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CORE CONCEPTS IN ENGLlSH LANGUAGE TEACHING
 Contents

Introduction 6 13 Articles 36
Essential Teacher Knowledge and the TKT 8- What are articles? • Using the indefinite article •
Using the definite article • No article / zero article •
ative speaker or non-native speaker?
A lANGUAGE 11 14 Quantifiers 38
What are quantifiers? . Quantifiers, nouns, sentences and
Grammar questions • Quantifiers plus! • Praise, medals and rewards
15 Introducing adjectives 40
1 What's in a sentence? 12 What are adjectives? • Making adjectives •
Parts of speech • Sentence elements • Getting things in How adjectives work· Do you like being corrected?
the right order • Teaching ideas: word order 16 What comes after nouns? 42
2 How we use clauses 14 Before and after • Describing nouns • Participles (and
Main clauses and subordinate clauses • Clause functions gerunds) • Technophile or technophobe? • Teaching
and meanings • Relative clauses • Conditional clauses • ideas: post-modification
Teaching ideas: conditional clauses 17 Teaching the noun phrase 44
3 Asking questions 16 Elements of the noun phrase • Making noun phrases
Saying yes, saying no • Different types of questions •
LearningEnglish by telephone and Skype
Lexis and vocabulary
4 Introducing verbs 18
Types of verb • How verbs are made • Verbs in 18 What words mean 46
combination • Total physical response What does head mean? • How head is related to other
5 Verb tenses (form and meaning) 20 words • Teaching ideas: word meaning
How verbs show time· One form, many meanings • 19 How words are formed 48
One meaning, many forms • The homework issue Making words from different bits and pieces •
6 Aspect 22 Teaching ideas: word formation • American and British
What is aspect? • Simple and continuous • Perfect English • Bullying
verbs • Burnout 20 Collocation and lexical phrases 50
7 Teaching verbs (and adverbs) 24 Words alone, words together • Lexical phrases, lexical
Teaching ideas· Teaching the present continuous and chunks • Why collocations and chunks matter •
present simple- Teaching the present perfect • Teaching Being observed
the future • Teaching the past simple· Teaching the 21 Metaphor, idiom, proverb and cliché 52
past continuous and the past simple· Teaching the Describing one thing as something else • More about
past perfect • Teaching used to • Teaching the passive • metaphors • Teaching ideas: idiom and metaphor
Teaching adverbs 22 Meeting and remembering words 54
8 Auxiliaries and modals 26 How do students remember words? • Examples of
Auxiliaries and modal auxiliaries • What modal word-remembering activities
auxiliaries mean • How modal verbs behave •
Modal verbs and modality· Using the students'
language - their Ll • Teaching ideas: modal verbs Pronunciation
9 Multi-word and phrasal verbs 28
23 The phonemic alphabet 56
What are multi-word verbs? • Four types of phrasal
Sounds and spelling • The phonemic alphabet •
verb • Teaching ideas: phrasal verbs • When war
Using phonemic symbols in teaching· Should
breaks out!
students learn the phonemic alphabet?
10 Verb complementation 30
24 Where sounds are made 58
Verb + verb • Reporting what people say • Other ways
Making consonants • What vocal cords are for • Making
of reporting conversations • Substitution can be fun
vowels • Making diphthongs • Show, explain or listen?
11 Introducing adverbs 32
25 Sounds in combination 60
What is an adverb? • How to make one-word
Sounds alone, sounds together • Do students have to
adverbs • Where we put adverbs • Teaching ideas:
learn sounds together? • Teaching ideas: contractions
adverbs • Using drama in the classroom
26 Stress 62
U Introducing nouns 34
AlI words have a stressed syllable • AlI phrases have a
Different kinds of noun • Pronouns • The pronoun
main stressed syllable • We can change where and
gender problem
how we place stress in a phrase • Showing stress·
Giving presentations
2
 64 43 Motivation 98
- -- imonation? • What do pitch and intonation The importance of motivation • Where motivation
- -- owing intonation comes from • Sustaining motivation
- -=- -g sounds 66
=~~~_'llli.hing between sounds
- -::- -g stress and intonation 68 C TEACHING LANGUAGE
=t::w:~ srress and intonation patterns ANO LANGUAGE SKILLS 101

a d discourse 44 Introducing new language 1 102

A popular way of introducing new language •
.:-::ge functions 70 An example of PPP in action • Teaching ideas:
- e ay and what we mean • Language and showing language construction
_ =~ functions • Teaching language functions • 45 Introducing new language 2 104
z: ideas: functional dialogues Ways of introducing new language • Alternatives to
-e- and spoken English 72 introducing new language
;;;!J::;;u,."::..il.!!~ or writing? • Differences between speaking 46 Researching new language 106
;;;;-:jring• Punctua tion Making discoveries • Puzzling it our - Looking for
-j<
information (research) • Mining texts • Accidental
- : -- genre? • How do we know about genre? • meetings • Teaching ideas: research • Teaching ideas:
- = ideas: genre mining a text
_ -E r 76 47 Repetition and drilling 108
-- - ~ register? • What do u think? R txt msgs gr8 Repetition: choral and individual· Drills and drilling •
How much repetition and drilling is the right amount? •
es - and coherence 78 An example of choral repetition • An example of a ',-
cue-response drill . An example of a question and p
-- :. - cohesion? • What is coherence? • Teaching
_ 2 ion and coherence • Going to conferences answer cue-response drill • Have a good mumble!
48 Practising new language 1 110
Controlled practice • Sentence activities •
Dictation • Dictogloss • Matching activities
49 Practising new language 2 112
Practice of specific language items • Story chains •
Interviewing each other • Quizzes • Games
ceople learn languages 1 82
sirion and learning • Why do es the difference SO Practising new language 3 114
~ acquisition and learning matter? • Which way Information-gap activities
-: • How Fernando learnt English 51 Teaching speaking 1 116
ce pie learn languages 2 84 The reasons for speaking activities • Building the
ethods • How people learn; how people teach • speaking habit • Interview • Turning on the inner voice
- _-:tory • Pavlov's dogs 52 Teaching speaking 2 118
=e-:s make mistakes 86 Discussions • Reaching a consensus • The teacher's
-= - . make mistakes • Why do learners make role in speaking activities • Turn-taking
'=~,.,-es;. What kind of mistakes do learners make? • 53 Teaching speaking 3 120
--.- do mistakes look like? • Do mistakes matter? Telling stories • Making oral presentations •
-2~ -g at different ages 88 Simulation and roleplay
learners • Adult and older learners • 54 Teaching reading 1 122
-==--c; ;.:- ••• ·ents • Tips for teaching young learners • The need for reading • Extensive reading • Intensive
.: - teaching adults • Tips for teaching teenagers reading
~ _=e-t-centred teaching 90 SS Teaching reading 2 124
-:::---- :-=gbt priorities • Personalisation, agency and learner What texts should we give students for intensive
». o Talking about adults • Talking about teenagers reading? • What to do before students read a text •
_=-=-Er characteristics 92 Reading activities
..:.--.;~ to know our students • The good learner • 56 Teaching reading 3 126
- .~ about differences • What to do about student Responding to a text • More comprehension •
==-::ences Language questions • Follow-up tasks
: -e ent contexts, different levels 94 57 Teaching writing 1 128
~nt kinds of English learning • Language levels The importance of accuracy • Teaching the 'nuts and
'-::-:5= and mixed-ability classes 96 bolts' of writing • The process of writing
- caing large classes • Teaching mixed-ability classes
3
 58 Teaching writing 2 130 73 Correcting speaking 1 162
Encouraging writing· Spontaneous writing· Different kinds of correction • Students correct
Students writing together • Pictures and writing • themselves • Students correct each other •
Music and writing Reformulation· From correction to (re)teaching·
59 Teaching writing 3 132 The Silent \Vay
Producing a finished product • Preparing for writing • 74 Correcting speaking 2 164
From analysis to production • Portfolio writing • When should we correct? • Correcting while the activity
Writing journals • Blogs, wikis and contacts is taking place· Making a record of what is being said •
60 Teaching listening 1 134 Correcting after the event • Correcting for the future
The importance of listening • Types of listening • 75 Correcting writing 166
Audio devices and who uses them • How often should How much to correct· What to correct· Using
students listen? correction symbols • Other kinds of correction
61 Teaching listening 2 136 76 Homework 168
Prediction • Before listening • Listening tasks The magic ofhomework· What kind ofhomework? •
62 Teaching listening 3 138 Using mobile devices for homework • Making
Listening again • Listening again: language matters • homework 'work' for students • Making homework
Extensive listening • Using video 'work' for teachers
63 Using poetry 140 77 Using the Ll 170
Choosing the right poems • Predicting poetry • Ll in the classroom· Some background facts •
Poetry and language • Poetry and meaning· Arguments against using the students' Ll in the
Writing poems classroom • Arguments in favour of using the students'
64 Using music and drama 142 Ll in the classroom· An Ll 'policy' • Translation
Using songs and music • Talking about music and activities • Teaching ideas: translating a poem
songs • Being careful with music • Using drama 78 Teacher development 172
Continuous professional development • Burnout just
around the corner? • Doing it ourselves • Doing it
D MANAGING LEARNING with others
AND TEACHING 145
65 Teacher roles 146
E PLANNING, RESOURCES
A variety of roles· The teacher's role, the teacher's AND ASSESSMENT 175
place· What scaffolding means
66 Teachers and students 148 79 Planning lessons 176
Establishing rapport • The teacher in the classroom • Different attitudes to planning • To plan or not to
Celebrating success • Respecting students plan? • What are lessons like? • What goes into a plan?
67 Where students sit 150 80 Planning sequences 178
What classrooms look like • Working alone, working Lesson shapes, stages and sequence • Planning a
together • Putting students into pairs and groups sequence of lessons • ESA· SyIlabus, curriculum, course
68 Teacher language 152 81 Using coursebooks 180
Who does the talking in class? • The teacher's voice • The coursebook issue • Thinking about the next
Giving instructions • Teaching ideas: demonstrating a coursebook • How to choose a coursebook •
Find someone who ... activity Using coursebooks
69 Giving instructions, checking meaning 154 82 Using dictionaries 182
Giving instructions • Checking instructions • Different kinds of dictionary • What students can find
Checking meaning • An example of instruction giving in good learners' dictionaries • Using dictionaries with
70 Classroom moments 156 students
How to start a lesson • When students are late· 83 Supplementary materials and activities 184
When the class needs to be quiet • Finishing the lesson Why use supplementary materials and activities? •
71 Discipline 158 What supplementary materials can teachers use? •
Reasons for discipline problems • Preventing Deciding what materials and activities to take
discipline problems • But when there are discipline into class • Deciding on games
problems, what then? 84 Teaching without materials 186
72 Giving feedback 160 Teaching unplugged • Why teaching without
Teacher feedback· Acknowledgement and evaluation • materials is a good idea· Why teaching without
Going further • Which kind of feedback· Giving materials may not be a good idea· What the teacher
feedback on written work needs to do when teaching without materials •
Examples of materials-light teaching
4
 : assroom teehnology 1 188 100 Topies and themes 220
-~-ching with technology • Deciding what technology Planning around a subject • Thinking about topics
ese . Using boards and other 'showing' technology and themes • Themes, topics and activities
: sssroom teehnology 2 190 101 Assessing young learners 222
~--= ~ pictures, cards and strips of paper Using realia
>
Why we test young learners • Continuous assessment .
- other devices ~Mobile learning Students assess themselves • Types of test items
: zssroom teehnology 3 192
- ~are in the classroom • Researching online (and
mobile devices) • Making recordings • Presenting G CONTENT ANO LANGUAGE
z e' Using internet programs for learning and
INTEGRATEO LEARNING 225
social interaction • Using virtuallearning environments
- . learning platforms • Blended learning
102 Introdueing CLll 226
- ssessrnent and testing 194 What is CLIL? • CLIL methodoIogy • How is CLIL
ing students • Types of assessment • Designing offered around the world (and who teaches it)? •
~ making tests How to make CLIL successful
"ssr items and how to teaeh them 196 103 The language of cui 228
of test item • Direct test items • Indirect test Types of language Grammar and CLIL· Language
>

• How to prepare students for tests for a purpose

a-king and grading tests 198 104 Genre in CLll 230
_J.....~ t the rest - The trouble with marking and how to
Language functions and tasks . Genre and CLIL •
'::ealwith it • Using assessment scales • Involving the Helping students to understand and produce genre
smdents features
105 Using visual organisers 232
Presenting information in a visual way • Why visual
IF rThCf.tING organisers matter • Types of visual organiser
l~RNERS 106 Materials and resourees for CLll 234
Differences between materials for CLIL and general
eseribing young learners 202 English • Adapting materials for CLIL • CLIL
Theories of learning and child development • How resources
;oung are young learners? • Instructional scaffolding • 107 Teaehing cui 236
Children aged five to seven • Children aged ten The teacher's responsibilities • How teachers can
- ' above help students with language • How teachers can help
he language c1assroom 204 students with cognitive skills • How CLIL teachers
Creating the right conditions for language learning • encourage good learning
The classroom as a learning environment • 108 cuí aetivities 238
~ ... e examples of useful classroom English Balancing activities • Cats and dogs • Rivers • Music,
ovement, games and special friends 206 anyone? • Life on the edge
~lovement • Special friends • Games 109 Planning CLlL 240
e ants, rhymes and songs 208 Planning CLIL lessons • Üutcomes and demands •
Chants and rhymes- Songs and singing Lesson shapes • What goes into a CLIL lesson plan
.anguage teaehing with young learners 210 110 Assessing CLlL 242
Teaching language to children • Some examples of Types of assessment • What is special about assessing
language teaching sequences CLIL? • Supporting students in CLIL assessment •
Young learner listening 212 Some CLIL test types • Students assessing
The importance of listening • Listen and do • Listen themselves and each other
for information • Stories
Young learner speaking 214 Appendix A: Going further 244
Creating confident speakers • Speaking activities • Appendix B: Language for managing c1assrooms 247
torytelling • Using drama and playacting
Appendix C: Lesson planning 250
Young learner reading 216
Encouraging reading • Learning sounds, learning Glossdex 257
words • A few things that young learners can do with
reading • Reading aloud • Let students read!
99 Young learner writing 218
The value of writing • Copying activities •
Dictation • Portfolio writing (and other writing tasks)
 Introduction

Welcome to Essential Teacher Knowledge (ETK). This book is written for people around the
world who teach (or are going to teach) English. We have designed it to be useful to teachers
of adults, teenagers and young learners - whether they are teaching general English or CLIL.
ETK is especially useful (but not only) for teachers who have English as a second language.

1 What is in Essential Teacher Knowledge?

• ETK has 110 units about the English language and about how to teach it. The units
describe practical classroom ideas as well as the ideas (the theory) behind them.
• There is an accompanying DVD. You can watch examples of teachers at work, and
you can hear teachers from around the world talking about how they do things.
• We have divided ETK into separate sections so that it is easier to use. For example, if
you want to improve your knowledge of English grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation
or text and discourse (the 'nuts and bolts' of the language), then you can look at the
units in Section A. If, however, you are thinking of teaching CLIL (content and
language integrated learning), then you will be more interested in Section G. Teachers
who work (or will work) with young learners will find Section F especiaIly relevant.
• However, many of the topics that we deal with are important in more than one area.
Topics such as planning matter whether you teach adults, teenagers or children. As a
result, there are units on planning in general (Units 79 and 80); there is a unit (100),
on using topics and themes for planning young learner lessons; and we discuss
planning for CLIL in U nit 109.
• Most of the unit topics in Section D (Managing learning and teaching) are just as
relevant for teaching children and teenagers as they are for teaching adults. They will
be just as interesting for CLIL teachers as they are for anyone else!
• When you are reading ETK you will often see technical terms written like this:
PAIRWORK. This means that you can find the word in the Glossdex (pages 257-287).
The Glossdex entry for pairwork looks like this (the numbers are the unit numbers in
which pairwork is mentioned):
pair, pairwork when two students work together -+22,26,39,42,46,56,58,
67,79,86,89,93,102,107,109
• We give references to help you move around the book. For example, in Unit 43 (on
motivation) you will find this: extensive reading -+54. This means that if you go to
Unit 54, you will find more information about extensive reading.
• If you see m'!mf), it means that you can look at Teaching Techniques track 12 on the
DVD to see examples of teaching.
• If you see lID, it means that you can go to track 10 in the audio section of our
website (www.pearsonELT.com/ETK) to hear an audio clip.

2 How to use Essential Teacher Knowledge

You can use the units in ETK in any way you choose, of course. However, we have some
suggestions about how the book can be most effective.
• You can choose the section that is most relevant to you and read the units in that section.
• You can look at the Contents list and choose the units that .sound interesting to you.
• You can foIlow the references between the units (such as extensive reading -+54,
mentioned above).
• You can look at the Glossdex and search for topics that interest you. For example, if
you are interested in pairwork, you can foIlow up all the unit references that you find
there to learn a lot about the use of pairwork in a variety of different contexts.

6
• You can watch the film clips on the DVD in any sequence that you want. However, it
may be helpful if you wait until you find references to the DVD (such as m!lm»)
in
the units and then watch the video excerpts. They will make more sense because you
can read about the techniques and procedures which they show.

3 The lives of teachers

In Section A we look at how the English language works.
• Language (grarnmar, vocabulary, pronunciation and text and discourse) is
contextualised in short stories about a variety of teachers from around the world.
• We also discuss various topics (such as homework, discipline, teacher burnout, etc.) in
connection with the stories about teachers' lives.

4 Practical teaching ideas

Section C (Teaching language and language skills) contains many different examples of
practical techniques and activities. But this is not the only place where such ideas can
be found.
• In Units 7 and 17 we discuss different grammar teaching ideas.
• In Unit 22 we look at ideas for meeting and remembering words.
• In Units 28 and 29 we show ideas for teaching pronunciation.
• In Units 93-99 we look at classroom activities for young learners.
• In Unit 108 we look at activities for CLIL learners

5 Teachers' voices
In the Teachers' Voices section of the DVD you will find clips of teachers fram around
the world talking about their teaching experiences and what they do in the classroom.
Here is a list of the teachers and the topics they talk about. You can listen to many more
teachers' voices on our website: www.pearsonELT.com/ETK
1 Graciela Barreto (Uruguay) Managing young learners
2 Magdalena Custodio Espinar (Spain) Teaching young learners
3 Victor Chen (Taiwan) Helping students to pragress
4 Melinda Madrassy (Hungary) Using puppets
5 Marija Andraka (Croatia) Young learners and grammar
6 Magdalena Custodio Espinar (Spain) Teaching CLIL using two languages
7 Liliana Burga (Peru) Graupwork and pairwork with teenagers
8 Ann Masako Mayeda (Japan) Creating motivation through student choice
9 Nino Chelidze (Georgia) Teaching adults
10 Oguzhan Kalkan (Turkey) Using (and adding to) coursebooks
11 Bianca Hofmann (German) Using vocabulary tests to motivate students
12 Deniz Atesok (Turkey) Teaching mixed ability/differentiation
13 JeannetteJimenez Pachas (peru) Correcting during accuracy and fluency
14 German Gomez (Guatemala) Using dialogues to teach grammar
15 Katie Malik (Poland) Exposing students to different accents
16 Kamelija Simonovska (Macedonia) A vocabulary activity
17 Nino Chelidze (Georgia) Using dictionaries after reading
18 Monika Czyrska (Poland) Student project work with PowerPoint
19 Alex Field (UK) An end-of-lesson vocabulary game
20 Vivían Hagos Ibrahim (Eritrea) An end-of-lesson vocabulary activity
21 Diana Karan (Canada) Using exit cards to check learning

6 Revise, research, reflect

You will find exercises and questions for each unit of ETK on our website:
www.pearsonELT.com/ETK

7
 -- _ _ __ ..4_

Essentia/ Teacher Know/edge and the

TKT (Teaching Knowledge Test)
Because Essential Teacher Knowledge is for anyone who wants to k:now about language
teaching, it has not been written just for people who are taking the various elements of
the TKT test. However, if you want to take the TKT, this book will help you to prepare
for success in the test - whichever paper or module you are interested in.
The following chart gives details of the papers and modules of the TKT and shows
which units in Essential Teacher Knowledge are relevant for them. However, the book is
organised a little differently from the actual TKT syllabus so that, for example, a topic
like 'managing learners' (which is in the TKT Young learners module) is in a different
section in Essential Teacher Knowledge because it covers issues (for example, discipline)
which do not just apply to young learners.
Readers can also consult the Glossdex on pages 257-287 to look for references to (and
explanations of) TKT terms. The Glossdex contains the most important and useful
technical words used by the TKT test writers - as well as others that are important for
teaching English success. Readers who want the official TKT exam-based glossaries can
download them from the Cambridge ESOL website:
www.cambridgeesol.org/exam-preparation/index.html#tkt

TKT Test/Module TKT sectionl Topic Unit number(s)

part number in Essential
Teacher
Knowledge
TKT Modules 1, 1 Describing Grammar: parts of speech 1
2 and 3 language and Vocabulary: types of meaning 18
language skills Vocabulary: word formation 19
Vocabulary: word groupings 20
Pronunciation: symbols from the International Phonemic
Alphabet (IPA)/phonemes 23
Pronunciation: stress 26
Pronunciation: intonation 27
Pronunciation: connected speech (language) 25
Functions 30
Language skills: reading, listening speaking, writing and sub-skills 51-62
Features of spoken and written texts 31
Features of spoken and written texts: accuracy and fluency 73,92
2 Background Motivation 43
to language Exposure to language and focus on form (acquisition and learning) 35,36
learning The rol e of error 37
Differences in age 38,39,40
Differences in the context of learning 41
Learner characteristics 40
Maturity and past learning experiences 40
3 Background Introductory activities 70
to language Common ways of presentinglintroducing language 44,45,46
teaching Production tasks (practice) 47-50
Common comprehension tasks (language skills) 41-62
Assessment types and tasks 88,89, 101, 110
Knowledge 1 Lexis Types of meaning; sense relations - 18
about language Word formation 19
Lexical units: collocation, lexical phrases/chunks 20
Register 33
2 Phonology Phonemes 23
Word stress and sentence stress; contrastive stress 26
Intonation and what it means 27

