THE HINDU CIVILIZATION
The physical features of india
The early civilizations of india
The invasion of india and the rise of the dynasties
The muslim and the mongol invaders
Nestled in Indus Valley in Western India, the Indus Civilization flourished from about 2500 BC to
1700 BC. It covered larger area than modern Pakistan.
The Indus Civilization declined in 1900 BC under pressure from a new people, the Aryans. The
Indo- European speaking Aryans entered the area from Eastern Iran by 1500 BC.
The Physical Features of India
Geographical Location
India lies as a subcontinent on the Southern part of Asia. This great triangular
peninsula stretches southward for 2,000 miles from the icy heights of the Himalayas into the Indian
Ocean. It has a total area of 1,581,410 miles and can find the world’s highest peaks, largest and wettest
plains, hottest and coldest regions.
This great land mass is occupied by the two independent states of India and
Pakistan which were founded on August 15, 1947 when Great Britain withdrew its sovereignty from the
Indian continent.
The Natural Regions
The subcontinent is conveniently divided into three natural regions, namely: the
Hindustan; the Deccan and the Far South or Tamil Land.
The Hindustan
The Hindustan is a vast plain which lies south of Himalayas. The Himalayas,
which rise abruptly from this plain, form the greatest mountain mass in the world. The mount Everest,
one of the highest in the world rises to more than 29, 000 feet in nearby Nepal.
The Hindustan is bounded by two rivers, the Indus to the west and the Ganges,
which sometimes called the HOLY RIVER, to the north. These two great rivers both rise from Tibet in the
high Himalayan system. The region is well watered and fertile, and supports a large proportion of the
population of India. There arose the oldest center of Hindus civilization.
The Deccan
South of the Hindustan is an extensive lava plateau called the Deccan. It has an
average elevation of 2,000 feet above sea level in most places. The east and west side of the Deccan
appear as mountains from the coast and are called Eastern Deccan appear as mountains from the coast
and are called Eastern and Western Ghats.
Tamil Land
The Tamil of Far South extends to the tip of the subcontinent and includes the
tropical coastal strips.
The Climate
Since India is a large land mass that extends for 2,000 miles from the temperate north to
the tropical south, there is a wide variation of climate. Aside from the difference in latitude, several
other factors control the variation of the climate.
During winter, the lofty heights of the Himalayas, protect India from the cold winds
blowing down from Siberia. This air has had a little opportunity to absorb moisture by evaporation.
Hence, during winter, India becomes cool and dry with little or no rainfall in most parts.
During summer, the land mass of Asia is warmed up rapidly by the hot sun and as the
warm air over the land rises, moist, warmer air is sucked in from Indian Ocean. Upon reaching land, this
wet monsoon provides heavy rainfall to most part of the Deccan. Nearly all rain comes between June
and September. On the other hand, in some parts to the far north, particularly in the Indus Valley and
the adjoining Thar desert, the climate is as dry as the Sahara of Africa.
Natural Resources
Nature has been bountiful to India. Its soil is fertile and the land has abundant
natural resources. Its rich mineral deposits are barely exploited. It contains 25% of the world’s reserves
of iron, 80% of mica, the second largest reserves of bauxite from which aluminum is produced and the
third largest deposit of magnesium. India rank first in the production of peanut and tea and second in
rice, jute and raw sugar. But other agricultural products such as grains,spices, rubber, coffee, coconut
and cotton are important too.
The Early Civilizations of India
For almost 1,000 years, from around 2500 BC to around 1700 BC, a civilization flourished
on the valley of the Indus River and its tributaries, extending as far to the northeast as Delhi and South
Gujarat. The Indus Civilization is thought to have undergone a swift decline after 1800 BC, although the
cause of the decline is still unknown; theories point to extreme climatic changes or natural disasters.
The Harappan Civilization
The earliest known civilization in India which started at about 3000 BC. It was confined
to the valley of the river Indus, hence the name given to it was Indus Valley civilization. This civilization
was a highly developed urban one and two of its towns, Mohenjodaro and Harappa, represent the high
watermark of the settlements. This civilization is now better known as the Harappan Civilization.
Mohenjodaro and Harappa are now in Pakistan and the principal sites in India include Ropar in Punjab,
Lothal in Gujarat and Kalibangan in Rajasthan.
