a despotic rulers had to abdicate
according to wishes of the Assembly. In extreme cases the king could be sentenced to
death by the Assembly of the people.

● Besides kingship, there were also republican states at that time. The Lichhavi, the Vriji,
Bhoga, Kaurava, Ikshaku etc. were republican states.

● (2) Social:
● With the spread of the Aryans all over India the social system naturally was re-
organised. But there was no uniformity in social customs and manners all over India.
The customs and manners of the people of the Gangetic valley were not acceptable to
the people of the south, nor even in the other parts of northern India. In the Gangetic
valley, the women had practically no liberty, but in other parts of India the women
enjoyed enough liberty in social life and were held in high esteem.

● In north-west India the rite of Sati, that is, burning of the widow in the funeral pyre of the
deceased husband was prevalent but was not followed in the Gangetic valley except in
very rare cases. In the Vedic times it was permissible for a male to take more than one
wife and this practice was followed in some areas during the Epic age but during the
period of the Sixteen Mahajanapadas the practice was looked down upon.
● Svayamvara, that is choosing the husband by the girl herself, was prevalent during the
Sixteen Mahajanapada period. Although in certain cases the women were not allowed to
go out of the family yet speaking generally the women enjoyed fullest liberty.

● As the society was largely agricultural, most of the people lived in villages. Only the king,
the Ministers, the members of the royal Court, the officers of the state used to live in the
well protected and walled up city which was the capital of the country. The walled capital
had observation towers at places. These were defensive measures.
●
● Within the city there were wide roads, pleasure halls where game of dice used to be
played, pleasure garden, hall of justice, dancing hall etc. The royal palace was made of
wood. The royal princess and the daughters of high officials used to play the game of
Kunduk that is foot-ball. Young men liked to play Kunduk and vita, that is foot-ball and
hockey. Hunting, game of dice, sword play, listening to tales of warfare and of heroes
were the prevalent pastimes.

● The dress of the males had three parts, namely, Abharan, that is, cloth to cover the body
from waist downwards, Orna, that is a piece cloth to cover the upper part of the body
and Shirabharan, that is, the head dress. The dress of the females consisted of two
parts, the lower garment and the garment for the upper part of the body. Men used to
grow beard and use certain: types of ornaments. Women, particularly of the higher
classes would use neck-chain, bangles, girdles, nose-studs etc. Use of umbrella and
shoes was known at that time.

● The caste system was prevalent and was gradually hardening into extreme
conservatism, but during the period of the Sixteen Mahajanapadas the caste division did
not give rise to any class animosity. Although marriage within one’s own caste was
generally preferred, yet there was no bar to inter-caste marriages. But towards the end
of the period inter-caste marriage was strictly prohibited. The authority of the Brahmanas
during this period was turning towards autocratic control over the society.

● (3) Economic:
● The basis of the economic life of the period was agriculture. One-tenth of the, produce of
the soil had to be paid as land revenue. The agricultural land was divided into small plots
and for the purpose of irrigation, cultivation and conservation of water cooperative
system was followed. Famine was not altogether unknown but it was of very rare
occurrence.

● Besides agriculture, animal husbandry was an important source of economic life. Arts
and industries like ivory work, mural painting, stone-carving etc. were highly developed
at that time. Business was carried on both within and without the country. Bharuch,
Tamralipti, Sopara etc. were the important ports of the time through which water-borne
trade with Burma, Ceylon, Malaya, Babylonia etc. was carried on. Silk, gold,
embroidered cloth were the principal merchandise. There are proofs of co-operative
 system in the trade and commerce of the period. The medium of exchange was copper
and silver Karshapana. The silver Karshapana was also known as Dharan. A silver
Karshapana was one-tenth in value of the Vedic Niska.

● (4) Religious:
● In religion there was a great change during that period. Worship of new gods and
goddesses as also the cult of Devotion prevailed during the period. Animal sacrifice was
made to some gods and goddesses but there was a strong feeling against the practice.
Some religious-minded people also preached against animal sacrifice as a part of
religion. The most important characteristic of the religious life of the time was the belief
in Karmafal and rebirth.
●
● The worship of Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesvar was taking shape during this period. The
Vedic religion had by that time become observance of certain rituals which were
practically meaningless to the people. The Brahmanas were exercising a tremendous
control over the social and religious life of the people of the time. The complexities of the
Vedic religion and the autocratic control of the priestly class, that is, the Brahmanas,
made thoughtful people to seek for a simpler, intelligible religion.
●