8
 Introduction

TKT Test/Module TKT sectionl Topic Unit number(s)

partnumber in Essential
Teacher
Knowledge
3 Grammar The role of context in grarnrnar 5
Word class in grammatical structure 1
- Different types of noun 12
Determiners 13,14
Adjectives 15
Noun phrase structures 15,16,17
Verb types 4
Verb patterns 10
Verb mode (declarative, negative, etc.) 17
Modality 8
Time and tense 5
Aspect 6
Hypotheticality (conditionals) 2
Adverbials 11
The passive 1,32,33
Reported speech 10, 103
Sentences and clauses 2
4 Discourse Coherence 34
Anaphoric reference, etc. 34
Lexical cohesion 34
Register 33
Written and spoken English 31
Genre 32
Young learnecs 1 Kn.owtedge of Children's characterisrics as hnguage learrvevs 91
young learners Developing children's learning strategies through language
and principles learning and communication 92,93-99, 107
of teaching Developing children's cognitive and communication strategies
young learners through language learning 92,93-99,107
2 Planning and Lesson plans and what goes into them 79,80, 100, 109,
prepanng Appendix C
young learners Providing support and challenge when selecting and using
lessons coursebooks and supplementary material s 81,82,83,106
Additional resources 82,83, 106
3 Teaching Scaffolding children's understanding; teacher language and 65,68,69,74,91,
young learners strategies 97,102,107
Using practice activities to consolidate children's language learning 93-99
Managing young learners 70, 71
4 Assessing young Purpose and focus of different kinds of test 88,89, 101, 110
learner learning
Contentand 1 Knowledge of Aims and rationale for CLIL 102
Language CLIL and Language across the curriculurn 103
Integrated principles Cornrnunication skills across the curriculum 103, 104
Learning ofCLIL Learning skills across the curriculum 107
2 Lesson Planning a lesson or a series of lessons 79,80,109,
preparation Appendix C
Language demands of subject content and tasks 109
Resources: visual organisers and multi-media 106, 105
3 Lesson Classroom language 107
delivery Scaffolding content and language learning 65,69,74,91,97,
102,107
Methods to help learners develop learning strategies 107
4 Assessment Focusing on content and language 109
Types of assessment 88,89, 110
Support strategies
Practical Making a lesson plan 79,80, 100, 109,
Appendix C
Teaching a lesson 44--75

9
 Section A: Language
Section A looks at four main area of language: Grammar (Units 1-17), Vocabulary
(Units 18-22), Pronunciation (Units 23-29) and Text and discourse (Units 30-34).
Almost all of the units in Section A start with shorts texts and dialogues about the lives
of teachers around the world. These show examples of the language that the unit is
focusing on. In the grammar units this includes the elements of the sentence, parts of
speech, sentences and questions, verbs (and adverbs), and the noun phrase (including
articles, quantifiers, adjectives and post-modification). In the vocabulary section we look
at word meaning, on how words 'get together' (collocation and lexical phrases/chunks)
and at metaphor, idioms and proverbs. In the pronunciation section we focus on the
phonemic alphabet, on how and where (in the mouth) we make sounds, on what happens
when sounds are used together, on how we stress words and phrases and on how we use
pitch change for different intonation. Finally, in the section on text and discourse we
look at differences between speaking and writing, and on how we compose texts (written
and spoken) that actually make sense.
Five units within this section give classroom teaching ideas. These are ideas for helping
students learn about verb tense and aspect (Unit 7), various elements of the noun phrase
(Unit 17), ways of remembering words (Unit 22), sounds (Unit 28) and stress and
intonation (Unit 29).
Many of the units in Section A also contain short discussions of issues such as homework, '~
teacher burnout, what it feels like to be corrected, the difference (if any) between
native-speaker and non-native-speaker teachers, etc.

Grammar Pronunciation
1 What's in a sentence? 23 The phonemic alphabet
2 How we use clauses 24 Where sounds are made
3 Asking questions 25 Sounds in combination
4 Introducing verbs 26 Stress
5 Verb tenses (form and meaning) 27 Intonation
6 Aspect 28 Teaching sounds
7 Teaching verbs (and adverbs) 29 Teaching stress and intonation
8 Auxiliaries and modals
9 Multi-word and phrasal verbs Text and discourse
10 Verb complementation
30 Language functions
11 Introducing adverbs
31 Written and spoken English
12 Introducing nouns
32 Genre
13 Articles
33 Register
14 Quantifiers
34 Cohesion and coherence
15 Introducing adjectives
16 What comes after nouns?
17 Teaching the noun phrase

Lexis and vocabulary

18 What words mean
19 How words are formed
20 Collocation and lexical phrases
21 Metaphor, idiom, proverb and cliché
22 Meeting and remembering words
11
 What's in a
sentence?

Manuela is a teacher. She lives in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Last week she was presented
with a 'Teacher of the Year' award by the director of her school. The prize was some money
and some flowers.

Manuela teaches teenagers at a large secondary school and at the weekends she gives
private English classes. She is married to aman she met when she was skiing in Bariloche.
Bariloche is a famous ski resort in Argentina.

Yesterday was Manuela's wedding anniversary. In the morning her husband gave her a
beautiful necklace. She was very happy. She cried! She gave him a new mobile phone. He
thanked her enthusiastically, even though he had bought himself the same phone the
previous day. He wonders when he will tell her, but he thinks today is not the right time.

Parts of speech
• In the story about Manuela there are quite a few NOUNS, such as Manuela, Buenos Aires,
Bariloche, teacher, school, husband and auiard. N ouns are the names of people, places or
things. We look at nouns in ~12.
• There are also PRONOUNS (which take the place of nouns), such as she, he and her.
We look at pronouns in ~12.

• The ADJECTIVES in the text include famous, beautiful and happy. Adjectives describe
nouns. We look at adjectives in ~15.

• The text above also has a number of VERBS (which describe actions, states and events),
such as is, lives, was awarded, teaches, gave, had bought, etc. We look at verbs in ~4.

• The word enthusiastically is an ADVERB (it describes the verb); there are ADVERBIAl PHRASES
in the text, too, such as last week and in the morning. We look at adverbs in ~11.

• There are two ARTIClES in the text: the INDEFINITE ARTlClE a and the DEFINITE ARTlClE the.
The word some is a QUANTlFIER (it tells us 'how much'). We look at articles in ~13 and
quantifiers in ~14.

• PREPOSITIONS, such as in and oJ, show how other words are connected. We look at
PREPOSITIONAl PHRASES in ~16.

• The CONJUNCTIONS and and but connect SENTENCES and clauses.

12
Sentence elements

How do we know where to put the parts of speech to make a sentence? What are the
ElEMENTS OF A SENTENCE and what order should they go in?

• Sentences consist of some or all of the following: a SUBJECT (She) + a verb (teaches),
an OBJECT (teenagers) and an adverb or an adverbial phrase (at a large secondary school).
• Sometimes sentences have more than one object. In the sentence Her husband gave her
a beautiful necklace, a beautijul necklace is the DIRECT OBJECT (it is the thing that was
given) and her is the INDIRECT OBJECT (she was the one who benefited from the action).
• Some sentences do not have an object. Instead they have a subject (she), a verb (was)
and a COMPlEMENT (happy).
• Sometimes we only use a subject and a verb (She crieá) ~4.
• Sometimes we make more complicated sentences by joining together a number of
ClAUSES. She is married to aman / She met the man when she toas skiing / She toas skiing
in Bariloche becomes She is married to aman she met when she uias skiing in Bariloche.
We look at clauses in ~2.

Getting things in the right order

The basic sentence elements (subject, verb, object, complement) are the spaces into
which we place words. But we have to be careful which words we put into these spaces.
For example, we can put pronouns (she, he, they, etc.) or NOUN PHRASES (the young woman,
the director, her husband, etc.) into the subject space, but the sentence would not work if ;;.,.
we put an adjective or an adverb there. For example, we cannot say Pv"evi{)us is a teaffleV" or
Sev'Í{)usly is tl student. Similarly, we cannot put nouns or adjectives where verbs go, etc.

The sentence elements have to be arranged in correct sequences. For example, we can
say Manuela is a teacher (SVC), or we can change the order to make a question:
Is Manuela a teacher? (VSC). But we cannot say 15 a teaeÉev"Nlfmuefa because we do not
use the sequence VCS.
However, sometimes we re-arrange the order of the SVO elements and put the
(indirect) object in the subject position. This is because we want to focus on who
'receives' the action (or because we don't know who did the action). For example,
instead of using the ACTIVE VOICE and saying The director of her school (1) presented her
(2) with a 'Teacher of the Year' award, we can use the PASSIVE VOICE: She (2) was presented
with a 'Teacher of the Year' award by the director of ber school (1). We look at an activity to
teach the passive voice in ~ 7 .

··................................................................................................ ..
.~
~ Teaching ideas: word order
·
: We often get students to reorder words to make sentences. This makes them think carefully
.:
: about syntax (the correct sequence of sentence elements). For example, we can say: :
··: Put the fol/owing words in order to make correct sentences: ..
:
: a) Manuela's / was / wedding anniversary / yesterday :
• b) a / at / Buenos Aires / teenagers / in/ large/ Manuela / secondary school/ teaches
: e) bus / by / go /1/ school / to / usual/y

: We can also ask the students to put in punctuation, such as CAPITAL LETTERS, FUll STOPS
(periods), QUESTION MARKS, INVERTED COMMAS (quotation marks), etc. ~31

· An enjoyable variation is to have the students hold the words on cards above their heads
· (so theycan't see their own words). The other members of the class have to tell them where
··................................................................................................
·
to stand to make a correct sentence mD.
.
 Hiro's lesson
Howweuse (1) As soon as the lesson is over,
clauses Hiro walks back to the teachers'
.- . room. (2) He's happy and he wants
to tell his friend Akiko about it.
(3) Although Akiko is a geography
teacher (and Hiro is an English
teacher), they always tell
each other about their lessons and
talk about their students.
(4) Hiro is happy because his
students particularly enjoyed the
lesson which he taught after the
first break.
(5) After school Hiro is going to go
straight home so that he'll have
time for some music. (6) He's
going to play the guitar he bought
two weeks ago. (7) If he hadn't
trained to be a teacher, Hiro would
have studied music.

Main clauses and subordinate clauses

AlI the sentences in the text about Hiro have more than one ClAUSE in them. A clause has
a subject and a verb - and so al! sentences (such as He is happy) have at least one clause.
But there's more to it than that!
• Sentence 2 has two MAIN ClAUSES: He:' happy. He wants to tell his friend Akiko about it.
Main clauses can exist on their OWll and are often joined by CONJUNCTIONS like and, but,
or, so, etc.
• Sentence 1 has a main clause (Hiro walks back to the teachers' room) and a SUBORDINATE
ClAUSE (as soon as the lesson is over). Subordinate clauses only exist if there is a main
clause that they can attach themselves to; we don't usually use them on their OWll.
• Sentence 4 has two main clauses (Hiro is happy and his students particular/y enjoyed the
lesson) and one subordinate clause (which he taught after the first break).

Clause functions and meanings

Clauses can have different functions and meanings. For example, sentence 1 has a
TIME ClAUSE (as soon as the lesson is over). Sentence 3 has a CONCESSIVE ClAUSE (although
Akiko is a geography teacberi. We use concessive clauses when we want to say that there is
a 'weakness' in the idea of the main clause. Sentence 4 has a REASON ClAUSE (because his
students particularly enjoyed the lesson) and sentence 5 has a PURPOSE ClAUSE (so that he'll ha- e
time [or some music).

14
Relative c1auses
In sentence 4 the clause which he taught after the first break is a RELATlVE CLAUSE, introduced
by a relacive pronoun (which). We use the RELATIVE PRONOUNS which and that for things and
who or that for people (She's the woman who married a prince), where for places (That's the
house where she met him) and whose for possession (She's the woman whose children go to tbe
same school as mine). Relacive clauses can be DEFINING (as in sentence 4 where the clause
tells us which lesson is being talked about) or NON-DEFINING as in sentences like He likes bis
school, whicb is in the centre of town. In that last sentence (nocice the use of the cornma) we
know which school is being talked about; we are just giving addicional informacion.
Note that in sentence 6 we don't have to use a relacive pronoun because the noun being
described (the guitar) is the object of the clause (he bought the guitar). We call these
clauses CONTACT CLAUSES or REDUCED RELATIVE CLAUSES.

Conditional c1auses
Sentence 7 in the text about Hiro's lesson is a CONDITIONAl SENTENCE which contains the

CONDITIONAL CLAUSE If he hadn 't trained to be a teacher and the consequence Hiro would have

studied music. We use condicional sentences to saya) what will or will probably happen
(Ifhe wears sunscreen, he won't get sunburned), b) what might (but is less likely to) happen
(If he won a lot of money, he would buy a new house) or c) what definitely won't happen
because it is in the past (If he hadn 't trained to be a teacher, he would have studied music).
These are often called FIRST CONDITIONAL (a), SECOND CONDITIONAl (b) and THIRD CONDITIONAL
(e), We use the past tense for the second condicional and the PAST PERFECT tense for the
third condicional to show that the meaning is HYPOTHETlCAL, because it will always be
'unreal'. Some people also talk about the ZERO CONDITIONAL to refer to things which are
always true (If you heat water, it boils).
Note that the clauses can go in different sequences (He won 't get sunburned if he tuears
sunscreen / If be wears sunscreen, he won 't get sunburned) and that we can use other
future-meaning verbs and auxiliaries instead of wil! and would, etc. For example, If 1 go to
tbe beach, I'm going to uiear sunscreen; 1 couldn't have done it ifyou hadn't helped me.
We use unless to mean 'if not': Unless he wears sunscreen he wil! get sunburned.
We can make MIXED CONDITIONALS by using/mixing different verb tenses in sentences like
1 won 't cal!you unless I've finished.

Teaching ideas: conditional clauses

Many teachers use stories with 'consequences' to teach conditionals. For example, we could
tell the students a story -+45 about a man in a bar (lf he has another drink, he will stay in the
bar. If he stays in the bar. he will get home late. If he gets home late, his wife willleave him, etc.) to
produce 'tragic' stories. We can talk about the 'superpower' qualities that teachers would like
· to have, such as being able to fly or being able to see through walls (lf I could fly, I would visit
·· 011the cities in the world in one doy). Others talk about stories in the past; they say what would
have happened if things had been different (lf he hadn't gone swimming, he wouldn't have been
· attacked by a shark)
·.•.............•...•............................................•......................•.•••....

15
 Private les son
Asking Manuela is giving an online lesson to
questions her private student, Carmen.

Manuela: Let's start with some

conversation practice.
Carmen: OK. l'd like that.
Manuela: Where did you go at the
weekend, Carmen?
Carmen: I went to Recoleta Park.
Manuela: Did your boyfriend go
with you?
Carmen: No, he didn't, He couldn't
make it.
Manuela: So who went with you?
Carmen: My sister.
Manuela: Your boyfriend's an engineer,
isn't he?
Carmen: Yes,he is. He designs bridges.
Manuela: He designs bridges?
Carmen: Yeso
Manuela: What's he working on at the moment?
Carmen: They're constructing a new bridge in Mendoza.
Manuela: When's he coming back?
Carmen: When's he coming back? l'rn not sure. Sometimes it seems like he's never
at home!
Manuela: Don't worry! l'rn sure it'll work out in the end.
Carmen: Yes,I know. And l'rn really pleased for him - that his work is going so well.
Manuela: That's great, Carmen. Anyway, shall we do some vocabulary work now?

Saying yes, saying no

• In Manuela and Carmen's conversation, Carmen uses a number of AFFIRMATlVE
SENTENCES (l'd like that. 1went to Recoleta Park. They're constructing a new bridge in
Mendoza) and ANSWERS (Yes. Yes, he is). Affirmative sentences say 'yes' or show
agreement. They are the opposite of NEGATIVE SENTENCES.
• Carmen also uses a negative answer (No, he didn 't) and sentences (He couldn 't make it.
1'm not sure). Negative answers and sentences say 'no' and we usually make them by
adding not to the verbo In spoken English (and INFORMAL written English) we often use
the CONTRACTED FORM n 't with the verb (don 't, can 't, isn 't, won 't, etc.).
• We can also give affirmative sentences a negative CONNOTATlON by using negative ADVERBS
such as never, seldom, nowhere, etc. (he 's never at home). In most varieties ofEnglish we
don't usually use two negatives in the same sentence; we don't say He ml't ne7:ler at
Iwme. However, this 'double negative' is used in some varieties of spoken English; it
just isn't acceptable in educated English - or in most English exams!
• We use negative verbs in many commands or suggestions (Don'tworry!).

16
Different types of questions
In Manuela's online conversation with her priva te student (Carmen) there are a number
of different types of question:
• Did your boyfriend go with you? and Shall we do some vocabulary work now? are examples
of VES/NO QUESTIONS - also called CLOSED QUESTIONS. N otice that the order of affirmative
sentences - subject-verb - (e.g. We (1) shall (2) do some vocabulary work) is reversed
when we make a question (Shall (2) we (1) do some vocabulary work?). We use do, did,
etc. to make questions when there is no other AUXILlARV VERB available.
• We call questions like Where did you go at the weekend? and When ~ he coming back?
WH- QUESTIONS. They are also called OPEN QUESTIONS. Open questions start with what,
uiben, how, why, how ojten, who, etc. They are called open questions because the answer
is unpredictable - and will be more than yes or no. In questions like this we use do or
did if there is no other auxiliary.
• SUBJECT QUESTIONS like Who went with you? don't need an auxiliary verb because they
are asking about the subject of the verb (My sisterwent with me). However, OBJECT
QUESTIONS like Where did you go at the weekend? need the auxiliary (do) because they are
asking about the object of the verb (1 went to Recoleta Park).
• Although we usually make questions by putting the verb before the subject (Did your
boyfriend go with you?), we can also make questions, in spoken English, by saying an
affirmative sentence with questioning INTONATION (He designs bridges?). In spoken
English we can often make just one word into a question (Coffee? Yes,please. Sugar?
No, thanks). We look at intonation in "':;27.
• In spoken English we can make a sentence into a question by adding a QUESTION TAG
(Your boyfriend~ an engineer, isn't he?). If the verb in the sentence is affirmative (Your
boyfriend~ an engineer), the question tag is usually negative (isn't he?). But if the verb in
the sentence is negative, the tag is usually in the affirmative (is he?). When we use tag
questions to confirm something we think we know (or if we want the listener to agree
with us), we often use a falling intonation tune on the tag. If we don't know the
answer to our question - or if we are worried about it - we use a rising intonation
tune on the tag. Some people use the word right as a general tag word in sentences
like You're a teacher, right? This is when they want their guess (1 think you are teacher)
confirmed "':;27.
• Sometimes, like Carmen, we use echo questions (When ~ he coming back?) to help the
conversation along .

............................................................................................... .
· Learning English by telephone and Skype

· Many teachers, like Manuela, have private students who learn either on the telephone (popular
in France) or by using telephone/video computer software such as Skype. They can share a
· virtual 'board', too; both of them can see the same thing on their computer screens. Even if
they are physically distant from each other, the lesson is not unlike a typical íace-to-tace one.
· There are many other ways in which people can make contad with others via the INTERNET.
in ...:;87
· We look at these VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS (V LEs)
·................................................................................................ ..

17
 Introducing
verbs
..........................................

Yesterday was the first day of the new semester, so Ratih arrived at sehool two hours
before her first lesson. After she had had some breakfast, she left home very early beeause
the traffie in [akarta (where she lives) can be very bad indeed. And yesterday it rained so it
was even worse than usual!
In her first lesson (for beginners), Ratih asked the students to do various things. 'Open your
books.' she said, and later, 'Go to the door. Open the door. Close the door. Sit down.' She
wanted her students to learn simple English verbs (like go and open) and nouns (like book
and door). It was a happy lesson and many of the students laughed - whieh Ratih thinks is
a good thing. She believes that when students are happy and engaged (involved) in what
they are doing, they may learn better than if they are bored and inaetive.
Ratih enjoys teaehing and she is always looking for ways to improve what she does. Later
she is going to look into the possibility of doing a postgraduate course in Australia next
year. Right now, however, she has to plan next week's lessons. She has to work out how to
teaeh the future to her class of elementary students.

Types of verb
• The verbs in the story about Ratih describe ACTIONS (bad bad some breakfast, open your
books, the students laugbed, she has to plan, etc.), STATES (Yesterday was the first day o/ the
semester, the traffic can be bad), STATES OF MIND (she believes that when students are happy)
and EVENTS (it rained). We discuss simple verbs (for states) and continuous verbs (for
actions) in ~6.
• Open, believes and rained are LEXICAL VERBS (sometimes called MAl N VERBS or FULL VERBS).
These are verbs which express a whole range of meanings. We can use them on their
own in sentences.
• Verbs like had, can, are, may and is are AUXILlARY VERBS. Their function is often
g.r.amm.a1:Ír.aJ .a»D mey ..b.eJpr D.J" »nerscr wJmr ).e;VE;)) YNb¿;,.

18
• Can and may are MODAL AUXILlARY VERBS. We look at auxiliary and modal auxiliary
verbs in -+8.
• Laughed and sit down are INTRANSITIVE verbs - that means they do not need or take an
OBJECT. Enjoys and plan are TRANSITIVE verbs - they do take an object. Notice, however,
that open (Open your books) is transitive in the story about Ratih, but open (like a number
of other verbs) can also be intransitive in sentences like The door opened. In the same
way, some LlNKING VERBS like get and taste can be transitive (He got a letter in the post,
Sbe tasted tbe soup) and intransitive (He got upset, It tasted delicious).

• Sit doum, look into and work out are called MULTI-WORD VERBS because they are made up
of more than one word. Look into and work out are PHRASAL VERBS because although we
may understand the individual words (look and into, work and out) that do es not mean
we understand the complete verb (look into, work out). In other words, they have
IDIOMATlC meaning -+21 (unlike sit down which is far easier to understand). We look at
phrasal verbs in more detail in -+9.