The Early Civilizations of India
Urban Development
The emergence of this civilization is as remarkable as its stability for nearly a thousand
years. All cities were well planned and were built with baked bricks of the same size; the streets were
laid at right angles with elaborate system of covered drains. There was a fairly clear division of localities
and houses were earmarked for the upper and lower strata of the society. There were also public
buildings, the most famous being the Great Bath at Mohenjodaro and the vast granaries. Production of
several metal such as copper, bronze, lead and tin was also undertaken and some remnants of furnaces
provide evidence of this fact. The discovery of kilns to make bricks support the fact that burnt bricks
were used extensively in domestic and public buildings.
The Early Civilizations of India
Occupations
Evidence also points to the use of domesticated animals, including camels, goats, water
buffaloes and fowls. The Harappans cultivated wheat, barley, peas and sesamum and were probably the
first to grow and make clothes from cotton. Trade seemed to be a major activity at the Indus valley and
the sheer quantity of seals discovered suggest that merchant or merchantile family owned its own seal.
These seals are in quadrangle shapes and sizes, each with a human or an animal figure carved on it.
Discoveries suggest that the Harappan civilization had extensive trade relations with the neighboring
regions in India and with distant lands in the Persian Gulf and Sumer.
The Early Civilizations of India
Society and Religion
The Harappan society was probably divided according to occupations and this also
suggests the existence of an organized government. The figures of the deities on seals indicate that the
Harappans worshipped gods and goddesses in male and female forms and has also evolved some rituals
and ceremonies. No monumental sculpture survives, but a large number of human figurines have
discovered, including a steatite bust of a man thought to be a priest, and a striking bronze dancing girl.
Countless terra-cotta statues of Mother Goddess have been discovered suggesting that she was
worshipped in nearly every home.
The Slow Demise of Harappan Civilization
By about 1700 BC, the Harappan culture was on the decline, due to repeated flooding of
towns located on the river banks and due to ecological changes which forced agriculture to yield the
spreading desert. Some historians do not rule out invasions by barbarian tribes of the northwest as the
cause of the people into Indian began about 1500 BC, the developed Harappan culture had already been
practically wiped out.
The Early Civilizations of India
The Vedic Aryans
They are known to be the unruly, warlike people who took many centuries to build a
civilization that rivalled that of the Harappans. The Aryans concentrated on assaulting Harappan
settlements and different Aryan tribal groups. Though they conserved some Harappan beliefs and
symbols, the Aryan invaders did little to restore or replace the great cities and engineering systems of
the people they have supplanted.
The beginning of the Aryans’ dominance in the region 1500 BC to 500 BC is called the
Vedic Period. The leader of the Aryans was called a Rajah. The Rajah was advised by a council which
played a great part in governing the tribe. The Rajahs during the Vedic period were semi-legendary
figures and not much is known about their reign except for the frequent wars between tribes.
The Early Civilizations of India
The Vedic Literature
The Vedas (knowledge) are a large corpus of texts originating in ancient India.
Vedic texts are traditionally categorized into four classes: the Samhitas (mantras),
Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. Also classified as “Vedic” is certain Sutra Literature, i.e, the
Shrautasutras and Grhyasutras.
1. The Samhita- are collections of metric texts (mantras). Includes four Vedic Samhitas namely Rig-
Veda, Sam-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda.
2. The Brahmanas- are prose texts containing observations on religious rites and sacrifices.
3. The Aranyakas- contains religious and philosophical ideas and books of instructions for the old
hermits of the forest.
4. The Upanishads- are also books of instructions given by a father to his son or the teacher to his
pupil. Also contains philosophical ideas on the universal truth.
The Early Civilizations of India
The Sanskrit Epics
The two greatest epics of ancient India were the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The
Mahabharata is the longest epic in the world literature. It tells the tale of the five brothers’ struggle to
recover the throne from the wicked cousins.
The Ramayana is shorter and a story of Prince Rama whose wife was abducted by
Ravana, the demon god of Ceylon. Rama invaded Ceylon with an army of monkeys and was able to
rescue his wife Siva and killed his enemy. He returned to India with his victorious army of monkeys.
The Early Civilizations of India
The Caste System
A system in India which was done through intermarriage and intermingling with the
natives. The Indo-Aryans soon saw that they would be absorbed by the more numerous Dravidians
whom they considered inferior. To keep their dominant positions, the Aryans permitted only their own
people to become priests, warriors and craftsmen. These restrictions marked the beginning of the Caste
System which divided the people of India into rigid social classes. With the development of Hinduism the
caste system was adopted as an integral part of the religion.