How verbs are made

• AlI verbs have a BASE FORM, that is the INFINITIVE without to. In the text about Ratih's
lesson, verbs like go and open are in their base (simplest) formo Ratih uses these base
forms to make IMPERATIVE sentences (Go to tbe door, Open tbe dOO1~etc.). Other base
form infinitives in the story about Ratih include learn, improve, look and plan.
• We change the base form of verbs to show agreement, TENSE -+5 and ASPECT -+6.
We do this by adding or changing MORPHEMES. Morphemes are the smallest units of
grammatical meaning - they are smaller than words. For example, when the text
about Ratih says sbe thinks it is a good thing and sbe believes tbat uiben students are happy
and engaged ... , we have added the 's' morpheme to the base form of the verbo This is
necessary when we use the present simple with he, sbe or it.
• We add the -ed morpheme to all REGULAR VERBS when we talk about the past -+6,
e.g. rained, asked, laughed, wanted.
• We call verbs that do not add -ed in the past IRREGULAR VERBS. For example, the past
tense of go is went (not geed!) and the past participle is gone. Left in the story about
Ratih is the past form of the verb leave.
• We add the -ing morpheme to the base form of the verb for PRESENT PARTICIPLES tSbe is
always looking for ways to improve what she does).

Verbs in combination
Many verbs 'trigger' the grammar of the verbs that follow them -+10. For example, the
verb enjoy is always followed by a present participle (Ratih enjoys teaching); it is never
followed by to + infinitive (we cannot say Sbe enjoys ffJ---tetIeh). Ask is often followed by
object + to + infinitive (Ratih asked tbe students to do uarious things). Knowing a verb means
knowing what behaviour it triggers.

Total physical response

Ratih's lesson is an example of TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE CTPR) -+45, a 1970s method
• described by James Asher, in which students first respond to and then give cornrnands. The
idea is that we learn by doing things. This is especially appropriate for students who respond
: well to more KINAESTHETlC ACTlVITIES (those that involve physical movement and activity)
• Most experts suggest that TPR is especially useful for lower-Ievel students
.....•...........................................•..•.•..........•..•.............•.••.•.........

19
 1
Verbtenses Correcting homework isn't always his favourite task!
(form and Arnulfo seems to spend his
meaning) whole day criss-crossing the
.......................................... . busy streets of Mexico City .
He teaches in three different
places. But not today. Today
is Sunday so he is having a
well-earned rest.

Yesterday wasn't so relaxed,

though. He corrected
homework for three hours.
Correcting homework isn't
always his favourite task,
but he had to do it - and
when he did, he was pleased
with his students' efforts.
They will be disappointed
(and demotivated) if he does
not hand it back on Monday.

After he had finished correcting, he went to the cinema with his wife. They saw an
English film about a writer's community in an English village. A young woman returns
to the village after some years away. She causes a lot of trouble beca use all the men fall
in love with her, and she has to decide which one to choose. It was a very funny movie.

Tonight Arnulfo's parents are coming over for dinner. Then he has one day's teaching
before he and his wife go on holiday. They leave Mexico early in the morning and fly
to Boston. If they can, they are going to visit New York, too. He will have a lot to tell his
students when he gets home.

How verbs show time

We change or add to the BASE FORM of the verb ~4 to show whether we are talking about
the PAST, the PRESENT or the FUTURE. There are many examples of this in the text about
Arnulfo.

• The verbs seems, teaches and is having in the first paragraph all refer to the presento
Notice that the PRESENTCONTINUOUS form ~6 (is having) refers to what is happening
now, but seems and teaches refer to things that are more generally true most of the time.

• Wasn 't, corrected and had to in the second paragraph all refer to past time, and had
finished correcting refers to a time before the past (be went).
• ATe coming ouer, go on holiday, leave, are going to visit, will ba~e and gets in the fourth
paragraph all refer to the future.

• Verbs are not the only ways of showing time. ADVERBIALS such as today (paragraph 1),
yesterday and on Monday (paragraph 2), ajter (paragraph 3), tonight and in the morning
(paragraph 4) also say what time we are talking about. This is very important when we
realise that the same verb form can refer to many different times.
 Verb tenses (form and meaning)
.............................................................

One form, many meanings

One of the features of English verb forms is that they can mean many different things
- they can refer to different times. This is not special to verbs, as we shall see when we
introduce words and their meanings in -+18. There are many examples of this in the
text about Arnulfo.
• Arnulfo seems (a present STATE) and he teaches (a present routine) in paragraph 1 both
refer to the present and use the PRESENT SIMPLE form -+6.
• A young woman returns to the village and she causes a lot of trouble in paragraph 3 use
the same verb form (present simple) but they are telling a story. We often use the
present simple in this way, even when it refers to the pasto
• He and his wife go on holiday and they leave Mexico (paragraph 4) refer to the future, yet
they are using the same present simple formo
• He is having a well-earned rest (paragraph 1) uses the PRESENT CONTINUOUS -+6 and
refers to the presento However, Arnulfo ~parents are coming over to dinner
(paragraph 4) refers to the future.
• It is because one verb can mean so many different things that CONTEXT and the use of
time adverbials is so important.

One meaning, many forms

The future is talked about in the text about Arnulfo. But this is done using a number of 'i""
different forms.
• Will is often referred to as the 'neutral' future when it refers to things that are
inevitable in the future. Examples are his students will be disappointed (paragraph 2) and
he will have a lot to tell his students (paragraph 4). Will is a MODAL AUXILlARY VERB -+8.
• The present simple is often used to describe fixed schedules, e.g. he and his wife go on
holiday, they leave Mexico (paragraph 4).
• Going to + INFINITIVE is often used to describe plans and intentions, e.g. they are going
to visit New York (paragraph 4).
• The present continuous is often used to describe future arrangements - things that
are almost definitely going to happen or things that have already been decided on -
e.g. Amulfo's parents are coming over for dinner.
As we can see, there is no one-to-one connection between TENSE (for example the present

simple in the sentence They leave Mexico) and time (Arnulfo and his wife's future). In the
same way, a CONDITIONAL sentence -+2 like If 1 had a million pounds 1 would buy a house,
includes the past tense of have (had) but refers to present time.
We suggest ways of teaching the verb phrase in -+7.

The homework issue

Homework works! It is good for learners, even though doing it - and correcting it - can
sometimes seem like a lot of work. Teachers have to decide how much homework to give
and when to give it.

One of the most important things about homework is that the students should hand it in on
time - and the teacher should give it back quickJy, toa! If nat, the students will start to think, •
next time, that they don't have to do it. •

We look at homework in more detail in -+76.

.................................................................................................. .
21
 ! You'll never burn out!
l
Aspect Hiro is standing in the kitchen. He's drinking a glass of water.
He is breathing heavily.
.. ,•........................................
~
Hiro has been jogging beca use his friend Akiko told him he
was unfit. 'You haven't taken any exercise for weeks,' she
said. 'You've been getting up late, rushing to school and then
going out at weekends, playing music. It's not good for you.'
It was true! He had been working very hard and he hadn't been getting enough sleep.
Last week, for example, he was teaching a lesson on the present perfect and his students
just weren't interested. They were looking bored and he couldn't find a way of motivating
them. When he left the class he just felt exhausted.
'When this semester ends, I will have been a teacher for ten years,' he told Akiko in the
staff room after that lesson. 'lt feels like a long time. I don't want to get teacher "burnout"
like some of the older teachers.'
'Don't be silly, Hir'o,' Akiko told him. 'You'll never suffer from burnout. You're a great teach •
We all have lessons which don't work sometimes, but that doesn't happen often with you.
You do need to do something to make yourself feel better!' and that's when she told him
to take more exercise.

What is aspect?
Whereas TENSE refers to the form of the verbs we use ~5, and TIME is about when we
are referring to, ASPECT refers to the way a speaker wants you to understand the
situation which they are talking about. For example, the sentences 1 teach, 1 am teaching,
1 have taught and 1 have been teaching a11refer to the present, but in each case the
speaker's attitude to the teaching (whether it is habitual, whether it is continuing,
whether it finished in the past, or whether it is in the past but has present relevance, etc.
is different.

Simple and continuous

In the story about Hiro there are number of CONTINUOUS and SIMPLE verb forms.
• It feels like a long time (paragraph 4) and we al! have lessons which don 't work
(paragraph 5) are examples of the PRESENT SIMPLE. We use the present simple a) to talk
about facts that are true and will be true for some time; b) to describe repeated
actions or habits; and e) for storyte11ing and future reference ~5. We use the base
form of the verb (+ the 's' MORPHEME for the third person singular ~4) to make the
present simple.
• He left the room (paragraph 3) and she told him (paragraph 5) are examples of the
PAST SIMPLE. They described completed actions. They weren't interested (paragraph 4)
describes a past state. We form the past simple by adding the -ed morpheme in one
of its realisations to regular verbs. IRREGULAR VERBS have their own forms, such as
take-took ~4.

22
• Hiro is standing in the kitchen and the next two sentences in paragraph 1 are example of
the PRESENT CONTINUOUS (also called the PRESENT PROGRESSIVE). They describe an action
that is still ongoing (that hasn't finished) at the time of speaking. They emphasise the
action rather than the result of it. We can also use the present continuous for future
reference 45. To make continuous verb forms we use the AUXILlARY VERB to be +
PRESENT PARTICIPLE (BASE FORM + -ing).

• He was teaching a lesson and they were looking bored (Paragraph 3) are examples of the
PAST CONTINUOUS and describe an action that was ongoing at the actual moment in time
that the speaker is referring to.
• Verbs like feels (it feels like a long time - paragraph 4) are often called STATIVE VERBS
because they refer to a state of mind (other verbs like this include believe, hate, love and
think). We almost always use simple forms (rather than continuous forms) with verbs
like this when we are referring to the state itself (1 believe in miracles). However, some
stative verbs can be used with continuous forms when we wish to emphasise the
ongoing and active nature of that state (e.g.l'm thinking - please don't interrupt me).

Perfect verbs

In the story about Hiro there are a number of PERFECT VERBS.

• You haven 't taken any exercisefor weeks and you 've been getting up late (paragraph 2) are
both examples of the PRESENT PERFECT - simple and continuous. The present perfect
suggests something which started in the past and which a) is still true, or b) still has
present 'consequences', or c) still isn't finished. We use have + PASTPARTICIPLE to form
the present perfecto
• He had been working very hard and he hadn 't been getting enough sleep (paragraph 3) are
both examples of the PAST PERFECT. Past perfect verbs describe things that started
before the past, but still have 'relevance' in the past moment that we are describing.
We use had + past participle to make past perfect verbs.
• 1 will have been a teacherfor ten years (paragraph 4) is an example of the FUTURE PERFECT.
We use will have + past participle to make this verb formo
• Speakers of American English often use the past simple instead of the present
perfect: Did you see him yet? (American English) versus Have you seen him yet?
(British English). However, in some varieties of American English the present
perfect is used in the same ways as in British English, especially in more formal or
writing-like situations .

................................................................................................ .
Burnout ·
Many teachers feel tired and demotivated at times. They feel they have had enough of ·
teaching. This is sometimes called BURNOUT. It is often a temporary condition Cfortunately ·
not a permanent one). We look at teacher development Cincluding how to avoid or deal with ·
................................................................................................. ·
burnout) in 478.

23
 Teaching ideas
In this unit we look at a few ideas for teaching (and practising) some verb tenses - and
adverbs. There are many other teaching suggestions in -+44-64.

Teaching verbs
Teaching the present continuous and present simple
(and adverbs)
•••• 1 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• Students can pretend to be police officers on surveillance duty - or spies - to practise
the PRESENT CONTINUOUS. They say what people are doing in sentences like Aman is
walking into the shop. He's carrying a bag, etc.
• We can contrast people's work and holiday lives with the PRESENT SIMPLE and
CONTINUOUS in sentences like He usually gets up at six thirty, but it's ten o'c/ock now and
he's lying in bed reading a book.
• We can get our students to listen to sounds and tell them to describe what they think
is happening.

• We can talk about someone's daily routine to teach and practise the PRESENT SIMPLE,
e.g. She gets up at six o'clock. She goes to work by car, etc. -+44. Students can talk about
their own lives and routines.

• We can also use mime games to practise the present continuous (Are you playing the
guitar? Are you reading a book?).

Teaching the present perfect

• To practise the PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE the students can mime looking happy, exhausted,
sad, amused, etc., and the other students have to ask them questions with just, such as
Why are you sad? Have you just said goodbye to your girlfriend? etc.
• If we want to introduce the PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS, we can show the studen ts a
series of pictures and they have to say what the people have been doing, for example
He 's beenjogging, she's been shopping, he's been taking an exam, she's been giving a speech.

Teaching the future

• The students can pretend to go to a fortune teller and ask questions such as Will 1be
ricb? Will 1 get marned?
• Students can speculate about what they are going to do at a time in the future, in
sentences such as When 1 leave schooll'm going to trauel round the world.

• Students can make New Year's resolutions, saying what they are going to do and what
they are not going to do in the next 12 months (l'm going to give up eating chocolate.
l'm not going to stay up late every evening, etc.).

Teaching the past simple

• We can tell STORIES with the PASTSIMPLE. For example, we can ask our students to
describe their week (On Monday 1 tuent to the cinema. On Tuesday 1 had a coffee with my
brotber; etc.).
• BEGINNER students can be given cards -+86 with either the BASE FORM of a verb or its
PAST TENSE FORM. They have to find the student with the matching card (e.g. run - ran
or go - went). They then make sentences with the past tense verbo

24
Teaching the past continuous and the past simple
Many teachers (and students) enjoy playing the game 'AlIBI' to practise the PAST CONTINUOUS
and the past simple. The class imagines that a crime was committed at 10 pm last night.
Four students go out of the room and agree on a story about what they were doing last
night at this time. The students then come back into the class, one by one, and the other
students question them by asking What were you doing at 10 o'clock? What were you eating?
What happened then? etc. The student whose story is different from the others (because he
or she can't remember all the details) is the 'criminal'. We look at more GAMES in ~49.

Teaching the past perfect

We can give our students a story which uses past simple and past perfect verb forms.
They have to circle the verbs and then say which action happened first.

When Shelley got home she realised that someone (or something) had been in her flato
She was sure that she had locked the door that morning.
She noticed that someone had left muddy footprints on the carpet, etc.

Teaching used to
• We can compare our present lives with the lives of our grandparents or great
grandparents to teach USED TO.

We send emails, but they used to write letters.

We pay for many things by credit card, but they used to pay for everything in cash.

• We can talk about our own lives in sentences like 1used to live in London, but now 1am
living in Shanghai.

Teaching the passive

• We can use various industrial, scientific and other processes to teach and practise the
PASSIVE. For example, we can talk about how chocolate is made with sentences like
Cocoa beans are harvested. The beans are dried. The beans are shipped to a factory. The beans
are roasted, etc.

• We can discuss historical works of art, inventions, discoveries and conquests in

sentences like The Mona Lisa was painted by Leonardo da Vinci, Mexico was invaded by the
Spanish in 1 S 19, Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming, etc.

Teaching adverbs
• We can playa speaking game in which two students are selected. The class give them
each an occupation (doctor, policeman, shopkeeper, etc.) a location (at the cinema, at a
restaurant, on a bus, etc.) and a topic (perhaps this will be something the students have
been studying recently). The teacher then gives each speaker a piece of paper with an
adverb or adverbial phrase on it (e.g. angrily, quietly, in a worried way, etc.). The two
students then start speaking and the rest of the class have to try to guess which
adverbs they were given.
• We can give the students scripts of scenes from plays, short dialogues, etc. They have
to write adverbs and adverbial phrases to describe how the speakers should acto
They then act out the scene or dialogue using those adverbs as a guide.

25
 Your English might get better!
Auxiliaries This is a transcript of a moment in Ratih's class yesterday:
and modals Cutar: l'rn sorry l'm late.
we ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Ratih: Do you have your homework with you?
Cutar: No, sorry. I couldn't do it.
Ratih: Why not?
Cutar: I was helping my father at the restaurant. I didn't get home tilllate.
Ratih: You must have been very tired.
Cutar: No, I felt fine. I slept for hours. Why?
Ratih: But you said ...
Cutar: Oh, yes.1mean I was very tired. That's why I didn't do my homework. May I sit down?
Ratih: Oh, all right. But you must try to get here on time, OK?
Cutar: Yes,teacher. I will. I promise.
Kemala: Buk Guru, kapan kita ujian? (Teacher,when are we going to have our test?)
Ratih: You should really try to speak English,you know.
Kemala: lt's difficult.
Ratih: Yes,but if you use English more often, your English might suddenly start to
improve! You really ought to try it!

Auxiliaries and modal auxiliaries

• In the excerpt from Ratih's lesson Cutar and Ratih use the AUXllIARY VERBS ~4 be (I'm
sorry I'm late, 1 was very tired) and do (Do you have your homework? 1 didn't do my
homework). In a sentence such as Have you done your homework? have is an auxiliary verbo
• There are a number OfMODALAUXllIARYVERBS in the transcript above: can (1couldn't do
it), must (you must try to get here on time), should (You sbould really try to speak English)
and might (your English migbt suddenly start to improve). We use them to express our
attitude or certainty about what we are saying.
• Ought to (you really ought to try it), need to and used to are often called SEMI-MODAL
AUXllIARY VERBS because although they have two words, they behave like ordinary
modal auxiliaries.
• Do and have are special because they can be either auxiliary verbs (see above) or
LEXICAL VERBS ~4 as in sentences like 1 bave too much homework! and She did the New
York Marathon.

What modal auxiliaries mean

• We often use modal auxiliary verbs to talk about certainty, possibility and probability
in sentences such as Your English migbt start to improve and You must have been tired.
• We use modal auxiliaries to talk about obligation - about getting things done - in
sentences such as You must get here on time and You should really try to speak English.
• Modal verbs can express more than one meaning. For example, can is used for many
different meanings including ability (1 can speak Spanish) and permission (You can stay
for 15 minutes). We can use might to express probability (You migbt be right) or to
make a suggestion (You migbt want to think carefully beforeyou speak!).
26
 -
----- -
~ ~~~ ----- ---
-

Auxiliaries and modals

• Modals appear in many common lexical phrases (Can 1 help you? Will you be long? You
must have been really worried, That can't have been much [un, etc.).

How modal verbs behave

• Modal verbs are a closed class (they don't change) and they don't take the third person
-s when used in the present (He/She can play the guitar).

• Modal verbs are almost always followed by an infinitive verb without to (You must get
here on time).

• Modal verbs do not have an infinitive form and so they have to be replaced by
SEMI-MODALS (You need to be able to (not can) swim) or other verbs (I'm going to have to
(not must) go now) when an infinitive is required.

Modal verbs and moda lit y

When we use modal verbs we are expressing our attitude to/certainty about what we are
saying. Compare, for example, It is true with It might be true. But we can express modality
in other ways, too. For example, we can use verbs like appear and seem to say that we are
not sure if we are correct (They appear to be running late, He seems to be clever), or tend to
say what we think is generally true (People in the UK tend to eat their biggest meals in the
evening). We can also use phrases like It is likely that or It appears that (It is likely that the
President will do badly in the mid-term elections).

................•..•.••..........................................................................
·· ..
: Using the students' language - their L1 :
·· ..
: In the conversation above, Ratih wants her student, Kemala, to use English rather than :
: Indonesian (Kemala's mother tengue). Teachers have different views about this. Some think :
: you should never use the students' L1 in an English class; others think that it is a good thing :
: - at the right time and at appropriate moments, and depending on the students' level. We :

..
: discuss the use of Ll in ~77, :
··.•................•..•...............•.............................................•.............
............................•..•.............••.......•..•..•...........•.•.............••..•.....•.......••.........••..•............
- ..
- Teaching ideas: modal verbs
Many teachers introduce modals of obligation and permission by talking about rules and ··
regulations in different countries, e.g. You have to stay at school until you are 16, Youdon't have
to go to school aiter you are 16.
·
Some teachers invent stories (or dialogues) about children talking to their parents (Must
I tidy my room now?), about people in galleries or libraries (/'m sorry sir, but you can't take
pictures in here) or about work-regulated regulations (Protective clothing must be wom at all
times). The situation will depend on the age of the students.
Note: must and have to are similar. We often use must when the speaker creates the ··
obligation (/ must take more exercise) or in official signs (Hard hats must be worn). We use the
more INFORMAL have to for ordinary regulations (You have to be careful in this job). Have to is
more common in American English. We use mustn't to say that something is not allowed ··
(You mustn't smoke in here), but don't have to and don't need to/needn't mean that something
is not obligatory (You don't have to wear a tie).
·
We often get students to try to guess what things in pictures are (That might/must be a ··
musical instrument, but I can'! be sure) or to speculate about the past (The pyramids might have ··
been built by creatures from outer space). ·
...............•..............•.............•...............................•............................•.............••.....•....... ·
27
 War!
Multi-word and When Arnulfo walked into his 3 o'clock lesson, it looked as if
phrasal verbs war had broken out! The children were running around the
.'W ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• classroom, and one of them, a big boy called Rogelio, was
running after Pancho, the class 'clown'. Music was playing from
a CD player on Marcela's desk. Arnulfo turned it off
immediately. Then he stood in front of the class and told them
all to be quieto Gradually the noise died down. Arnulfo can do that: he has a natural teacher
'presence' and his students generally look up to him. But not Pancho, the boy Rogelio had
been chasing. Pancho took off, running out of the classroom and into the corridor. What
should Arnulfo do? He couldn't leave the class on their own. But at that moment a student
from the teacher training course that the school organised walked past the door. Arnulfo
asked her to look after the class while he set off to find Pancho.

What are multi-word verbs?

There are many MULTI-WORD VERBS in English (get into a car, get off a train, turn on/
turn off the light). Multi-word verbs have a partide - an ADVERB or a PREPOSITION (and
sometimes both) - which is added to a main verbo
PHRASAL VERBS are multi-word verbs which have IDIOMATIC MEANING ~21 (the meaning of
the phrasal verb is not the same as the meaning of the two or three individual words in
it), They are little LEXICAL CHUNKS ~20. Phrasal verbs in the story about Arnulfo's lesson
indude break out (war had broken out), look up to (his students look up to him) and look after
(He asked ber to look after the class).

Four types of phrasal verb

In the story about Arnulfo's lesson there are four categories of phrasal verbo They all
have slightly different grammar.
• Break out (= start), take off(= leave in a hurry), die down (= gradually go quiet) and set of
(= start a journey) are INTRANSITIVE PHRASAL VERBS. This means that they can stand
alone; they don't take an object.
• Look after is a TRANSITIVE INSEPARABLE PHRASAL VERB since a) it always takes an object (so ir
is transitive), and b) the object has to come after the complete phrasal verb (you can't
separate the verb and the preposition). Another example of a transitive inseparable
phrasal verb is run into (= meet by chance) in sentences like 1 ran into my friend at the
newsagent's.
• Turn offis a TRANSITIVE SEPARABLE PHRASAL VERB because a) it takes an object, and b) you
can put the object either between the verb and the partide (adverb) or after the
partide. For example, He turned the CD player off/He turned off the CD player.
But - and this is a big but - if the object is an object pronoun, it must come between
the verb and the partide. We say He turned it off, but we can't say He tf;t9'ned effit.
Another verb like turn offis look up (= tried to find) in the sentence He looked the tuord
up in the dictionary / He looked up the word in the dictionary / He looked it up.

28
I

--'-. Multi-word and phrasal verbs

.......................................................

• Look up to is a TWO-PARTICLE TRANSITIVE (INSEPARABLE) PHRASAL VERB because a) it takes an

object, but b) the object (him in the story about Arnulfo) must come after both the
particles. With two-particle phrasal verbs the first particle is an adverb and the second
is a preposition. Another example of a phrasal verb like this is run out of
(= to have nothing left) in sentences like We ran out of petrol 012 the way home.

Teachingideas:phrasalverbs
Some teachers introduce phrasal verbs one by one, just as they do with other lexical items.

• Some teachers introduce a collection of phrasal verbs with a) the same verb (e.g. run aiter
= chase, run into = meet, run off = leave/disappear, run over = hit someone with a car,
run out of = have nothing left) or b) the same particle (e.g. pick up Arabic = learn without
effort, take up rowing= start to do, look up a word = search for, run up a bill = spend more
and more, etc.).

• Some teachers introduce a collection of phrasal verbs in a story or situation Clike,for

example, the story about Arnulfo at the beginning of this unit)

• Some teachers point out phrasal verbs when they occur in TEXTS or when they come up
in lessons.

There is no best wayl Teaching a collection of phrasal verbs may work. If that is so, then •
perhaps teaching them by particle might be a good idea. But teaching phrasal verbs in •
memorable situations and stories is also good - and it is also useful to get the students to :
look for phrasal verbs in their own reading and bring them to class. We need to encourage :
LEARNER AUTONOMY ~43 by getting our students to think about the best way to learn • .;;..

.................................................................................................. .
phrasal verbsforthem.~

When war breaks out!

AII teachers sometimes find themselves in difficult situationsl Classes can sometimes seem
to get out of control. When this happens, we need to behave sensibly! The golden rule is
to attack Cdealwith) the problem, not the student. However, it is much better, of course, if
such problems never occur, and that is why organisation and preparation are so important.
In other words, we need to try to prevent problems - but also know how to deal with them
when they do occur ~71.

·
·
·
··
·
.................................................................................................. .
29
 Substitute lesson
Verb In the evening, Manuela's new mobile phone rango It was the

complementation same model of phone as her husband's - the phone that she
...., . remembered giving him for their wedding anniversary. He
had suggested that it wasn't fair that he had a beautiful new
phone and she didn't. So he bought one for her. He was so
thoughtful.

5he picked up the phone. It was Oriel, a colleague at her school. He said that he had a
dentist's appointment the next day and he asked her if she would teach his morning
lesson. 5he didn't want to do it because she hadn't finished preparing her lessons for next
week. But that didn't stop Oriel! First of all he told her that he hated going to the dentist.
('1 know,' she said, '1 don't enjoy having my teeth done either.') And then he said he had
forgotten to arrange cover for his class. He kept on saying things like 'You must help me!'
and so, even though she didn't intend to say yes, she finally agreed to teach his lesson.

Verb + verb
When we use one VERB after another, we have to be careful about the grammar we use.
For example, the MODAl AUXILlARY VERB must (like the other modal verbs ~8) is always
followed by an INFINITIVE without to (You must belp me!). We can't say 1'éu 'I'I~ustte help me.
There are a number of other examples of verb + verb patterns in the story about
Manuela:
• Finish (she hadn 'tfinisbed preparing ... ), enjoy (1 don 't enjoy having ... ) and keep on
(he kept on saying .. .) are three of the verbs which are followed by the -ing PARTICIPlE.
We have to use the -ing form of the second verb with these three verbs. Other verbs
like this include admit, consider, dislike, imagine, miss and PHRASAl VERBS ~9 such as
carry on, give up and put off.

• Agree (shefinally agreed to teach his lesson) and want (she didn't want to do it) are usually
followed by to + infinitive. Other verbs like agree and want include appear, attempt,
decide, hope, offer, promise and rejuse.

• Hate (he bated going to the dentist) and intend (she didn't intend to say ... ) can be
followed by either the -ing form or to + infinitive without too much change in
meaning (I bate to go to the dentist, She didn 't intend saying yes). Other verbs like hate
include begin, love and start.
• Remember (she remembered giving him ... ) can be followed by -ing or by to + infinitive
but the meaning changes. She remembered giving him a phone = she gave him a phone
and she has a memory of doing it, but she remembered to give him a phone = that was
her intention and she didn't forget to do it. Compare 1 tried to open tbe window but it
was stuck (I couldn't open it) with 1 tried opening tbe window, but the room was still too
hot (I opened it). Notice that although Jorget is usually followed by to + infinitive
(He bad forgotten to arrange coverfor bis class), never Jo1-get (= remember) can also be
followed by -ing (l'll never forget seeing berfor tbe first time).
• Suggest (be had suggested tbat it wasn 'tfair .. .) is one of many verbs that can be
followed by tbat + SENTENCE. Other verbs like this include agree (be agreed tbat be
would go) and promise (1promise tbat 1 will help you).

30
 Reporting what people say
We can report what other people say by quoting DIRECT SPEECH (e.g. 'I know, , she said and
'You must help me!' or by using INDIRECT SPEECH (REPORTED SPEECH).

• Oriel's actual words on the phone were '] baoe a dentist's appointment tomorrow', '] have
forgotten to arrange coverfor my class' and '] hate going to tbe dentist'. If Manuela's husband
had been in the room, Manuela could have reported the conversation as it happened
like this: He says he has a dentist's appointment tomorroui. He says he has forgotten to arrange
coverfor his class. He says he hates going to the dentist - using says in the PRESENT SIMPLE.

• However, because the story is in the past, we have reported Oriel's words in the past,
too, and so we write He said - and then al1the other verbs move 'one tense back',
e.g. He said he had a dentist's appointment. He said he hated going to the dentist.
Notice that Z (1 baue a dentist's appointment) becomes be (He said tbat he had a dentist's
appointment) and tomorroui becomes the next day.

• Oriel said Will you teach my lesson tomorroui? and this is reported later as He asked if she
would teacb his lesson tbe next day. Notice the subjectlverb word-order change Will you
teach becomes ... if she would teach ...

• Ask and tel! are followed by object + to + infinitive when we report commands (She told
her students to be quieto He asked her to wait).

• We can also use REPORTING VERBS, such as suggest (He suggested that tbey meet later) and
promise (He promised to be there on time).

Other ways of reporting conversations

In informal conversation people often report (direct) speech with be like (He's like '1have a
dentist's appointment tomorrow'.) and 90, especially in British English (He goes '1have a dentist's .
appointment tomorrow'). We don't usually teach this, but students at higher levels need to
know about it.
...................•..................................•.•........•.....•......•.••....•.....•..... ..
.........•.•..........•......•.......................................................•.........•...•.........•......•......•......•...
·· ..
· Substitution can be fun .
Many teachers enjoy teaching
other teachers' classes beca use
they can use their 'best' lesson
- and students often like having
something differentl If you want
someone to be a SUBSTITUTE
TEACHER for you, however, you
• should always give them
suggestions (but not orders!)
about what they can do.

.·.........•..••............•.................•.................•...•....................................•...••.....•..................

31
 Drama in Istanhul!
Introducing Yesterday Isil asked her students to
adverbs do some drama. She uses drama with
11'··,
......•................•................. her students about once every two
or three weeks. She often gives them
short extracts from plays and they
have to decide things about the
scene - who the speakers are, how
they feel, how they say their lines,
etc. Then they prepare their scenes
in pairs and groups.
Her students were working happily
and productively, though some of them were working more slowly than the others. One
of her students called her over in a loud voice. 'Miss,' he said enthusiastically, '1 like doing
drama very much.' Her students often tell her things like that!
Later, when they had practised their scenes, the students stood up in pairs and small
groups and acted them out in front of the rest of the class. It was truly enjoyable.
Late that evening as she sat on the ferry taking her back over the Bosphorus to the other
side of Istanbul, Isil wondered whether she could plan a workshop about drama for an
international teachers' conference that she wants to go to. She has never spoken at a
conference before, but she could possibly practise on her colleagues at school.

What is an adverb?
• ADVERBS modify verbs - they say how, when or where a verb happens. In the story
about Isil, the one-word adverbs are yesterday, happily, productively, enthusiastically, later,
truly and nevero

• We can also make ADVERBIAL PHRASES (where two or more words act as a phrase and
behave like one-word adverbs), such as once every two or three weeks, in front of the rest of
the class, back over the Bospborus and at a conference.

• ADVERBS OF MANNER describe how something is done (Her students uiere working happily
and productively, called ber over in a loud voice).

• ADVERBS OF PLACE describe where something is done (acted out their scenes in front of the
class, sat on the ferry).

• ADVERBS OF TIME say when something is done (Yesterday lsil asked her students, later,
when they had practised tbeir scenes).

• FREQUENCY ADVERBS say how often something is done (She often gives tbem ... ,she has
never spoken at a conference, she uses drama with her students once every two or three weeks).

• ADVERBS OF CERTAINTY say how sure it is that something is done (she could possibly practice).
• ADVERBS OF DEGREE say how much something is done (1 like doing drama very much).
• Some words, like late, can be both adverbs and adjectives. We look at this in more
detail in -+15.

32

--~
.
How to make one-word adverbs
• We can make one-word adverbs by adding -Iy to ADJECTIVES, (productive --+ productively).

• If the adjective ends in -y, we change the y to i and add -Iy (happy --+ happily).

• When the adjective ends in -ic, we usually (but not always) add -ally tenthusiastic =
enthusiastically) .

• When adjectives end in -e, we sometimes (but not always) take off the final -e
(true --+ truly), but if the adjective ends in -le we always take off the -e and add -y
(possible --+ possibly).

• When we want to compare the way people do things, we usually add more (some of
them were working more slowly than others).

Where we put adverbs

• We can put some adverbs at the beginning of a sentence (Yesterday Isil asked her
students ... ), in the middle (She often gives them short extracts ... ) or at the end (... she
could possibly practise ... at scbooli.

• We don't usually put an adverb between a verb and its object. We say I like doing
drama very much, not 1 like very muro deing flV"flmfl.

• Adverbs of place and manner usually go at the end of sentences, not in the middle
(Rer students were working happily and enthusiastically, she could plan ... for an
international teachers' conference).

• Adverbs of time do not usually go in the middle of sentences.

• Frequency adverbs often go in the middle of sentences (She often gives them, she had
never spoken), irnmediately before the lEXICAl VERB (but after the AUXllIARY VERB).
• We can sometimes put usually, normally, often,frequently, sometimes and occasionally at
the beginning of sentences (Occasionally Isil goes on holiday to Bodrum), but we don't
usually do this with always, ever, never, rarely or seldom .

................................................................................................
·· ..
: Teaching ideas: adverbs .
.
·· • We often teach frequency adverbs by showing graphs of how often people do things and
·
then getting the students to make sentences like She often goes to the cinema on Fridays.
·· ·
·· • We can practise adverbs of manner by showing our students a short playscript. They
have to decide how the speakers should say their lines (angrily, sadly, happily, etc.). When
·
· passionately, in bored manner, enthusiastically)
students act or take a rale in a roleplay, we can secretly give them an adverb (for example
a and the other students have to guess what

·· the adverb is.

We look at an example of adverb teaching in -+7. ·

·
................................................................................................ .
•......•..••....•....•....•.....•....••..........•.••................................•.......•...
·· ..
~ Using drama in the classroom ~
·
: Drama is a very good way to get students to repeat the same phrases over and over again (in
.
:
: performance and in the rehearsal stage). We can also use drama to train students to speak :
: and act really well, using good STRESS-+26 and INTONATION -+27 so that their English :
: sounds wonderful. It can be enormously motivating. We look at using drama in -+64. :
·
..........•..•.......•.......................................•................................... .

33
 Introducing
nouns
.e ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
"" ..
,

On her way home from the language institute in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, where she teaches,
Roberta stopped off at the supermarket. The Hunt family were coming over for dinner and
she needed to get sorne.things which she had forgotten to buy earlier. She bought sugar and
some milk, in case any of her guests liked milk with their coffee. She didn't know them well,
and anyway they were English. (They had only just moved out to Rio where Sarah Hunt was
the new academic director at a bilingual school. Roberta had first met Sarah in the changing-
room at her gym.) 'Do the English like milk with their coffee?' Roberta asked herself.
When she got home she checked the mail. There was a postcard from her mother and a
letter from her daughter's school. But there was no news about the teachers' conference
which she wanted to go to. She had written to the organisers weeks ago, but so far they
had not sent her a reply. That disappointed her. Perhaps there would be an emaillater.
A few minutes later, Francisco got in from his weekly game of football and they started to
prepare the meal.
In the end, the dinner went very well. The Hunts seemed happy. And the milk? Sarah Hunt
had milk with her coffee, but her husband didn't, and their teenage daughter didn't have
any coffee at all.

Different kinds of noun

In the story about Roberta and Francisco's dinner party, the words Roberta, dinner, things,
sugar, milk, coffee, mail, postcard, letter, conference, reply, email, meal and daughter are all
NOUNS. But not all of them (or the other nouns in the story) behave in the same way.

• Roberta, Francisco, Río and Sarab are all PROPER NOUNS. They give the name of a place,
person or thing. Proper nouns start with a CAPITAL LETTER.
• Supermarket, dinner, postcard, scbool, conference, garne and daughter are all COUNTABLE
NOUNS (sometimes called COUNT NOUNS). This means that wé can talk about them in the
SINGULAR (a supermarket, a dinner, a postcard, etc.) but we can also make them PLURAL

- and we can count them (two supermarkets, tbree dinners,jour postcards, etc.). We can
use these nouns with singular or plural verbs.
• Sugar, milk, coffee and mail are all UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS (sometimes called NON-
COUNT NOUNS). We can't make them plural or talk about 'one' of them. We use

34
 uncountable nouns with singular verbs (the milk is cold, coffee tastes lovely). Notice that
although mail is an uncountable noun, email is a countable noun - we can say 1 got
fifty-six emails today! But we have to be careful about this. Roberta bought some sugar
(uncountable) but after dinner Sarah Hunt had two sugars in her coffee (countable).
This is because when we say two sugars we are talking about things (spoonfuls of sugar,
not the sugary mass). In other words, the same word can sometimes be either
countable or uncountable, depending on the exact meaning that it has.
• Family is a COLLECTIVE NOUN. It describes a collection of things. We can say The family
are coming to dinner if we are talking about the individual members of the family or
The family is coming to dinner if we are talking about the family as a unit. (In American
English singular verbs are normally used with collective nouns.)
• Supermarket, postcard and football are all COMPOUND NOUNS. In other words, two nouns
(e.g. post and card) are joined together to make a new noun (postcard). Sometimes with
compound words, we separate the words (bilingual school, language institute) and
sometimes we use a HYPHEN (changing-room) so that there is no ambiguity - the room
itself is not changing.
• News is a PLURAL NOUN, but we always use it with a singular verb (The news is terrible).
• The English is an example of an ADJECTIVE which turns into a collective noun when we
put the definite article in front of it and use it to talk about people or things in general
(the rich, tbe poor, etc.).

Pronouns
In the story about Roberta and Francisco's dinner party there are a number of PERSONAL
PRONOUNS:

• She, they and he are SUBJECT PRONOUNS in phrases like she teaches English, they were
English and they started to prepare the meal. Other subject pronouns are l,you, it and we.
• Them and ber are OBJECT PRONOUNS in phrases like she didn't know tbem well and they had
not sent her a reply. Other object pronouns are me,you, him, it and uso
• Her, his and tbeir are POSSESSIVEADJECTIVES because they pre-modify nouns by saying
whose it is/they are. There are no POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS in the story. Mine, yours, hers,
his, its, ours and tbeirs are possessive pronouns, used in sentences like The idea was
mine. That house is ours.
• Herself in Roberta asked herselfis a REFLEXIVE PRONOUN. Other reflexive pronouns are
myse/f, yourse/f, himse/f, itse/f, ourselves, yoürselues and themselves. We generally use
reflexive pronouns in English when we want to emphasise that we did something
ourselves (1cut myself, Did yOztwrite this composition yourself?).
• Wbere and which are RELATIVE PRONOUNS which introduce RELATIVE CLAUSES -+2. Other
relative pronouns are whose, where, that and whom. However, that in That disappointed
ber is one of four DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS (this, that, these and those). We use them to
identify which 'thing' we are talking about.
We suggest teaching ideas for nouns in -+17 .

................................................................................................ .
The pronoun gender problem ···
English has no gender-neutral pronoun! We have to say things like If a teacher doesn't plan :·
his or her lessons, he or she may have problems. Some writers use they instead, e.g. If a teacher •
doesrü plan their lessons, they may have problems, but that is not a very good solution. A better :
.. way of doing it may be to say If teachers don'! plan their lessons,they may have problems.
.................................................................................................
•.
.

3S
 Steve's big idea
Articles When he was at university Steve had an
idea.Actually he had a lot of ideas (that's
what a university is for!), but the idea that
changed his life for ever was the one about
teaching.

The idea came to him when he was listening

to the radio (Steve likes radio programmes).
An interviewer was asking the Prime Minister
about his policies for the unemployed. 'We
live at a time,' the Prime Minister said, 'when
people can't just expect to get a job
automatically. Work does not come to people.
People will have to go looking for work.'

Steve wondered where he could look when

he had finished university. Then he
remembered a friend of his.The friend had
done a teacher training course and now he
was a teacher of English in China. Wow,
Steve thought, I've always wanted to see the
Great Wall of China. I've dreamed of seeing
Sugarloaf Mountain in Rio de [aneiro. l've
imagined standing in front of the Kremlin in
Red Square in Moscow. That's it. l'm a native
speaker of English. Surely I can get a job like
my friend!

What are articles?

In the story about Steve there are two (or maybe three!) types of article, the INDEFINITE
ARTICLE a (he uias a teacher ofEnglish) and the DEFINITEARTICLE the (he uias listening to tbe
radio). Some people also talk about a ZERO ARTICLE - which means the times when we don't
need to use an article at all (People will have to go lookingfor work).

Using the indefinite article

We use a before a word which starts with a CONSONANT (a teacher, a native speaker) or a
VOWEL which sounds like a consonant (a universit:y). We use an before a word that starts

with a vowel-like sound (an idea, an interviewer).

We use a and an before singular COUNTABLE NOUNS which refer to something in general,
rather than something specific (Steve had an idea .. .) or when we want to talk about 'one
of a kind' (An interuietuer uias asking ... I'm a native speaker ... that's what a uniuersity isfor).
We use a or an before certain professions (He uias a teacber of English) and before some
QUANTIFIERS -+14 (He had a lot of ideas).

36

----- - ---- - - -
Using the definite article

• We use the when we are deseribing something speeifie (the idea that changed his liJe) or
before a noun that has already been mentioned (so people know whieh specifie noun
we are talking about), e.g. Then he remembered a friend of his. The friend had done a
teacher training course.

• We use the when we assume that people wiU know what 'thing' we are talking about,
e.g. the radio.
• We use the when what we are talking about is unique (there is only one of them),
e.g. the Prime Minister.
• We use the to talk about a group of people who are clearly plural, e.g. the unemployed
~12.
• We use the in some proper names (the Great Wall ofChina, the Kremlin) but not in
others (Sugar LoafMountain, Red Square).

No article / zero article

We don't generally use a or the when we talk about general (rather than speeifie) things:
• We don't use a or the when we talk about abstraet eoneepts and/or uneountable nouns
in general, e.g. Work does not come to people, ... when he had finished university.
• We don't use a or the when we talk about plural nouns in general, e.g. Steve likes radio
prog;rammes.

• We don't use a or the when we talk about institutions in general, e.g. Steve was at
university or about meals, e.g. Steve had lunch at one o'clock.
However, if we then refer to any of these things speeifieally, we would use the, e.g. The
work 1 did last week .,. the university where Steve did his first degree ... the radio programme
1 listened to last night.

Non-native speakers of the language they teach are good examples for their students.
They can say (to their students) 'If I learnt English, so can you!' and they may understand
their students' learning problems better than someone from 'outside' their students'
language. Some are fantastic teachers; some are not:

Most people now agree that the most important question is not 'native speaker or non-
native speaker?'; instead the two tests are 'Does the teacher speak English that is good
enough?' and 'Does the teacher know how to teach?'

37
 Surprise!
Quantifiers Because she was correcting homework and planning lessons,
Brittany went to bed late - and then she overslept!
.\1' •• ' •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
She had a quick shower but she didn't have any time to put
on her makeup. Luckily, she doesn't wear much anyway, but
she had wanted to put on some lipstick at least. Too bad! She
made herself a coffee and checked themail.Butnobody.it
seemed, had remembered her birthday - except for [ohn and Clare whom she had invited
for dinner later in the day.
At school, none of her colleagues seemed to have remembered that it was her birthday
either and that made her miserable, but at least the children in her second grade class
,-were in a happy mood. It cheered her up, and so every time one of them did something
good or gave her a correct answer, she gave them a gold star. They loved that. Luckily, she
had enough stars so everyone went home with at least one!
When she got home, Brittany was still tired, so she lay down to have a bit of rest but she
didn't get much sleep because her parents rang her from the UK to wish her a happy
birthday. At least somebody had remembered! When she finished the call there was no
time left for sleeping. She had to get dinner ready.
A few minutes later the doorbell rango She opened the door. There were a lot of people
outside. All of them were wearing party hats! A few of them were carrying plates of food.
Most of them were colleagues from her school, but there were many others, too. And then
they started to sing 'Happy Birthday ...'.