The growth of the caste system later led to the social stratification of the Aryans and the
native Dravidians. The members of each class had their own dharma- certain rights and duties, a certain
place in society. The four social classes were 1. The Brahmins or priests; 2. The Kshatriyas or warriors; 3.
The Vaishyas consisting of merchants and farmers; and 4. The Sudras, the artisans and laborers. No one
is allowed to leave the cast into which he was born.
The Early Civilizations of India
Hinduism
Hinduism is the first and most ancient of the major religions in India and was founded by
the Indo-Aryans. It began with the Indo- Aryans worshipping different deities of nature from whom they
asked favour. Thus, India has 300 million gods and goddesses representing natural forces and
personified gods to suit human needs. Hindus believe that these gods intercede for man, thus, favors
must be won through offerings, prayers, and rituals.
The Birth of Buddhism
In the 6th century was born a philosopher and religious reformer who founded one of
the greatest religions, Buddhism. His name was Prince Siddharta Gautama who was born in Lumbini,
Nepal. He was the son of the head of the Sakya warrior caste, in later life he was known also as
Sakyamuni. The name Gautama Buddha is a combination of the family name Gautama and the
appellation Buddha, meaning, “Enlightened One”.
Invasion of India and the Rise of the Dynasties
By about the 7th century BC, territories combined and grew, giving rise to larger
kingdoms that stretched from what is now Afghanistan to what is now the state Bihar. Cities became
important during this time, and, shortly thereafter, systems of writing developed. Reform schools of
Hinduism emerged, challenging the orthodox practices of the Vedic tradition and presenting alternative
religious world views. Two of those schools developed into separate religions: Buddhism and Jainism.
So here are the dynasties that rose during the Invasion of India:
The Persian Invasion of India
At the end of the 6th century BC, Darius the Great sent a Persian army to India and
conquered the Aryan Kingdoms of the Indus Valley. As a result of this conquest, the Persian introduced
Aramaic writing and other Persian culture. Also Zoroastrianism under the name of Parseeism. After
nearly 200 years of rule, the Persian empire declined and the conquered Hindu states regained their
independence.
Invasion of India and the Rise of the Dynasties
The Greek Invasion
In 326 BC, Alexander the Great, after conquering Persia, moved east and conquered
Northern India. He fought his way into the Indus Valley and in less than two years of campaign, he
annexed the little Kingdoms in the region to his vast empire. Alexander wanted to push and continue his
conquest up to China or Southeast Asia but was forced to turn back because of the unwillingness of his
tired and weary soldiers. He returned to Persia in 324 BC and a year later, he died and with his death, all
his colonies that he conquered did not last long.
Invasion of India and the Rise of the Dynasties
The Rise of Indian Dynasties
The Mauryan Dynasty
After Alexander’s death, a strong Hindu leader named Changdragupta came into power
and founded the first Hindu empire, the Mauryan Empire. In 322 BC, he seized the throne of Magadha, a
leading kingdom in Northern India near the modern city of Patna, Changdragupta expanded his kingdom
covering the whole Indo- Gangetic Plain. When Asoka died in 232 BC, the Mauryan Empire made a
decline which started the so called Dark Age of India.
The Sunga and Kanva Dynasties
The Mauryan dynasty was replaced by the Sunga Dynasty in 183 BC. General Pushamitra
Sunga became king and restored the Vedic tradition. They persecuted their Buddhist subjects at one
time or another and many of whom migrated elsewhere. After the fall of Sunga Dynasty and the short-
lived Kanva Dynasty 73-30 BC there followed another period of chaos.
Invasion of India and the Rise of the Dynasties
The Kushan Dynasty
With the downfall of the Sunga Dynasty, other tribes continued to conquer India. One of
these was the Yueh-chih who were forced out of Mongolia in 175 BC by the Huns. At the height of their
power, the Kushans ruled northern India as far south as the Narvada River. The greatest Kushan ruler
was Kanishka who was a patron of Buddha and the arts. His death eventually led to the downfall of the
Kushan Dynasty as all his successors were weaklings.
The Guptan Dynasty
In 321 AD, Chandragupta I rose from power. At the zenith of its power, the Gupta
empire covered all of the Northern India, and while it is not so extensive as the empire Asoka, it
achieved a high degree of stability and prosperity. The Gupta era is known as the Golden Age of
Hinduism as the Hindu religion gained popular favour and soon triumphed over Buddhism through the
patronage of the Gupta rulers.