What are quantifiers?

QUANTIFIERS are words which tell people how many things (or how much of a thing) we
are talking about. In the story about Brittany, the quantifiers are a bit, a few, enough, a lot
of, all, any, many, most, no, none and some.

Quantifiers, nouns, sentences and questions

• A bit of(a bit of a resti is a less FORMAL way of saying a little (TU have just a little rest).
• We use a few (a few minutes later, a few of them were carrying) with COUNTABLE NOUNS.
When we use few (without a) with countable nouns, it has a negative meaning (Few of
them were happy).

• We use a lot of(there uiere a lot of people outside) with both countable and UNCOUNTABLE
NOUNS. Lots ofis more informal and is normally used in conversation or speaking-like
writing (Tve been to lots of parties!).
• Al! is used with countable and uncountable nouns (all of them were wearing).

• Any (she didn't have any time) is used in NEGATIVE SENTENCES and in QUESTIONS (Did she
have any time?). But we sometimes use it in AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES such as TU read any
books (I like them all). In this case, any is stressed.

38

-- ----
 - ----
.~'

Ouantifiers

• Enough (she had enough stars) is used with uncountable and countable nouns,
• Euery (every time) is used with singular nouns (every day, every week, etc.).
• We use many with countable nouns (many others). We often use many in negative
statements and questions, such as Tbere aren't many people here. How many people tuent
to bis lecture? In affirmative sentences we often use a lot ofwith quite in sentences like
Quite a lot of people left early.
• Mucb (she didn't get much sleep) is often used in nega tive sentences. We also use much
in questions, especially with How (How much doyou want?).
• We use no (tbe1 ewas no time left) with plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns.
r

• Some (sbe bad wanted to put on some lipstick) is used with countable and uncountable
nouns and has a positive meaning in sentences like Some people are nicer tban otbers!
It can have a negative meaning, too (1 don't like some people), but usually with
countable nouns only. We also use some in OFFERs and REQUEsTs such as Would you like
S01ne tea? Could 1have some suga1';please?

Quantifiers plus!
• Many of the quantifiers in the story about Brittany are used with of + PRONOUN in
phrases such as Most of them uiere colleagues and a few of them were carrying. This is a
common way of talking about specific things. We can also use a quantifier + of +
pronounlthe + noun in phrases such as none of ber colleagues.
• Many and much are often used with so ... that ... in sentences such as There uiere so
many people that they didn't fit in the house and She ate so much chocolate that she felt sick.
• Nobody (paragraph 2) and somebody (at least somebody had remembered) are not strictly
quantifiers, but we make a number of words with any, eve1y, some and no + body, thing,
place, tubere (anybody, eoerybody, nobody, something, anything, everywhere, somewhere,
nouibere, etc.). These words occur with singular verbs - we say everybody was late
(not everybedy were late) .

................................................................................................
··· ..
: Praise, medals and rewards
.:
·
: Teachers often think about how to
.
:
give their students 'rnedals' when •
they do something well. But what •
should we give thern? Gold stars :
(Iike Brittany) or PRAl SE (Well done! •
Fantasticl You are so ciever! etc.)?

Praising students toa much - and ·

for no particular reason - probably
doesn't work. It may even have a
··
negative effect. But not praising ·
them isn't the answer. We know that
YOUNG lEARNERs -+91-101 want ···
and benefit from teacher praise. ··
Older students (including ADUlT ·
lEARNERs) want this, tool We look
··
at appropriate praise and teacher
FEEDBACK in -+72.
··
·
··
···
·
........................•....•........•.•.................•..•..•.........................•...... .
39
 .•.

The spicier the better

Introducing Hiro and Sam are in a restaurant.
adjectives Hiro: l'rn sorry I got here late, Sam.
",e ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Sam: That's OK. We said we would have a late dinner.
Hiro: I had to go and see my father in hospital, remember?
Sam: Oh yes, I forgot. How is he?
Hiro: He seemed well and happy. He was better than yesterday, anyway, more cheerful.
He should make a good recovery.
Sam: That's great. You must be happy about that.
Hiro: When I got there he was sitting up in bed wearing a large, new, red and green silk
jacket that my sister had given him. She likes you, by the way.
Sam: Who? Your sister? Me?
Hiro: Ves,she says you're really good-looking.
Sam: She does?
Hiro: Hey, come on, don't look so uncomfortable.
Sam: lt's just that, well ...
Hiro: Forget I said anything.
Sam: Anyway, this is your first time in a real Mexican restaurant - a Japanese-Mexican
restaurant - so what are you going to eat?
Hiro: I want to try some of those world-famous jalapeno peppers.
Sam: It's not jalapeno, Hiro, it's jalapeño.
Hiro: Are you saying my pronunciation is bad?
Sam: Hey, don't get mad at me. lt's just that I worked in a Mexican restaurant once.
Hiro: OK, OK.
Sam: Here, try one of mine. But be careful. They are very spicy.
Hiro: I don't care about that. The spicier the better.
Sam: Sure?
Hiro: Ves,of course. Let's see. May I?Wow that is the hottest, spiciest, most delicious
taste I have ever ... water! Water!

What are adjectives?

ADJECTIVES describe NOUNS. The adjectives in the conversation between Hiro and Sam
include better, careful, cbeerful, delicious,jirst, good-looking, great, green, happy, hot, late, mad,
Mexican, new, red, spicy, uncomfortable, well and world-famous.
Some words can be both adjectives and ADVERBS. In the sentence We said we would have a
late dinner, late is an adjective because it is describing the dinner. But in the phrase 1got
here late, it is an adverb because it is describing the verb (got bere). When Hiro describes
his father in the phrase He seemed well and happy, well is an adjective. But in sentences like
She plays the clarinet well, uiell is an adverb because it is modifying a verbo

Making adjectives

• Adjectives can be single words (a late dinner; a good recovery, a Mexican restaurant, they
are ve1y spicy) or made up of two words such as good-looking (adjective + PARTICIPLE) and

40

--- ~
 Introducing adjectives

world-famous (noun + adjective). Other combinations include adjective/noun +

PREPOSITION (rolled-up sleeves, a cast-offjacket) and noun + participle (a life-changing
event). Two-word adjectives are normally joined by a HYPHEN (-) -+12.

• Many adjectives can be changed or made with AFFIXES -+19 such as un (comfortable --+
uncomfortable), dis (agreeable --+ disagreeable), less (clueless) and fui (careful).

• You must be happy about that is an example of the kind of adjective that is always
followed by a specific preposition (about), whereas mad (== angry) in Don 't get mad at
me! can be followed by at or about (1uias mad about what he said).
• Better, more cheerful and spicier are examples of COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES. With short
adjectives we add -er for the comparative form (n ice --+ nicer, young --+ younger). If the
adjective ends in y, we change the y to i (spicy --+ spicier, noisy --+ noisier). lf the
adjective ends in VOWEL + CONSONANT, we double the last consonant (wet --+ uietter,
thin --+ thinner).

• If the adjective is longer, we usually say more + adjective (more cheerful, more expensive),
though some words can be said in both ways (clever --+ cleoerer, more cleueri. Some
words have comparative forms that are irregular (good --+ better).
• Hottest, spiciest and most delicious are examples of SUPERLATlVE ADJECTIVES. We give short
adjectives a superlative form by adding -est (nicest, youngest) and, if necessary, we
change the spelling in the same way as for comparative forms. With longer adjectives
we add most. There are also irregular superlative forms like good --+ best.

How adjectives work

• When we use more than one adjective before a noun, we separate them with cornmas
(that is the hottest, spiciest, most delicious taste ... ).

• When we use more than one adjective after verbs like be and seem, we usually put and
before the last adjective (He seemed well and happy). We use and when two colours are
describing the same thing (a large, new, red and green jacket).
• When we have a sequence of adjectives, we usually put general qualities (such as big)
before adjectives which describe the specific type (such as red). GENERAL ADJECTIVES
usually appear in the sequence size (big), physical properties (heavy), age (new, young)
and shape (square). SPECIFIC ADJECTIVES appear in the sequence colour (red), origin
(Japanese), material (silk) and purpose/use (musical). This means we saya 1a7'ge,neta,
red and green silk jacket rather than a red and green si/k, new, iarge, jflfket.

• We can use comparative form adjectives in the pattern the ... the better (the spicier the
better), and sometimes we repeat comparative adjectives to emphasise the adjectival
quality (lt was getting hotter and hotter).
• Superlative adjective forms are often used in phrases such as the most ... 1 have ever
seen/tasted, etc. (the most delicious taste 1have ever experiencedy

• We can use adjectives with the DEFINITE ARTICLE -+13 to make generalnouns (e.g. the
blind, the ricb, etc.).

............................................................................................... .
· Do you like being correded?
• Hiro was not very pleased when Sam corrected his pronunciation. Most of us don't
particularly like it when people tell us we are wrong.

· The language classroom is no different, and yet we frequently have to tell students when
they make mistakes and help them to CORRECT themselves (or correct them ourselves).
·· That is why the way we do it is so important -+73.
.·.....•....•.......•....•.........•....•.•..•..•....•.•......................•.....•.............

41
 Social networks
Whatcomes Going into the small room at the end of the corridor, Roberta
after nouns? sat down in front of the computer. It was the computer she
,',e ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• had bought when her old one's hard disk had started to go
wrong. Her new computer was a laptop with a lot of extra
features and she needed it for her online work with her
students. Roberta had started to worry that her students
would be bored unless she used modern technology in her teaching.
She turned on the switch at the back of her computer. She looked at all the email
messages waiting for her answer, but she ignored them. Then she looked at the homework
posted on a special site she had created for her students, but she dldn't feellike correcting
it. Instead she went to her favourite social network site and looked at all the news about
her friends. She sent messages to her favourite people and she had many online
conversations about teaching and other things. She posted sorne new messages on her
own web page and then watched a film clip on a video site which her friend had told
her about.
By now it was late and she realised that she had spent too much time talking to her
friends online. She was very tired. She would have to do all her work in the morning.

Before and after

In the PHRASE the small room at the end of the corridor (in sentence 1 of the story about
Roberta) we describe the NOUN room with an ADJECTIVE before it (small) and a phrase after
it (at the end of the corridon.
Nouns in the story such as computer, laptop, work, switch, messages, homework, site and
conuersations are also described by phrases or CLAUSES which come after them,
e.g. conversations about teaching.

Describing nouns

• Many of the nouns are described with PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES - a PREPOSITION + a group
of words - in phrases such as a laptop with a lot of new features, her online work with
her students, the switch at the back of her computer, all tbe netos about her friends,
some neui messages on her own web page and a film clip on a video site.

• Three of the nouns are described with RELATIVE CLAUSES -+2 in the phrases the computer
she had bought, a special site she had created for her students, a video site which her
friend had told her about.

• Two nouns are described by PARTICIPLE PHRASES: a PRESENT PARTICIPLE (the email messages
waitingfor her answer) and a PAST PARTICIPLE (the homework posted on a special site).

Participles (and gerunds)

Present participles and GERUNDS are both formed with the BASE FORM of the verb + -ing.
But how do we know which is which?

42

- - --"
 -

--- -- - - --- ~------- -- -_.

What comes after nouns?

• Where the -ing form is part of a verb or behaves like a verb, it is a participle, for
example in phrases such as going into the small room or she is talking to her friends. But
if the -ing form can be replaced by a NOUN ~ and is being used like a noun ~ it is a
gerund, for example in phrases such as teaching is a unmderful occupation or listening to
music is one of my favourite things.
• Participles can also be verb-like adjectives (e.g. a crying baby, a loving husband). But we
have to be careful! When Roberta worries that her students will be bored, she is using
a past participle (bored) as an adjective. Students often mix up the two participles and
say things like 1 am boring (= that's my character) when they mean to say 1 am bored (=
that's how 1 feel).

Technophile or technophobe?
• Some teachers use nothing more in class than
a BOARD and a book. Others use computers,
INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARDS (IWBS) or more
mobile technology, such as SMART PHONES,
TABlET COMPUTERS and various forms of
e-reader. In some countries, access to the
INTERNET is free for all and many children are
taught using computers and online resources
rather than using books, etc. But in other
countries there are fewer possibilities.

Good teaching is about how teachers and

students relate to (and interact with) each
other - and about how teachers can help
students get and remember knowledge.
Technology - from old-fashioned boards to
modern internet resources - can help, but it's
110twhat we use that matters, but how we
useit

However, in the modern world, it is important

for teachers to keep up with new developments
in educational technology so that they can
take advantage of new and exciting
possibilities if they are appropriate. .
We look at classroom resources in ~85-87. .
...............................................................................•......................................................

................................................................................................ ..
·:·Teaching ideas: post-modification
.:
·• Post-modification is about the words that come after the noun. Pre-modification is about
words that come before the noun. We can help students to recognise both of these by •
: getting them to underline examples in any TEXT they come across.

We can have them reorder phrases to make whole sentences, e.g.

a) Looked at the watch / on his wrist / The man / waiting at the station •
• b) in a pink floral dress / in his hand / The woman / walked towards aman / with a big suitcase
• We can give students a sentence and get them to underline the nouns. They then have to :
add post-modification using prepositional phrases, relative clauses, participle phrases, etc.
· We can put objects all over the classroom and get the students to move them around using
.
no pre-modification (so they can't use colour adjectives, etc.). For example, Put the box with
• the flowers on it next to the book about history •
·
................................................................................................ .
43
 Elements of the noun phrase
A NOUN PHRASE can be a) just one NOUN such as love, b) a noun with something in front of
it - such as an ADJECTIVE - to describe it, such as romantic love, or c) a phrase in which the
noun has, for example, ARTICLES, QUANTIFIERS and adjectives before it and extra description
Teaching the after it, e.g. The extraordinarily strong love which he suddenly felt. Noun phrases are based
on the noun at the heart of the phrase (in this case love).
noun phrase In this unit we look at ideas for teaching some of the elements of the noun phrase, and
>,1' ••
"~ ...............•......•.....•...••••.•••
activities to help students to make longer noun phrases.

1 Countable and uncountable nouns (1)

Countable Uncountable We can show our ELEMENTARY students a picture of a shopping basket. They first have to
nouns nouns match words such as milk, sugar, bananas,juice, bamburger, etc. with the items in the
basket. Next, they listen to an audio in which someone is talking about their shopping.
baV1aV1a milk They have to decide whether they are COUNTABLE NOUNS or UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS ~12 and
put them in the correct place in the chart on the left.
Finally, they use the words to talk about what they like to eat and how it is made.

2 Countable and uncountable nouns (2)

We can ask ELEMENTARY students to say what Maggie is going to get at the market.
They have to choose whether to saya (COUNTABLE) or some (UNCOUNTABLE). For example,
they can say She's going to buy an apple or She's going to buy some fiour.

3 Articles
We can ask INTERMEDIATE students whether they can put a(n) or the in the following
sentences - or whether they can leave out ARTICLES altogether ~13.

1 _ war never solves anything.

2 _ First World War was one of the worst in history.
3 It was _ day like _ any other day, but then the soldiers carne, etc.

We can use similar gapped sentences with items such as RELATlVE PRONOUNS ~12 in
sentences like He 's the man 1 meto

4 Possessive pronouns
We can create a lost property office and fill it with a range of objects. We can then show
elementary students different people. The students have to guess who has lost what using
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS ~12, saying 1 tbink it's hers, 1 tbink it's theirs, etc.

5 Prepositions
We can get our LOWER-INTERMEDIATE students to learn and practise PREPOSITIONS ~16 by
showing them a picture of an adventure trail/obstacle course. They have to match the
following sentences with the activities shown in the picture:

a) Climb _ the neto d) Run _ the trees.

b) Crawl _ the tunnel. e) Slide _ the skyline,
e) Jump _ the wall. f) Walk _ the wire.

and then complete the sentences with the correct preposition from this list:

along down off over through (x2) up

The students can then design their own adventure trail.

44
6 Comparative adjectives
• In the following DISCOVERY activity ~46, elementary students see these adjectives and
their comparative forms:

quicker -> quicker lovely -> lovelier bad -> worse

fast -> faster thin -> thinner comfortable -> more comfortable
nice -> nicer big -> bigger expensive -> more expensive
noisy -> noisier good -> better

We then ask them how we make short adjectives comparative (add e1 what happens if
r),

they end iny (we change it to i), what happens when one-syllable adjectives end in
VOWEL + CONSONANT (they double the consonant), and what we do if the adjective is
long (we add more), etc. ~15.
• When we want our students to practise COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES, we can ask them to write
down words within a certain category (methods of transport, for example) on separate
pieces of paper. They put the pieces of paper into a hat (or bowl). A student then takes
out two pieces of paper and compares the things that they have selected. If the words
are truck and bicycle, they make a sentence such as Trucks are usually bigger than bicycles.

Making noun phrases

1 Adjective order
• We can ask INTERMEDIATE students to think of their favourite object. They have to write #
down as many adjectives as they can think of to describe it - including size, colour,
price, where it comes from, what it is used for, etc.
• The students now have to describe their objects using at least three of their adjectives
before the noun. Can they get the adjective order correct? ~15

2 Pictures to make an information gap

We can show pairs of students two different pictures to create an INFORMATlON GAP ~50.
They have to find differences between the two pictures in order to practise such things
as PREPOSITIONS (A: In my picture the girl is sitting opposite the boy. B: My picture is different.
The girl is standing in front of the boy) or clothes vocabulary (A: In my picture she is wearing
trousers. B: In my picture she is wearing a skir-t).

3 The never-ending sentence

We can give the students a sentence. In pairs or groups, they have to expand it by using
as many words and phrases as possible. For example, the sentence The man kissed the
lady 's hand might be transformed into The good-looking old Spanish man with grey hair and a
luxurious grey beard gently and affectionately kissed the beautijul talllady's outstretcbed band
which she had held up to him ...

4 Definitions from the dictionary

• We can playa version of the GAME 'Call my bluff'. In teams, the students have to
write three DICTlONARY definitions for a difficult word or phrase ~82. One of the
definitions is true but the other two must be falseoStudents in Team A read their
definitions. Team B must decide which is the true one.
• With more advanced students, we can playa 'random definition' game. Without
looking at the dictionary, a student from Team A gives a page number, column
number and word number (e.g. the sixth word). A student from Team B finds the
word and reads out the definition. Can the Team A student identify the word?

45
 Whatwords
mean
.........................................
. '''"

Irina was fast asleep when the alarm went off. She opened her eyes with difficulty.
----.

Her head was throbbing - she had a headache; but she still had to get ready to teach at
her school. After she had finished breakfast, she put on her coat and headed to the bus
stop. When she got to the staffroom, she found that all the other teachers were having a
meeting about Svatislav Melaschenko, the new head of the school. They were unhappy
about him because (Vladimir said) his new power had gone to his head. He wouldn't lísten
any more. He had become very pig-headed. Should they go and talk to him about lt, they
wondered. In the end, Vladimir tossed a coin - heads or tails (heads = we go to see hirn,
tails = we forget about it) - and it was heads. They decided that they would all go and see
him during the lunch break. Irina didn't want to be part of this so she tried to keep her
head down, but in spite of this she somehow found herself at the head of the líttle
procession as they marched down the corridor towards Mr Melaschenko's office.

What does head mean?

In the text about Irina the word head has many different meanings (we call two words
which have the same spelling and pronunciation, but mean different things, HOMONYMS).
• In her bead uias throbbing, head refers to the top part of a body, the part that is
supported by the neck. In the third sentence of the story (the new bead), head means
the principal of a school. In the last sentence (at the bead of the little procession), head
means at the front. In all of these cases head is a NOUN ~12.
• In the second sentence of the story (... and headed to the busstop), head means to go
towards. It is a VERB ~4.
• Head also appears in various IDIOMATIC phrases ~21 (power had gone to bis bead =
made him feel more important than necessary, beads 01' tails = what we say when we
toss a coin, tTying to keep ber bead down = she didn't want people to notice her).

46
 What words mean

How head is related to other words

• Sometimes head can join with other words (headache, head teacher, headword, headband)
to make new COMPOUND words -+12.
• There are words which have an opposite meaning to head (e.g. tails in the expression
heads or tails). We call words with opposite meanings ANTONYMS.
• In the phrase headed to the bus stop (sentence 2 in the story above) we could use
proceeded instead of headed because proceed is a SYNONYM - it means more or less the
same as head. But as with many other synonyrns, it doesn't mean exactly the same. And
what is a synonyrn (or an antonyrn) for one meaning of a word may not be a synonyrn
for another. Synonyrns (S) and antonyrns (A) for rich in the sentence The food was really
rich (S = filling, A = light) are not the same as for The president was fantastically rich (S =
well-off, A = poor).
• Irina's principal is described as pig-headed. This means the same as stubborn or
strong-willed, but it has a more negative CONNOTATION. A connotation is an idea or
feeling that a word suggests, which is more than just its meaning.
• Another kind of relationship is between words that are a part of something. So, for
example, ears, eyes, brotus and chins are parts of a head. We call head a SUPERORDINATE and
say that ear is a HYPONYM of head. Eye, ear, brow and chin are called CO-HYPONYMS
because they are all at the same level in a hierarchy of meaning - as this diagram shows:

• We also have relationships between words that are a type of something (e.g. bicycles,
buses, cars, trains, trucks, etc. are types of vehicle).

Teaching ideas: word meaning

The examples of the word head tell us a lot about how we can ELlCIT and teach vocabulary.

o The most important thing to decide is which meaning or meanings of a word to introduce
and what level to do it at. For example, BEGINNER or ELEMENTARY students need to know
the meaning of head (== the thing on top of your neck). but probably won't need to
recognise or use head of a procession until they are UPPER-INTERMEDIATE level or above. We
decide which words to teach on the basis of FREQUENCY (how common a word is), how
useful it is (for students at that particular level), and how appropriate it is for the students:
the word stethoscope, for example, is a frequent and useful word for beginner students of
English for nursing, but may not be so useful for general English students at beginner level.

• We shouldn't just teach individual words. Words occur as COLLOCATIONS Clikefast asleep
• in the story about Irina) and in IDIOMATIC phrases and LEXICAL CHUNKS, such as heads or
• tails, keep your head down, I can't make head or tail of it (== I can't understand it at all), It's
doing my head in (== INFORMAL British English for '1am confused and angry about in and
Let's put our heads together on this (== let's collaborate to find a solution) So we should
teach collocations, phrases and lexical chunks, too, starting with those that are the most
frequent, useful and appropriate. We discuss words which often occur together in -+20.

• o It is often helpful to teach words together with other words that they are related to.
We don't usually teach empty without teaching full, for example .
................................................................................................ .
47
 A problem solved
Howwords Brittany is sitting in a diner having brunch. She calls it
are formed 'brunching' (which her British friends think is funny) and she
,,,,., ......................................... likes to do it at the weekend after a long week's 'lessoning'
(another of her made-up words which she uses instead of
teaching). So today she slept late, inputted some lesson plans
on her computer, got on her bike and came to the dinero
Her mobile phone rings. She retrieves it from her handbag (Brittany stilllikes using words
like handbag instead of the American purse) and presses the green button with her long
thumbnail. She lifts the phone to her ear. It is Amelie's mother. Amelie is a child in
Brittany's class.
At first, when Amelie joined her class, Brittany thought the girl was really intelligent, but as
the weeks went by she began to think that she had overestimated her ability. And then,
gradually, she became aware of the girl's unhappiness.
She tried to find out what the problem was but it was impossible to get Amelie to talk to
her - at first. But in the end she discovered that Tracy, another girl in the class, was the
ringleader of a gang of girls who had been bullying Amelie. Brittany's head teacher wanted
to exclude Tracy, but Brittany disagreed. She worked with Tracy, Amelie and the whole class
and now the situation has improved.
That's why Amelie's mother has rung. She wants to say thank you.

Making words from different bits and pieces

Brittany no tices Amelie's unbappiness. This WORD is made up of three different elements.
The ROOT WORD (similar to the BASE FORM of the VERB ~4) is the ADJECTIVE happy. We can
add the SUFFIX -ness (changing the -y to -z) to make the NOUN (happiness) and we can add
the PREFIX un- to give it a negative meaning (unhappiness). There are various ways in
which we can manipulate root words:
• AFFIXESare small elements of meaning that we can add to the beginnings (prefixes) and
endings (suffixes) of root words. Prefixes in the story about Brittany and Amelie
include retrieues, overestimated, unhappiness, impossible, discouered, exclude and disagreed.
There are two suffixes in the story, unbappiness and situation.
• We add the -s MORPHEME (as an affix) to make INFLECTIONS in words like rings, retrieoes
and lifts. We add the -ed morpheme to inflect base forms of verbs in words likejoined,
discouered, disagreed and improued.
• We use the term WORD FAMllY to talk about the different words that are created with a
root word - through affixation, etc. When Brittany worried that she had overestimated
Amelie's ability, ability is part of a family that includes able, ably, enable, disable, etc.
• We can join two words together to make new COMPOUND WORDS, such as weekend,
bandbag, ringleader and head teacber. We discuss COMPOUND NOUNS (and whether they
are separate or have a HYPHEN, etc.) in ~12.
• We can mix two words together and create a new BlEND in words like bruncb
(= breakjast + luncb).

48

- - - "--.,,-

~
 How words are formed

• We can shorten words and just use one part of them, e.g. phone instead of telepbone or
mobile pbone, bike instead of bicycle.
• Some people change a word's grammatical class. Brittany talks about brunching and
lessoning - and these may be her own special words - but nouns like input are now
regularly used as verbs in sentences like She inputted some lesson plans on her computer .

...........................•..•.•
· ..
Teaching ideas: word formation American and
: British English
We can get our students to complete charts with word families (xxx xxx means there is no
íorrn), e.g. ·· British English and

Adjective Adverb Noun Verb

· American English are
usually very similar, but
··· so me things have different
able
unable
ably ability
inability
enable
disable
·· names, e.g. eellphone

disability ·· (American) - mobile phone

intelligent intelligently intelligence xxxxxx

· (British). purse (American)
- handbag (British), eandy
unintelligent unintelligently (American) - sweet
(British).
We can ask them to change the form of a word and rewrite a sentence to include it, e.g.
Other varieties of English
She spoke about motivation. IN TELLlGENT have their own words, too.
She spoke iY\felliqeY\fILj abouf n'\ofivafioY\ For example, Australians
We can get the students to NOTICE what kinds of ending different grammar words have. may talk about this arvo
For example the endings -ion, -enee, -ness, etc. are usually nouns; -obte, -ic and -y are often
adjectives, -Iy often comes at the end of adverbs.
· CBritish = this aftemoon)
and Irish speakers may
. enjoy good eraie (British
We can get our students to make up their own words (Iike Brittany) using prefixes and •

. suffixes and then use them to tell a story

.. · English = fun)
............................................................................................... .· .

Bullying
Many children are bullied (or bully) at schooL It is something that happens. But it shouldn't.
It is harmful for both the bullied and the bully. Many children who bully have been bullied in
their turn, and many children who are bullied - face to face or through cyber-bullying Cusing
mobile phones and the INTERNET for example) - become extremely unhappy. Both their
schoolwork and their development can suffer.

Teachers and schools need to have a clear policy on bullying so that children understand that
it is unacceptable, and why. They need to know that if they are being bullied, they should talk
about it to someone.

Children who are being bullied need to know who they can talk to. They must be sure that
they can say what is going on without suffering any consequences. If they cannot talk to an
adult, they should tell their friends what is going on.

Teachers should talk to children who bully others and help them understand why it is
wrong -this is always better than just punishment Cwhich can seem like just another form
of bullying).

Teachers should involve the whole class in discussions about why bullying is wrong and how
to stop it.
 .! --------

Nervous in Alexandria
Collocation and
lexical phrases
"
...........................................

Hassan was in abad mood. He hadn't slept a wink all night. In fact, he'd been sleeping
badly ever since the director of the school had announced that he was coming to observe
Hassan's lessons. It was amazing how much it made him nervous. He was
absolutely convinced that he could teach, but the problem was that when people watched
him, he sometimes forgot what he was doing.

Oh well. He looked out at the grey sea.The sun had not yet risen above the buildings of
Alexandria behind him. l'd better get a move on, he thought. He hadn't finished preparing
his lesson.

When he got back to the flat his mother, who is English,was already up. 'Would you like a
cup of coffee?' she said.

'Don't worry. l'll get it myself,' he replied in an aggressive tone of voice, without thinking.
His mother looked as if she would burst into tears, and he was instantly sorry.

'It's because of this observation,' he explained.

'l'm sure you'll be OK,' she told him.

'Yes,it'll be fine,' he replied, but he didn't feel as calm about it as he sounded.

Words alone, words together

Hassan is absolutely convinced that he can teach. Of course, we can use the word convinced
by itself (he was convinced that he could teach), but we often use the COLLOCATION absolutely
convinced when we want to make it sound stronger. Collocations are words which are
frequently used together. There are quite a few examples of collocations in Hassan's story:
• Hassan was in abad mood - mood collocates with other ADJECTIVES ~15, too (a good
mood, afoul mood, a black mood).

• Hassan had been sleeping badly - sleep also collocates with other ADVERBS ~11 (sleep
well, sleep soundly/deeply, sleep peacefully, sleep late).

• Hassan's mother nearly burst into tears - tears also collocates with other VERBS ~4 apart
from burst into, such as break doum in tears, be moved to tears, bring tears to
somebody's eyes, be reduced to tears, (his) eyes filled witb tears, tears ran/rolled doum
bis face, etc.

50

- ~ ---~
Lexical phrases, lexical chunks
Poor Hassan hadn't slept a wink all night, Unlike sleep + badly, not sleep a wink is not a
collocation, it is a LEXICAL PHRASE - often referred to as a LEXICAL CHUNKo In a lexical phrase,
two or more words join together and together act as if they are one unit of meaning,
Phrasal verbs like run out of petrol are lexical phrases, too. There are severallexical
phrases in the story about Hassan:
• When Hassan thinks 1'd better get a move on, he is using a FIXED LEXICAL PHRASEo You
can't change any of the words in the phrase, People often use this phrase when they
need to leave.
• When Hassan says 1'll get it myself! he is using a SEMI-FIXED LEXICAL PHRASEo We can
change the verb in the phrase and say, for example, 1'll do/make it myse/f.
• Hassan's mother asks Would you like a cup of coffee? The phrase would you like a ooo is a
lexical chunk which acts as a 'stem' to which you can add different words and phrases
(cup of coffee, drink, tijt, etc.). We can also change the chunk by saying Would you like
some/any ooo?

• Some lexical phrases, such as it was amazing how much it made him nervous, act as
SENTENCE FRAMESo

Why collocations and chunks matter

If we want to know a word, we need to know what other words go with it. Teachers
should show students which words 'live with each other', and offer activities like matching
activities ~48 and dictionary research ~46 to help them to come across thern. They
need to know, for example, that we say make the bed and not organise or tidy the bed!
Alllanguages have lexical chunks, and if we want to speak a language fluently, we need
to be able to use these chunks as if they were one word, Fluent speakers never pause or
hesitate in the middle of a lexical chunk - they don't say 1'd (pause) better get (pause)
a move on, They just say the words as one continuous phrase. That is why these chunks
are so irnportant.
Teachers should draw their students' attention to lexical phrases when they occur, They
should help them say phrases like See you later as if they were one word (we look at how
words sound together in ~25)o The same is true for some grammar-like phrases such as
Have you ever been to ooo? in questions like Have you ever been to Egypt?

.................................................................................................
· Being observed
Most teachers are nervous when somebody - a director of studies, principal, colleague, etc.
- comes to watch them teach. But observation is a great opportunity for people to learn from
each other, You can always see something new when you watch somebody else's lesson;
· and you can always learn something about yourself when someone watches you and you
have a good conversation afterwards. It is worth remembering that directors of study and
principals have all been observed in their time,
· when
It is important for the observer and the teacher to discuss an observation will take place
· - instead of the observer just announcing the time - and both teacher and observer should
know why it is happening. If the teacher is involved in when and why the observation is going

· to happen, he or she will feel a lot better about it!

·· When teachers in a school watch each other (PEER OBSERVATION ~78), the observers can
tell the other teachers - in teacher meetings - about the exciting and interesting things they
saw in their colleagues' lessons. That way, good lesson ideas are passed around the school.
·
................................................................................................ .

51
 Metaphor,
idiom, proverb
and cliché
. 'rt'.- •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

Today Nicole thinks her classroom is full of glittering jewels. Her students are laughing and
playing like a swarm of summer bees or spring lambs playing on a hillside. How unlike her
own schooldays!
Nicole didn't get on well at school and she dropped out on her sixteenth birthday. It nearly
broke her rnother's heart, but her father was furious ('saw red' is how her sister described
it) and shouted with rage. He was always boiling with rage about something or other. She
couldn't stand it.
Nicole left home. For the next few years she did lots of poorly paid jobs in and around
Toronto, the city where she was born. She had a horrible boyfriend, a real wolf in sheep's
clothing; he seemed to care for her but he didn't really. She was miserable and unhappy.
Her life hit rock bottom.
And then one day Nicole bumped into her fairy godmother, the only teacher from her old
school she had ever liked. And so, to cut a long story short, this teacher, Mavis Saavedra,
took an interest in Nicole. She helped her get back on her feet and persuaded her to go
back to school, and then to teacher training college.
Now Nicole is snowed under with work - preparing lessons, marking, making things, no
sleep, being a primary teacher. But, as Mavis always says, every cloud has a silver lining.
And it's true: Nicole is doing a job she loves. 'I'rn over the moon!' she likes to say and
Mavis tells her off for speaking in clichés.

Describing one thing as something else

When we use words to mean exactly (and only) what they mean, our conversation does
not sound very exciting. But when we use more 'colourful' language, things are more
interesting!
• Sometimes we describe something as if it was something else and has the same
qualities as that something else. This is what happens when Nicole thinks of her
children as glitteringjewels. They aren't literally jewels, of course, but in her mind
Nicole sees them as if they were. We call this kind of description a METAPHOR.

52
• When we compare one thing with something else and we want to be sure that our
reader/listener understands the comparison, we can say things like Her students are like
a swarm of summer bees or spring lambs playi12g 012a hillside. We call this kind of a
connection aSIMILE.
• Many metaphors end up being IDIOMS if people use them a lot and they become a
normal part of the language. An idiom is a phrase like drop out of school. We know what
all the individual words mean, but unless we know that drop out of means 'to leave a
school or university before you reach the end of your course', we will not understand
the whole phrase. Many PHRASAL VERBS -+9 such as tell off(= Mavis criticises Nicole),
run out of(petrol), run up (a large bill), etc. have the same kind of idiomatic meaning.
• Some idioms, such as every cloud has a silver lining (= there is always something good
even when the news is bad), become PROVERBS. These are phrases that a particular
society uses to give advice or to say things that are generally true.
• We call metaphoricallidiomatic phrases like I'm ouer the moon CLlCHÉS because we are
bored with them - we think people use them too mucho

More about metaphors

• Many cultures use colours to describe feelings. In the text above, Nicole's father saw red
and this means he became very angry, but in other cultures red has a different
meaning. If British people call someone yellow, it means he or she is a coward, but for
people from other cultures the colour refers to spirituality or enlightenment!
• Nicole nearly broke her motber's beart (= made her very unhappy). We can also say
things like her beart wasn't really in it (= she wasn't very keen on it) or taIk about
a change ofheart (= changing the way we think). Most parts of the body, such as moutb,
eye,foot, nose, etc. can be used in metaphorical phrases.
• Nicole is snowed under (= she has far too much work). We use many other weather
metaphors, such as storm out (= to leave very quickly and in anger) or cooking metaphors
- Nicole's father was always boiling with r'age about sometbing (= always very angry).

Teaching ideas: idiom and metaphor

Many idioms are very 'culture-specific'. Nicole's boyfriend was a wolf in sheep's c/othing;
this animal idiom is understood in Britain and the United 5tates to indicate someone who
appears harmless but is really dangerous. However, she thinks she's the cat's whiskers (= she
thinks she is the best) is more common in Britain than in America - but it isn't very common
in Britain. We should not spend too much time teaching idioms that are not common - even
though it might be great fun!

So what can we do?

• We can draw our students' attention to idioms and metaphors when they occur.
Recognition is more important here than production, and over-using culturally
inappropriate idioms in a foreign language is not a good idea.

• We can get our students to RESEARCH -+46 a common area of metaphoricallanguage

(Iike the body) by looking up words in their dictionaries and listing some metaphorical
phrases. Perhaps they can draw a metaphor WORD MAP -+ 22.
. • We can make sure that students learn metaphors as LEXICAL CHUNKS -+20 .
• We can tell our students to bring 'new' metaphors they find to class.

• We can give the students some metaphorical phrases (or phrasal verbs, etc.). They then
have to use four of them in a story.
.
................................................................................................. .

53
 How do students remember words?
It is important to teach new words to students and to introduce them in TEXTS and
activities. But how can we help our students to remember new words after they have
Meetingand learnt them? How can we try to ensure that the words are 'there' (available to them)
remembering when they want them? There are four possible ways:

words Arousal and affect: the 'cuddle factor' (A&A)

"
.- .
Students are far more likely to remember words if they have an AFFECTlVE meeting with
them (that is, if their feelings are engaged). A class once told their teacher that they
remembered the new word cuddle because they liked the meaning of the word and how it
sounded. If we can provoke the same kind of 'cuddle factor' with other words, our
students are much more likely to remember them than if they are not emotionally
engaged when they first meet them.

Cognitive engagement: working it out (CE)

Students are far more likely to remember words if they have to do some work with them
- that is, if they have to use their brains to solve puzzles using the words or put them
into categories.

Retrieval and use (R&U)

Students will remember words when we encourage them to go and get them - to dig
them up frorn wherever in their brains they are hidden. When we encourage them to use
language, especially in COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES, they have to retrieve words in this way,
and the more they do so, the more these words will become a permanent part of their
language 'store'.

Repetition of encounter: meeting words again and again (RofE)

If students only meet a new word once or twice, they are unlikely to remember it. They
need to meet it again and again. And it helps if they keep meeting the new word over a
period of time. Just seeing a word three times in one lesson is not enough. Students need
to meet the word repeatedly over a period of time - and with gaps in between their
meetings to let things settle.

Examples of word-remembering activities

In the following examples we will say which of the four characteristics (above) the
activities encourage.

Poetry spaces (A&A, CE)

We can read and show the students a poem with the same words or phrases blanked out
each time they occur. The students have to try to guess what the words and phrases are.
If the students are engaged and like the activity (and the poem), they will remember the
words. We look at more POETRY activities in ~63.

Desert island words (A&A, RofE)

At the end of a period of study, the students can look at a list of the words and phrases
they have studied. They can then be asked which five words they would take with them
to a desert island and why. Another idea is to decide which words they will put in the
fridge (they'll keep them for later), the dustbin (they don't need the words) or their suitcase
(because they want to use them now).

S4
 Meeting and remembering words

Categorising words (CE)

We can make our students think about words by categorising them. For example, we can
ask them to be word detectives and look through all the words they have studied over the
last few weeks and put them in different categories, such as transport, words which
express emotions, verbs which describe work, etc.
We can ask the students to categorise words with similar meanings in order of how
strong they are. For example, we can ask them to look at a list of words and then place
them on a love-hate cline:

dislike don't like enJoy hate like love

Negative Positive

Odd one out (CE, RofE)

We can give the students groups of words and ask them to decide which is the odd one
out, for example aeroplane, bicycle, bus, car, train (the answer is bicycle because it uses
human not mechanical power). A variation is to give the students any one of the words
and they have to prove that it is the odd one out.

Word map 1 (R&U) ~

We can put a word map like the one shown in diagram 1 below on the board. In pairs or
groups, the students have to expand the diagram as far as they can. Diagram 2 shows how
they might start. '#

cvoco,,\¡le

Word map 2 (CE)

We can choose a word and get the students to fill in a word map diagram like this:

For more on CONNOTATION and FREQUENCY, see ~82.

Storytelling (R&U)
We can give students at any level (except complete BEGINNERS) a list of ten words (or any
other number). They have to use five of them (or another number you choose) in a story.
They prepare the stories in GROUPS ~67. One member of each group then goes to
another group to tell the story. Then a member from that other group goes to another
group to tell the story. Soon all the stories have been told three, four or even five times.
Each time the storytelling gets a little bit better.
There are many more teaching ideas for GENERAL ENGLlSH in ~44-64, for YOUNG
LEARNERS in ~91-101and for CLlL in ~102-110.

55
 Beijing, lhursday afternoon
The phonemic
alphabet
. '..- , .

•• Although she was feeling tired after her last lesson and she had abad cough,
English teacher Shengmei didn't go home immediately, She sat in the teachers' room going
through her lessons for tornorrow. Then she called her cousin Xiaobing and suggested that
they have an early dinner. Xiaobing said yes and so they agreed to meet up in a restaurant
four blocks from the famous Lao She Teahouse. When Shengmei got to the restaurant, she
couldn't see Xiaobing anywhere, but in the end she found her at a table right at the back.
She rushed over to her and when they had ordered their meal, she told Xiaobing her
exciting news.

Sounds and spelling

Some students of English find English spelling difficult - and they find it especially
difficult to know how to say words when they see them written. This is not surprising
when we think of the number of different ways that we can pronounce the ou. spelling
- as shown in the story about Shengmei. In although, ou has the same sound as in so.
Ou has the same sound as offin the word cough, whereas in tbrougb, ou sounds like true.
In cousin, ou has the same sound as sun and ou infound sounds like how. Clearly, then,
alphabetic spelling is inadequate when it comes to telling us what words sound like. We
need a different writing system to show all the different sounds and we call this
the PHONEMIC ALPHABET.

The phonemic alphabet

When we write in English, we have the 26 letters of the written alphabet to choose from.
But the combination of these letters, and the different spellings we have, give us many
more sounds (or PHONEMES), as listed in the phonemic chart on the next page. This allows
us to write the word cough as /knfl in PHONEMIC TRANSCRIPTlON. Although is /orl'óau/,
through is /8ru:/and cousin is lkAz~m/, etc.

56
 - -
- - - - ------------------------ --- -

The phonemic alphabet

Consonants Vowels and diphthongs --------

p professor b board 1 written e tense
t teacher d dictionary a= language o cough
k classroom g game A luck u look
f phoneme v verb d about i happy
e theme o together i: teach a: after
s student z teachers J: taught u: boot
J ship 3 genre 3: learner o: dog (Arn)
h house x loch el play al buy
tJ research d3 language JI toy dU go (Br)
m motivation n noun ou go (Arn) au sound
IJ song w word Id hear ed pairwork
1 learner r rmg Ud pure Ud actual
j you id peculiar

Should students learn the phonemic alphabet?

Many teachers think that phonemic symbols are useful for teaching. Others, however,
disagree.

Ves
• It helps them when they consult DICTIONARIES (if there is no audio available).
• It is really useful when teachers want to point out pronunciation problems - they can
point to a phonemic symbol and the students will know which sound they are talking about.
• It helps students focus on specific 'problern' areas - especially when they have sounds
that are particularly difficult for thern.
• Teachers can do activities, exercises and games using phonemic symbols.

No
• It just confuses them - ít's one more thing they have to learn, and it's one thing too rnuch.
• Modern online dictionaries and many mobile devices have audio so students don't need

. phonemic symbols - they can just listen to the audio.

.................................................................................................
···.

Using phonemic symbols in teaching

• In many classrooms there is a PHONEMIC CHART_ Teachers or students can point to the
symbols to make words 1:l!D.
• Students can play NOUGHTS AND CROSSES (also called TlC-TAC-TOE) where they have to say
correctly a word which includes the sound in each square they have chosen so that
they can draw a straight line of three Os or Xs horizontally, diagonally or vertically.
• Some teachers give their students words written in phonemic script. They have to try
to work out what the words and phrases are before they hear the phrases on the audio
- or the teacher says them. Notice that in the example below, the symbol' shows the
tI 3~ D
MAIN STRESS ~ 26.