Invasion of India and the Rise of the Dynasties
The Rajput Kingdom in the North
Again, for the next five centuries, India was plunged into anarchy and chaos. Many
kingdoms rose and fell from the ruins of the Gupta Empire with none of them strong enough to unite
the states into an empire. In 860, a group of allied kingdoms were established by the Rajput clans in the
area east of the Indus. The Rajputs called their land Rajputans. Nevertheless, until the Mohammedans
came in the 12th century, no really strong power appeared during this long period of political confusion
and instability.
The Muslim and Mongol Invaders
Islam was brought to India by the Muslims from the Persian Gulf in 711 AD. Several
muslim invasions took Islam into the heart of India up to Delhi. By the 14 th century, Islamic kings ruled
over a kingdom as large as Asoka’s Maurya empire.
The Islamization of India
Muhammad of Ghur also called Muizuddin Muhammad ibn Sam or Shihabuddin
Muhammad Ghori, muslim conqueror of India. In 1173 Muhammad rose to control the Turkish Ghurid
Empire, centered in what is now west central Afghanistan. Finding his ambitions to control Central Asia
blocked by other Turkish- influenced states, he embarked on yearly raids into northern India, which was
then largely Hindu. In 1991 he was dealt a major defeat by a confederation of Indian princes in present
day Haryana State. However, Muhammad fought the princes again at the same site the next year and
won a convincing victory. In 1931 his armies pushed as far as Bihar in the northeastern India, thus
making Muhammad the dominant power in northern India.
The Muslim and Mongol Invaders
Other Moslem Dynasties
In 1290, a new dynasty, the Khalji (1200-1320) overthrew the Slave Dynasty. It lasted for
only 30 years, but within this relatively short span of time, it extended Moslem supremacy to the
Deccan.
In 1398 the Mongol conqueror Timur the Tartar (Tamerlane) invaded India, sacking Delhi
and massacring its inhabitants. Tamerlane withdrew from the India shortly after the sack of Delhi,
leaving the remnants of the empire to Mahmud Tughluq, who as last of the Tughluqs ruled from 1399 to
1413. The anarchy of that followed the sacking of Northern India brought about the downfall of the
Tughluq Dynasty. Mahmud was succeeded by the Sayyid dynasty under which the Delhi Sultanate shrank
to virtually nothing.
The Muslim and Mongol Invaders
The Rise of the Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire was founded in 1526 by Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane. It is
famous for its extent ( it covered most of the Indian subcontinent) and for the heights that music,
literature, art and especially architecture reached under its rulers. The Mughal Empire was born when
the Babur, with the use of superior artillery, defeated the far larger army of the Lodis at Panipat, near
Delhi.
The Reign of Akbar
The greatest Mogul of India was Akbar the Great (1556-1605), grandson of Babur.
Although Akbar’s long reign marked by continuous wars of conquest, he was able to bring nearly all of
India under Moslem control. Inspite of his military aggressions, Akbar proved to be kind and wise
emperor. He gave India one of the best governments in her long history. Laws were humanized, taxes
were reduced and all religions were tolerated. After 49 years of rule, the invading team disillusioned by
the revolts that rocked the country. The Mogul Empire broke up into individual states.
The Muslim and Mongol Invaders
Ancient Hindu Health Practices
India’s medical system, Ayurveda, meaning “Knowledge of Life” began about 2400 years
ago and reached its basic present form by 500 A.D. It is mainly based on the Charake Samhita and
Susruta Samhita texts, traditionally ascribed to the Physician Charaka and the surgeon Susruta.
In Ayurvedic medicine, illness is seen as an imbalance of the body’s main humours; bile,
phlegm, and wind. They are treated with herbs, minerals, operations, ritual chants and offerings.
Nowhere in the Ancient world were surgery is as sophisticated as in India. Through
amputation punishment, surgeons were able to gain experience and practice in cosmetic surgery. For
internal surgery, black ants which secrete an acid with strong antiseptic qualities, were used as clips
instead of stitches.
The Muslim and Mongol Invaders
The Moslem Influence Upon India
The Moguls brought into India the Persian culture which gradually merged with the
ancient native culture. The Persian influences are reflected in Hindu architecture and painting. A new
style combining features of Hindu and Moslem architecture is seen in the mosques which have massive
and imposing gateway, slanting walls and which usually lack the minarets characteristic of Moslem
practices of keeping their women in harem. Many low caste Hindus and untouchables embraced the
new religion because Mohammedanism recognized no caste system.
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