••. Write the following words and phrases using the normal alphabet. Then
listen to the audio to see if you were correcto
a) Ikofl d) Id beed 'knf/
b) I'a=lfdbetl e) IOd 'ti.tjaz ru:ml
e) I'restdrontl f) /hs.r ek'sartnj nju:zl

We discuss how to demonstrate sounds in ~24.

57
 Diagram
Where sounds •• Last week Begoña put up a new picture in her Madrid
are made classroom. It is a diagram of ahuman head and it shows all the
............................................. different parts of the mouth. Begoña uses it to explain how to
make different sounds in English - especially when they are
different from the sounds that her students use in their own
language (Spanish). Some students find the diagram useful,
but others still have problems saying difficult sounds.

Nose/nasal cavity

Soft palate (velum)

Alveolar ridge
(The bump behind
your teeth)

Lips
(Top and Bottom)

Teeth
(Top and Bottom)

Making consonants
Begoña wants to be able to show how sounds are made when parts of the mouth and lips
come together and air frorn the lungs has to pass through them and past them. This is
how different consonants are made:
• Ipl and Ibl in words like top and bit are BILABIAL PLOSIVE consonants. To make these
sounds we close both our lips (that's why they are called BILABIAL), and then air comes
up frorn the throat, pushing the lips apart in a little explosion (that's what plosive means).
• Itl and Idl in words like tin and dog are ALVEOLAR PLOSIVES because the tengue is stuck
to the ALVEOLAR RIDGE until the air pushes them aparto
• I kl and I gl in words like can 't and dog are VELAR PLOSIVES because the back of the
tengue and the SOFT PALATE (VELUM) are stuck together until the air pushes them aparto
• IfI and Ivl in words like ferry and very are LABIODENTAL FRICATIVES. The top teeth touch
the bottom lip (that's why they are called labiodental) and air is forced between them
- but there's no explosion; the sound is caused by air friction (that's why they are
called FRICATIVES).
• Isl and IzI in words like students and teachers are called ALVEOLAR FRICATIVES.

• 181 and 10/ in words like maths and this are DENTAL FRICATlVES (the tengue is touching
the top teeth).
• ISI and 131 in words like SU1'eand pleasure are called PALATO-ALVEOLAR FRICATIVES.

• /tj/ and Id31 in words like cburcb andjudge are called PALATO-ALVEOLARAFFRICATES.
AFFRICATES start like a plosive and end like a fricative.

• I 11/
in words like Liverpool and language is a LATERAl. The tengue closes the airflow at
the alveolar ridge, but air flows out around the side of the tongue.

58
 • IjI and Iw I in words like university and world are called APPROXIMANTS because they are
almost more like vowels than consonants.
• Iml, Inl and IDI in words like must, not and sing are NASAL CONSONANTS because the air
comes through the nose. Iml is a bilabial consonant, Inl is an ALVEOLAR NASAL and IfJI
is a VELAR NASAL.

~ What vocal cords are for

local cords open (seen from
:;Xlve) for voiceless sounds. If you could look down inside someone's throat, you would see the two VOCAL CORDS
(sometime called VOCAL FOLDS) behind the larynx - the Adam's apple. When they are
relaxed, they are apart - and so air from the lungs can come up the throat and out
through the mouth without us using our voice. That's why sounds like Ip/, Itl, IfI, Isl,
IV, 181ItV and Ikl are called VOICELESS consonants.
However, when we close our vocal cords together, the air coming up from the lungs
pushes them apart and together and apart again in a rapid movement, so that they vibrate
- and we are using our voice. That why we call consonants like Ibl, Idl, Iv/, Iz/, 13/,
~ Id3/, 1M and Igl VOICED consonants. Note that all vowels are voiced.
xal cords c/osed (seen from
above) for voiced sounds.
Making vowels
When we make vowels, no parts of the mouth and throat touch each other, though the
shape of the mouth is important. The tongue changes shape in the mouth, the shape of
the lips changes and the lower jaw moves.
• When we say CLOSE VOWELS, the tongue is raised and is near the front of the mouth in
sounds like li:1 sheep (the lips are stretched) and Irl ship (the lips are spread loosely);
with lul book, the tongue is further back in the mouth and the lips are rounded; with
lu:1 food, the tongue is at the back of the mouth and the lips are rounded.
rounded • In MID VOWELS like lel egg, lal photograph, 13:1word and h:1 horse, the tongue is neither
high nor low in the mouth.
• In OPEN VOWELS like l'éfl hat, IAI hut, 10:1 heart and Inl hot, the tongue is low.

stretched
Making diphthongs
DIPHTHONGS start with one vowel and end with another.
• We call zra/ hear, leal pairwork and lual pure CENTRING DIPHTHONGS because the end
sound is /al, which is a centre vowel.
neutral
• We call leIl play, Iml buy, hrl toy, laul go and laul found CLOSING DIPHTHONGS because
Lip positions the end vowels Irl or lul are close vowels.

Show, explain or listen?

Begoña knows that we can show people how some sounds are made, though for others it
is more difficult. For example, in sounds like If/ and /v/ we can demonstrate (or use a
diagram to explain) how the teeth and the lips make contacto We can demonstrate the
position of the lips (ROUNDED, STRETCHED or NEUTRAL), too. The most important thing is for
the students to be able to hear and distinguish the sounds so that they can produce them
.
.................................................................................................. ..
themselves.

We look at teaching sounds in -+28.

59
 Sounds in
combination
r: tI ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

•• Steve has got his first teaching job at a school in Dubai. He is talking to his friend,
Sean in a London café.
Sean: I saw Ana at the concert last night.
Steve: Was it a good concert?
Sean: YesoBut she doesn't know about Dubai.
Steve: You told her?
Sean: No, of course not. That's your job.
Steve: Yeah. I should have told her.
Sean: Yes, you should. You still can. When are you flying to Dubai?
Steve: Next week.
Sean: Are you looking forward to it?
Steve: Yes, I amo I wouldn't have applied for the job otherwise. But I don't know quite
what to expect. l'm a bit nervous.
Sean: You are?
Steve: YesoFirst teaching job. New country. New culture.
Sean: Where are you going to live?
Steve: 1'11probably get an apartment near the school.
Sean: Sounds fantastic.
Steve: I hope so. Look I have to go.
Sean: CallAna,OK?
Steve: All right.

Sounds alone, sounds together

Because we use parts of our mouth to make sounds -+24, things often change when one
sound follows another. For example, if we say the word looking on its own, it ends with
the sound IfJ/. This is a VELAR PLOSIVE and happens at the back of the mouth. But when
Sean says Are you Iooking jortuard to it? in the conversation above, IfJI changes to Inl in
/lokmforwad/. This is because it would be too much effort for Sean to change from a
consonant at the back of the mouth IfJI to one at the front IfI - a LABIODENTAL FRICATIVE -
and so he uses Inl (a consonant nearer the front of the mouth) instead. In connected speech
we make a lot of sound changes like that. Here are some of the more important ones.

60
 • We often contract AUXILlARY VERBS in speech. For example, Steve doesn't actually say
1 should have told her. Instead he uses the CONTRACTION 1 should've told her, in which
/hrev/ becomes /;w/. In the same way, when Sean asks Where are you going to live? he
doesn't say Iwe'd a: ju: g'dUIiIJt'd hv/. Instead Iwe'd a:1 becomes Iwe'dr'dl and he says
/wearojurgeutintalrv l.

• We often leave out sounds like Itl and Idl at the end of words when sounds are
connected in phrases like next week. Steve says Inekswi:k/. We lose the final Idl in
phrases like we stoppedfor a coffee. We call this ELlSION.

• The SCHWA (ldl) often disappears in connected speech in UNSTRESSED SYLLABLES ~26.
Instead of saying /prnbabli/, Steve says /prnbli/ in I'U probably get an apartment.
Sometimes, instead of saying a word like /sekroteri/ (secretary) people say Isektril.

• The final sound of looking in the phrase lookingforward to it is an example of

ASSIMILATION - where a sound changes because we want to get ready for the next sound
that is coming. When Steve asks Was it a good concert? the Idl at the end of Igudl
becomes Ig/: l'd gogknnsat/, Also Itl changes to Ipl in apartment /apc.pmant/.

• When Sean says 1saw Ana and CaUAna, OK? He puts in the LlNKING SOUND Irl to
make the change from one vowel to another easier, e.g. /sxrrena/ and /koileenarauker/.
The same thing happens between where and are in Where are you going to lioe?

• When Steve says Yes, 1am, he includes the linking sound Ijl between the vowels /arjzern/,

• When Sean says You are? he uses a linking Iwl between the vowels lu:1 and la:1 to say
Iju:wa:/.

• When someone says Would you like /mo.rars/? they could be saying more ice or more rice
This is an example of JUNCTURE. However, we normally understand what is being said é
because of the contexto

••••• " •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1>

o students have to learn sounds together? Teaching ideas: contractions

=::;es it matter if speakers of English as a second language Many teachers use physical gestures to show how ··
==-'t use contractions and other features of connected contractions are made. For example, we can say that one
==sech7 No, of course it doesn't. They will still be understood. hand = 1,and the other = am. When we join them

= =es it matter if students don't understand contracted ·

together, we say /'m. We can also use finger contractions ·
~.
:=.- s ish and other features of connected speech? Yes, of
=_'se it does. · ··
--;:; most important thing is that students should hear ·
-c::..ral speech where these features occur - and we can
-e e students aware of what they are hearing. · ·
- -ay be difficult (and a waste of time) to try to get students
=-" =..,glishto use assimilation, juncture and elision as effectively
, ·
== some NATIVE SPEAKERS. What we need to do, therefore, is
== :.,oose what connected speech we can and should teach.
=:'example, we will teach contractions such as 1 don't know,
·
'::;-;:;'5 not commq, you should've told me. We willfocus on
~'Ililations like the way the sound /d/ changes to /tI for
· . You should have told her ·
--::ó -ed past tense ending (walked - /wJ:ktl) or to /Id/
You should've told her ··..
ziied - /weIud/), on the elision of past tense endings with · ............................................. ,. ..,.
~ Ning sounds (e.g /wntS tirvir/') for /wntSt ti:vi:/ and the
.:=:::rent sounds for plural endings C/SIps/, /dugz/, /wntSIZ/). ·
;:;can make sure that some features, such as assimilation
·•
:== linking, are used in phrases the students are studying :
-=-5. Yes, 1 am) because we can then get them to say the •
:--ases correctly.
o •••••••••••••••• ,. •••••••••••••• '" •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

61
 Controversy!
Stress 11m. Nicole is talking to her friend Katazyna.

Nicole: Robert gave me a lovely presento

:..,
...•.....................•.•............. Katazyna: Wow. I would never have expected that of Roger.
Nicole: No, not Roger! Robert gave me a presento
Katazyna: Oh I see. What was it?
Nicole: It was one of those clickers.
Katazyna: A clicker? What's that?
Nicole: You are so old-fashioned sometimes! Don't you know anything?
Katazyna: Well. I may be old-fashioned. Archaic even! But I am dependable!
Nicole: If you say so.
Katazyna: Yes, I do say so! But I still don't understand. What is a clicker?
Nicole: It's one of those remote-controlled things, so I can change the slides in my
PowerPoint presentation.
Katazyna: Presentation? You're going to present?
Nicole: YesoTo the teachers. To you! Next Wednesday!
Katazyna: What's it about?
Nicole: Reading comprehension - about the vocabulary controversy. Should we teach
new vocabulary before students read or after?
Katazyna: Oon't you mean controversy?
Nicole: Honestly! You're impossible sometimes!

AII words have a stressed syllable

In every English word one SYLLABLE is stressed (we use more breath and the voice is
louder). In the first line ofNicole and Katazyna's conversation, Robert has two syllables,
and the stress is on the first syllable: RObert. The stress is on the first syllable in PREsent,
too. When one syllable in a word is stressed it means that the other syllables are
UNSTRESSED. Unstressed syllables often have the SCHWA sound Idl in words like
/dt'pendobal/ (dependable) and /a'baot/ (about).
Word stress does not always happen in the way we expect, but here are some guidelines:

• In two-syllable NOUNS and ADJECTIVES the first syllable is usually stressed in words like
LOVely, PREsent, CLIckers, TEAchers, TiVEDnesday.
• In two-syllable VERBS the stress is on the second syllable in words like presENTo

• In COMPOUND NOUNS we usually stress the first word, e.g. POWerPoint, but in
compound adjectives we often stress the second adjective, e.g. old-FASHioned.

• In words ending in -ic we often place the MAIN STRESS on the penultimate syllable (the
one before the end) as in archAic (which means old and no longer used). We usually
stress the penultimate syllable, too, in words ending in -sion and -tion, such as
compreHENsion and presenTAtion
• We usually stress the pre-penultimate syllable (three syllables from the end) in words
which end in -al or -able, such as dePENdable (meaning you can always trust me to do
the right thing). We also, usually, stress the pre-penultimate syllable in words which
end in -0', -ty, -phy and -gy, such as deMOcra0' and phoTOg;raphy.

62
 - - - -------=-==---- - - - -- - ----

Stress

• We do not stress PREFIXES or SUFFIXES ~19 in words like imPOSSible.

• People often disagree about where to stress some words, like controversy (Nicole puts
the stress on the first syllable, Katazyna prefers the second) and television. Different
VARIETIES OF ENGLlSH use stress differently, too. For example, British English speakers
usually say adVERtisement, but American English speakers often say advertT1SEment.

Showing stress
There are many ways of showing word stress.

In dictionaries ~82 stress is often shown like this: /,prez;m'terJ;m! Notice that the main
stress is on the syllable I'ter/, but the word also has a secondary stress on /,pre! •

• We •
can use squares or circles above the words like this: depeY\dable •
depeY\dable.
• We can underline the stressed syllable like this: de~do.ble. •
• We can use gestures to show stress, too.
look at teaching stress and INTONATION in ~29.
. • . We
................................................................................................. .
AII phrases have a main stressed syllable
When Nicole says Honestly! You're impossible sometimes! she uses two PHRASES in one
, UTTERANCE (Honestly and You're impossible sometimes). Each phrase has one stressed syllable:
'Honestly! You're im'possible sometimes! Notice that the PITCH of the voice changes on the
stressed syllable in a phrase ~27. We usually stress CONTENTWORDS, which carry
meaning; if students know this, it will help them to LlSTEN FOR SPECIFIC INFORMATION ~60.
When students learn new phrases, they need to learn where the main stress is ~29.

We can change where and how we place stress in a phrase

With most English phrases, the stressed syllable is at the end of the phrase, because that
is where we usually put the most important new information. For example, Robert gave
me a lovely 'presento
Katazyna doesn't hear correctly. She thinks that Roger (not Roben) gave the presento
When Nicole replies, she puts the main stress in a different place and says 'Robert gave me
a present because now it is Roben that is the important new information - or at least this
is the information that Nicole wants Katazyna to be clear about. When we move the
main stress to give special emphasis like this, we call it CONTRASTIVE STRESS.
However, if Katazyna had instead suggested that Robert's present was not nice, Nicole
might have replied No, Robert gave me a 'lovely present, because it was the loveliness of the
present that was the new and/or important information that she wanted to give.
When Nicole says If you say so, she is not taking her friend's comment (1 am dependable,
etc.) very seriously. But Katazyna wants Nicole to agree 100% that she is dependable,
and so she replies 1 'do say so - stressing do because she wishes to be emphatic about it.

......••.........••.•.....................•............................•.........................
·:· Giving presentations ..
.
:
Many teachers gain a lot from presenting their ideas to their colleagues - and later at •
teachers' conferences. It is one of the best ways for us to reflect on what we do and
contributes towards TEACHER DEVE~OPMENT ~78. Using PRESENTATION SOFTWARE such as •
PowerPoint, Keynote or Prezi can help to get our ideas across.
·
..........•..........•............•....•......................................................... .
63
 The endi
Intonation •• Steve has gone to see Ana at the café where she works.
Ana: Hello, Steve. What are you doing here?
r:,.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Steve: J called in to see you.
Ana: That's really nice of you. Any special reason?
Steve: No.
Ana: No?
Steve: Well .;
Ana: Come on, then! Out with it!
Steve: J've got a job.
Ana: At last! That's fantastic! Well done! What is it?
Steve: J've got a teaching job.
Ana: You've got a teachingjob?
Steve: YesoDon't sound so surprised.
Ana: Where is it, this job?
Steve: Well, that's just it.
Ana: You don't want to tell me, do you?
Steve: No, it's not that. Jt's just oo.
Ana: You're going abroad, aren't you?
Steve: YesoTo Dubai.
Ana: You're going to Dubai?
Steve: Ves.
Ana: So that's the end for us, is it?
Steve: No. Not necessarily.
Ana: Why? What are you suggesting?

What is intonation?
When Ana asks Steve if he has any reason for seeing her, he says no but he doesn't sound
completely sure. She repeats the word (no) but when she says it, it sounds different: like a
question. And when Steve says well, we know from the sound of his voice that he wants to
tell Ana something. Those sounds - the different music tunes that Steve and Ana use -
are examples of INTONATION.
• When Ana says That's really nice ofyou, the main STRESS is on the syllable nice. But
something else happens when Ana says nice. The PITCH of her voice (that is whether it
is high or low) falls frorn the higher level it had for That's really ... as if it was falling
off the edge of a cliff. Intonation is all about pitch change like this.
• Syllables which are stressed and have a pitch change (like nice) are called TONIC
SYLLABLES. There is one tonic syllable in every spoken phrase.

• When Ana says You don 't want to tell me, doyou? there are two tonic syllables, tell in the
first spoken phrase (you don't want to tell me) and do in the second (do you?).
The three most common intonation tunes (pitch changes) are the RISING TONE 71 in
sentences like So that's the end for us, 71 is iti, the FALLlNG TONE ::::.1 in questions like What are
you doing ::::.1 bere? and the FALL-RISE TONE 71::::.1 in phrases like not neces71::::.1sarily.

64
What do pitch and intonation mean?
• When Ana says That's fantastic! Wel! done! she sounds really enthusiastic. We know this
because the pitch of her voice is higher than normal. Higher pitch often conveys
emotions such as fear, excitement and enthusiasm.
• When Ana says You don't want to tell me, do you? the overall pitch of her voice is lower
than usual and this make her sound fed up or resigned. Lower pitch often indicates
displeasure, resignation or boredom.
• Even though Ana's pitch is lower than usual at the start of You don't want to tell me, do
you? she uses a falling tone on ~ do you? This suggests that she is expecting Steve to
agree with her. She uses a falling ton e on You 're going abroad, ~ aren 't you? for the
same reason. We discuss TAG QUESTIONS in -+3.
• We generally use falling tones for statements like I've got a teachingjob and we often
use them for questions which start with QUESTION WORDS such as what, when, how, etc.
in questions like What are you doing here? What is it? Where is it, this job? What are you
suggesting? We use falling tones for QUESTION TAGS like do you? and are you? when we
think we know the answer, or when we expect the other person to agree with uso
• In conversation, we use a falling tone when we have finished speaking and we are
giving another person a chance (TURN) to speak.
• We can use rising tones to show that we haven't finished - that there is more
information to come - or when we want the other person to speak. This aften
happens when we ask questions which expect the answer yes or no, as in Any special
71 reason? We often use a rising tone with question tags when we are not sure of the
answer, e.g. So that's the end for us, 71 is it? ~
• We use a fall-rise tone when we are unsure of what we are saying or asking: when we
are surprised or doubtful. This often happens when we are reneating what someone
else has just said, as in questions like No? You've got a 71~ teachingjob? 71~ Why? and
You're going to Du7l~bai?

..........•........................................•.................................•..........•
·· .:.
: Showing intonation
··: • We can show intonation with arm gestures - a falling arm for a falling tonel a rising arm
..
.
: for a rising tone and a u-shaped gesture for a fall-rise one.

· • We can draw intonation tunes on the board in a number of different ways For example:
··
·· \J.
· 2 l've 80t "" ~l-\i\t8 jo'b.

'3 yov..'ve 80t "" t~i\t8jo'b?

· 4 Wl-\ev~, +-l-\i~
··
S- yov..'ve 8oi\t8 ",,'b~1 ~t yov..?
··
• Note that in examples 4 and 5 there are twa tonic syllables.

• Some people even whistle intonation tunesl See also -+29.

·
.•.....•..•..........................................................................•........•.. .

65
 Distinguishing between sounds
Before we can expect students to say sounds correctly, they need to be able to hear them.
The students' HOME LANGUAGE can sometimes make this difficult ~ 37. Many speakers of
Chinese and]apanese often say /lars/ when they mean IraIsI because they find it difficult
Teaching to distinguish between the sounds 11/ and Ir/. Spanish speakers may say /beri/ instead of
Iveril. In the following examples, the students listen first and then say the sounds.
sounds
..•••.•.....................................
:
1 Same letter, different sound
~ The students hear a list of words which all contain the same letter (in this case o).
They have to write them in the correct colurnn, depending on their sound.

1;,:1 101 1;'11 I~I I~ul laul lu:1

WOYY\ soV\q boc¡- lessoV\ qo c.ow pool

compare conquest contrast (noun) contrast (verb) divorce do enjoy

. .
fool frown go horse long no pOlson pnson saw soldier source
sew torn town toy

2 Same sound, different letters

~ The students hear a number of words which all have the same sound (in this
case 10/). They have to say what the sound is, underline it in each word and then list the
different spellings which the sound has.

because bottle dock dog fog quality know1edge sausage topple

watch what

3 Minimal pairs
11m. The students see pairs of words (MINIMAL PAIRS), which differ in only one sound.

a) could good d) lock log

b) cave gave e) ankle ang1e
e) due glue

Listening to the words on their own helps students to focus on the sounds. However,
hearing the words in sentences such as 1 could help you or It's very good may be more
helpfu1 since they will be hearing the sounds in a natural contexto
We show an example of a minimal pairs exercise in m:D.
4 Same sound rhymes
The students have to draw lines to connect words which have the same vowel sound.

at fl work - first
anything dress eece ~ . welcome
\"
~lt
gloves
-. ~

some
much
jeans
please
')
a/
eve
ry
many \
severa1
heap ~
shirt /
-:
sweater
ea
p

Another way to get students to see/hear rhyme like this is to have them reorder jumbled
lines of POETRY ~63 and lmD or SONG LYRICS ~64.

66
5 Oddoneout
The students hear a list of words and they have to say which is the odd one out on the basis
of sounds. For example, in the list sun moon love must one, moon is the odd one out because
it doesn't have the sound 1A1.

6 Weak or strong?
•• The students listen to a number of sentences with the word to. They have to say
whether it sounds like a) lu:1 in food or b) Idl in pbotograpb.

1 1 want to ask you a question.

2 1 didn't want to see this film anyway!
3 How is this film going to end?
.J
4 1'11do everything 1 can to help you.
5 You have to open the package first.
6 Do 1 want to learn to play the tuba? Yes, of course 1 want to.

Note that to is usua11ypronounced Itdl if it is followed by a consonant, but is

pronounced Itu:1 if it is followed by a vowel or if it is on its own,

7 Sounds and grammar

~When we are teaching grammar, such as PASTTENSE -ed endings (-+4), the PLURAL
's' or the third person singular of the PRESENT SIMPLE, we can draw the students' attention
to the different sounds of the MORPHEMES. The students have to listen and put the verbs
in the correct columns. For example:

Isl walks Izl plays IIzI watches

get go live march practise seem smg take wash write

Every time they learn a new verb, they have to say which colunm it goes in.

8 Tongue twisters
Some teachers like to give their students tongue twisters: sentences which are difficult to
say quickly.
Even if students and teachers are not very keen on tongue twisters, it is often a good idea
to invent sentences for our students to say which have a lot of the sounds we want them
to practise.

a) A proper copper coffee pot

b) Pink lorry, yellow lorry
e) Red leather, yellow leather
d) Nine nice night nurses nursing nightly

9 Your pronunciation
When the students have a list of words (at the end of a unit, for example), they have to
underline the sounds that they persona11yfind difficult. They then have to find these
words in a dictionary and practise saying them correctly.
Not a11students have the same sound 'problems'. We need to encourage each individual
to recognise their own strengths and weaknesses.

67
 Hearing stress and intonation patterns
The main objective when teaching stress and intonation is to develop the students' ability
to hear where the stress falls in words and phrases so that their listening and speaking skills
improve. We want them to understand why speakers use certain STRESS and INTONATION
Teaching stress patterns - and what they mean. We want them to be able to vary their own stress and
intonation so that they can express a variety of meanings and emotions when they want to.
and intonation .>:
........................................... 1 Word stress: syllables and stressed syllables
lID Students at the INTERMEDIATE level hear a list of words. They have to write each
one in the following table in the column which has the correct stress pattern .

•••
(lnnounc.e\'Y\enf
•• • ••• • ••• •

announcement application calculator camcorder computer electric

electronic internet microphone microwave organiser personal
television video

The students then say the words and think of/find other words with the same stress pattern.

2 Sentence stress: stress and meaning

•• Students at the intermediate or UPPER-INTERMEDIATE level hear a sentence said in
four different ways. They have to match the sentences with four possible responses that
a listener might have.

1 JOHN wrote the music while he was at university.

2 John wrote the MUSIC while he was at university.
3 J ohn WROTE the music while he was at university.
4 J ohn wrote the music while he was at UNIVERSITY.
a) He wrote the music? That does surprise me. 1 thought he wrote the words.
b) How surprising. 1 thought he did it at school.
e) 1 am amazed. 1 thought he just took someone else's melody.
d) 1 don't believe you; 1 thought Paul wrote the music!

The students can then say similar sentences. Other students have to show their surprise,
changing the stress appropriately, e.g. A: John wrote the music while he was at university.
B: JOHN wrote it? 1 don 't believe itlI thought Paul did.

3 Intonation 1: question, exclamation or answer?

lID The students hear the following phrases and they have to put a FULL STOP, an
EXCLAMATION MARK or a QUESTION MARK, depending on what they hear.

a) She won some money

b) She's going to give it to a cats' home
e) She's going to give all of it to a cats' home
d) She loves cats
e) She won fifty thousand pounds

68

- - ----
4 Intonation 2: bored, interested or surprised?
•• The students listen to two speakers. They have to say if the second speaker is
bored, interested or surprised.

a) I passed my driving test. Did you?

b) I'm feeling really happy. Are you?
e) I've bought myself some new shoes. Rave you?
d) 1'11drive to Boston this evening. wm you?
e) I love driving. ~ Doyou?

S Stress and intonation 1: nonsense words

lID The students read the following comments. They are in answer to the question
What did you think of the film?

a) I absolutely loved it.

b) I really enjoyed it.
e) Fabulous.
d) Absolutely terrible!
e) It was one of the worst films I've ever seen.
f) It was really wonderful.
g) I have never been so bored in all my life.

The students then hear the comments said with nonsense syllables (e.g. do-de-do). They
have to identify which phrase is being said. They can then try the activity for themselves.

6 Stress and intonation 2: tonic syllables and intonation tunes

•• The students listen to the following extract from a dialogue. They have to mark
the TONIC
SYLLABLESand say whether the speaker uses a FALLlNG TONE,a RISINGTONEor a
FALL-RISE
TONE.

A: Have you got anything you want to say?

B: Rave you? 5
A: Listen, J ohn, I ask the questions.
B: Says who?
A: Says me. Now tell me, where were you last night?
B: Athome.
A: I' d like the truth.
B: That is the truth.

We look at more ways of using drama in ~64.

7 Stress and intonation 3: reading aloud

READING ALOUD(when students read sentences from a TEXT)has been very popular for
many years, but it is often not very useful since it does not help them to understand a
text, and many of them do it very badly.
If we want our students to read aloud, they should have a chance to prepare what they
are going to read first so that they can decide where the tonic syllables are and where to
pause, etc. We can help them to do this by looking through texts with them and
discussing how sentences should be read.
A good (and realistic way) of getting students to read aloud is to ask them to underline
their favourite sentence in a textoThey can then think about how to read it in the best
way. Then they can say It says here ... before reading out their favourite sentence 1I!1!D.
(Reading aloud is, of course, a very good way OfTESTlNG
a student's pronunciation.)

69
 The after-school club
language Hiro and Mari are getting a room ready for a test.
functions Hiro: It's really cotd in here.
'"
Mari: Do you think so? 1don't. llíke a bit of fresh air.
Hiro: No, it is. l'rn freezing.
Mari: Poor Hiro! Woutd you like to borrow my sweater? ."... ..~
Hiro: No, it's OK. Coutdn't you close the window instead? [ust a little bit?
Mari: Oh all right, anything to make you happy! Hey, you don't have to worry about
finishing here. l'll do it.
Hiro: No, it's OK. 1have a meeting with Mr Sakamura, but it's not for another twenty
minutes. Hey, Mari?
Mari: Yeah?
Hiro: 1was wondering if you wouldn't mind hetping me out this evening.
Mari: Might do. It depends.
Hiro: On what?
Mari: Wett, what exactty does 'hetping out' mean?
Hiro: It's just that 1have an after-schoot club and ...
Mari: Sure l'll help you.
Hiro: You will?
Mari: Ves.As far as l'rn concerned, after-schoot clubs are really good for the kids' morate.
Hiro: Yeah,that's true. So see you at about five?
Mari: Yeah.
Hiro: Promise?
Mari: 1promise.

What we say and what we mean

When Mari says 1promise, the word and the act are the same. In other words, when we
say we promise something, we are actually performing the act that the word says. If all
language was like that, it would be very easy to understand! But when Hiro says It's realIy
cold in here, things are not so clear. In one sense he is just commenting on the
temperature. But what he is really doing is suggesting that Mari should close the window
or do something else to make the situation better. The words and the intention do not
match in the same way. We call pramising and suggesting LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS.

Language and language functions

In Hiro and Mari's conversation both speakers perform a number of different language
functions, although it is quite difficult to describe them exactly.
• I'll do it and I'll help yau are examples of offering help, whereas Would yau like to borroui
my sweater? is an example of offering something to somebody.
• lt's 1 ealIy cald in here is an example of suggesting a course of action, but so is Couldn 't
r

yau close the windaw instead? (although we might also describe this as requesting
somebody to do something). However, the main difference is that Cauldn't yau clasethe
windaw instead? is more DIRECT than It's realIy cald in here.

70
- - - - -- -- -- ---

• When Hiro says 1 was wondering if you wouldn't mind helping me out this evening, he is
requesting someone to do something (we could also describe this as asking for help).
However, his request is quite TENTATIVE, rather than direct (in other words, he sounds
unsure). Perhaps this is because he is worried that Mari might say no.
• Mari is asking for clarification when she says What exactly does 'helping out' mean? and
she gives an opinion when she says As fm' as I'm concerned, after-school clubs are really
good for the kids' morale. Hiro is agreeing with an opinion when he says Yeah, that's true,
butMari disagrees with Hiro when she says Do you think so? 1 don't.

Teaching language functions

Students of a foreign language need to be able to do things like offer help, give their
opinions, suggest courses of action or disagree.
• Many functionallanguage exponents are examples of either fixed or semi-fixed LEXICAL
PHRASES. Students can learn and practise them so that they can produce the phrases

without hesitation (and without pauses in between the words). This will make them
(sound) much more fluent.
• The same function, such as requesting, can be expressed by a wide range of different
LANGUAGE EXPONENTS (the actual phrases that are used). Hiro can say Could you close the

window? Close the window, please. Would you mind closing the window? 1 would be grateful if
you would close the window - or just The window! In order to make ourselves clear, we
use a variety of INTONATION 'tunes' - and perhaps GESTURES.
• The difference between language exponents is often a difference between directness
(Close the window!) and tentativeness (Could you possibly, perhaps close the window?). It can
also be between FORMALlTV (Could you possibly close the window, please?), INFORMALlTV
(Close the window, yeah?) or the use of a more neutral exponent (Could you close the
window?).When we teach functions we need to be sure that our students understand
differences of REGISTER -+33.
• We need to be careful when we choose which language exponents to teach. We will
base our choice partly on the students' level, and partly on what functions the students
want or need to be able to use.

Teaching ideas: functional dialogues

We often use functional dialogues to teach typicallanguage exchanges, as in the following

example for elementary students~:

Would you like a drink?

Yes,please.
Coffee or tea?
Coffee, please.
Would you like milk?
Yes,please?
Sugar?
Yes,please.
Here you are. ·
Thanks. ·
You're welcome. ·
The students can then substitute different items and language for the phrases in italics.
SUBSTlTUTION DIALOGUES like this have been used in language teaching for a long time.
·
Notice that some phrases like Thanks and You're welcome are the kind of LEXICAL CHUNKS that
all students need to learn.
.....................•....•.............•.....•....•..........•..•.•.....•.............•..•..•... ·
71
 Looking forward to the conference
Written and Shengmei is chatting on Skype with her friend Nicole Harrison
spoken English in Canada.
. .............................•.•...•.....
(

Wang Shengmei
Nicole.
Nicole Harrison
Heeeeeeeeeey! Shen_gmei, how ARE you?
Wang Shengmei
I'm
Nicola Harrison .!.!
Cool.
Wang Shengmei
~~~~ I'm really happy.
Nicole Harrison
l- Why?
~ ._ Wang Shengmei
~ My paper got accepted for the teachers' conference In the UK.
~ole Harrison
1 W~~! Wow! Fantasticl!l That means we're both doing talks! Hey!!! .,!
We'lI finally get to meet f2f. ~~~~_
0_ Wang Shengmei
Yeso And I'm looking 4ward to meeting 2 teachers called Manuela and Ratih, and
~ing in the UK for the first time. Manuela's from Argentina & Ratih's from Indonesia.
I ~:COleHarrison
Cool.
se
~
Wang Shengmei

tr Yeah, met them on Twitter.

Nicole Harrison
_._S.o~.'l.cJ.s great. When ru <:'!!\'ÍIlS¡'? _
I "' Wang Shengmei
, 24th eve u?
------
Nicole Harrison ~
I'm arriving on the 24th, too. Can't wait. Big hug
Wang Shengmei !.'
..•
0.

Speaking or writing?
• The communication between Shengmei and Nicole is, in many ways, a written text
because both of them are using their computer keyboards to write messages. But it is also
like a spoken conversation, in some ways, because they use conventions such as one-word
sentences or short exclamations like Can 't wait and COLLOQUIAL expressions like Big hug.
• Sometimes it is easy to identify text as spoken (e.g. in a face-to-face conversation) or
written (in a novel or a newspaper), but at other times it may be easier to talk about
text as being either SPEAKING-LlKE or WRITING-LlKE. When Nicole writes Heeeeeeeeeey!
Shengmei, how ARE you? it 'sounds' very like speech. When Shengmei types My paper
got acceptedfor the teachers' conference in the UK, it looks very much like written prose.

• The conversation between Shengmei and Nicole also includes a number of ABBREVIATIONS
such as when ru arriving (= are you),j2f(= face to face), and looking 4ward to (forward).
Shengmei and Nicole also use EMOTICONS (smiling faces, etc.) to express their feelings
quickly and efficiently. These are all typical of INFORMAL digital writing.

72

~ ~--- ---
- .-
Differences between speaking and writing
• When we write, we normally use complete sentences such as The weather forecast is
very bad. We use appropriate PUNCTUATION and we expect grammar, spelling and
vocabulary to be more correct than in speaking.
• In speech, we can say things like Forecast's bad - using CONTRACTIONS (jo1 ecast is ---+
r

fOTecast's)and missing out words that we don't need (ElLlPSIS).

• When we speak informally, we don't have to be so careful with grammar. For example,
many speakers say things like There's two people at the door in speech even though they
should/would write There are two people at the door.
• When we write, we need to be coherent and we use a number of linguistic devices to
make sure that our writing hangs together in a logical and easily understandable way.
We discuss COHERENCE and COHESION in -+34.
• When we speak, we use spoken 'tricks' to keep the conversation going and to organise
what we are saying. For example, we STRESS -+26 the syllables which contain the
most important information, repeat what other people say to us and use a variety of
INTONATION -+27 patterns so that people can understand the logic of what we are
saying. We use words and phrases like erm, you know and well as spoken punctuation.
• When we write, we can use punctuation such as question marks (?) and exclamation
marks (!) to show emotion and grammatical function in sentences like Why? and That
means we're both doing talks! In informal writing, some people use a lot of exclamation
marks (Fantastic!!!) something which we don't do in more FORMAL writing (see REGISTER
-+33). We can also use devices such as capitalletters (How ARE you?) or repeated
words - such as Wow! Wow! - to show emotion in informal writing .

................................................................................................
·· ..
Punduation
.
We use a FUll STOP (.) when we finish an idea, as in sentences like We'1/final/y get to meet f2f
• We use a QUESTION MARK (7) to show that we are asking a question, such as Why?
• We use an EXClAMATION MARK (1) to show surprise, humour and other emotions, e.g. Wow!
• We use COMMAS (,) to separate clauses and as breathing spaces between ideas in
sentences like And /'m looking 4ward to meetir:¡g a couple of teachers cal/ed Manuela and
Ratih, and being in the UK for the first time.
We use COLONS (:) when we list things in sentences like There are many punctuation ·
symbols: full stops, commas, exclamation marks, etc.
• SEMICOLONS show pauses that are bigger than those shown by commas, smaller than
those shown by full stops. We use them to join clauses in sentences like llike being a ·
•
teacher; life is never boring.
We use CAPITAllETTERS for the beginnings of sentences (That means were both doing
··
talks), for the pronoun 1,for proper names (Nicole) and for certain important rolesjjobs
(the President of the USA).
··
• We use HYPHENS in multi-word adjectives and phrases such as good-Iooking and
out-of-work actor. But it is sometimes difficult to find rules for when to use them. It is often
best to consult a DICTIONARY.
·
We use APOSTROPHES to show contractions in sentences like /'m really happy and to show ·
•
possession, as in teachers' conference. ·
We use BRACKETS (or DASHES) when we want to insert an extra idea (or comment) into a ·
•
sentence.
We use INVERTED COMMAS to show direct speech in sentences like 'i'm coming to the UK
·
•·
teachers' conference: she said. Notice that the comma (or question mark, exclamation
mark, etc.) comes before we close the inverted commas. •
·
................................................................................................ .
73
 1 10 NEW MESSAGE =!PJ

(To: ( shengmei.wang@springmail.com ]
(From: ( conference.registration@btinternet.com ~
Genre
Dear Shengmei Wang,
-, .......................................... Thank you for registering for our annual conference. Your registration
form wil! be processed as soon as possible. If you haven't included
payment details, we advise you to pay before arriving at the conference
to avoid delays. Your registration number is:
KLG217
(Please quote the above registration number on al! communications.)
Your conference registration will not be completed until full payment is
received.

2 rr •
Manuela
Got my talk accepted 4 conference, cu all
London!
there Yaay!
12 hours ago 't-? Favorite t.,. Undo Retweet ~ Reply
• Wmbimill
London!

• •
.,
4 íhe leavesavE tall iVlq London!

l
like wiVlfey- lave af ifs eVld
_ íwa bay-e fwiqs Y-en'laiVl

.Ó: 1 b t it did not go on like

The day started in the norma way, u 1

that. made herself a cup of coffee, and went to

Grace got up, h '1 And that's when she saw him,
the door to collect er mal. H was not
blurred through the frosthedgla~ofhe~!:o~~!~~~inge familiar
moving. He just stood t ere. ere
about him, she thought.

What is genre?
The five written texts above are exarnples of five different types (GENRES) of writing.
• The writer of extract 1 has used well-forrned grarnrnatical sentences such as Thank you
[or registering for ... and PASSIVE constructions such as Your registration form wil! be
processed ... and Your conference registration will not be completed until full payment is
received. The text gives Shengrnei a registration nurnber and then offers the
instruction Please quote the above registration number on al! communications. Lastly, there
is no personal signature. AlI this clearly tells us that this is an official cornrnunication,
perhaps produced automatically.

74
• Extract 2 is the TWEET that Manuela published on TWITTER, a social-networking
programo We recognise that this is a kind of digital informal writing because she uses
sPEAKING-LlKE -+31 features such as nursts and ABBREVIATIONs such as cu and 4.

• Extract 3 is a billboard advertisement that Brittany saw on her way to work the other
day. She knew it was an advertisement because a) it was on a billboard and b) it is
written in a typical advertising style.
• Extract 4 is a poem that Hiro wrote (he has recently started writing poetry in
English). We know it is a poem because the lines are uneven and because it uses
imagery in a poetic way. Many people will also recognise that it is an English-Ianguage
version of a HAIKU (a]apanese poetry form which has three lines of five, seven and five
syllables, and which usually refers to seasons and emotions).
• Extract 5 is the start of a novel called Glass Doors. We know that it is a literary story
because of the first sentence, which is clearlya dramatic introduction and because of
the way sentences start with CONJUNCTIONs (aná) or are very short, to create effect (He
was not moving). Novelists often write like this.

How do we know about genre?

• Imagine that you had never seen a billboard before. How would you know that the
London advertisement (extract 3) was actually an advertisement? But you have seen a
billboard before and so you do know what it is. We recognise different writing genres
because we have seen them before and because we are accustomed to seeing them.
However, if you have never seen Twitter before, Manuela's message (extract 2) may be
difficult to identify.
• When we write, we obey the rules or conventions of the genre we are writing in so
that everyone else in our DlsCOURsE COMMUNITY (people who share the language
customs of a social group) will recognise what we are doing. This will help our writing
to be more successful.
• Sometimes we have opportunities for creativity (there are many different kinds e- or
SUB-GEN RES - of advertisements, for example, and so we have quite a lot of freedom to
write what we like). But sometimes the rules of a particular genre are much stricter, as
with haiku, a sub-genre of poetry. If we don't write three lines with the correct
number of syllables in each, our poem will not be a real haiku.
• Sometimes writers - especially poets and novelists - disobey genre conventions on
purpose in order to create an exciting effect .

................................................................................................
· ..
Teachingideas:genre
Students can't be expected to write or speak successfully in a genre unless they have seen ·
examples of it beforehand. If we want them to write a speech, a business letter or a report.
they need to have seen a speech, a letter or a report already so that they know what the ··
. conventions are. If we want them to write newspaper headlines, they should see examples
such as First snowfall blocks roads or Hamilton takes poli position in Monaco roce.
··
·
·
When students see examples of a genre, we should ask them to analyse how they are
··
··
constructed: how many syllables per line for the haiku, what verb tense is very common in
news headlines (the present simple), where the address goes in a letter, etc. ···
We want our students to read and analyse examples of a certain genre, but that doesn't
mean that they have to copy them exactly. If we only show them one example of a genre
· (e.g an advertisement), they will write one that is more or less the same. If we show them
· more examples of genres and sub-genres Cdifferent types of advertisement), they can select

··................................................................................................ .
the kind of language and layout that they like best.

75
 Register

_~ =7S•• ~~_
~ Part of the novel that Steve was reading on the plane
,

cb Part of the flight ~no~~~ement

Steve's plane
on
Emilio had made what for him was the long journey to
Tesquiliapan, leaving his nets bunched on the shore and his
wooden-hulled boat to scorch in the glaring sun, to tell the old
Ladies and gentlemen, I would ask that you revolutionary's wife, and all her people, of the death of a mutual
please direct your attention to the flight relative, a woman who had lived an astounding number of years,
attendants as we review the emergency being famous all along the coast, and beyond, for her magical
procedures for this flight. There are six medicinal remedies which cured every manner of ill from
emergency exits on this aircraft. Take a heartache to problematic pregnancy, from disappointment to
minute to loca te the exit closest to you. indigestion.
1 Note that the nearest exit may be behind ~
you. Should the cabin experience a sudden
loss in pressure, oxygen masks will drop
o. i
Steve's quick email to his friend Ana
down from the panel above your seat ... , lo NEW
a MESSAGE "
=§
1
[ro: ( ana@coolmail.com ]
-
[ steve@coolmail.com
® Steve walks out of the customs hall
#
[From: 11

'j A: Steve? Steve Olsen? Hey Ana

B: Hi. It was a rubbish flight. Miss you already.
A: l'rn Caroline Green. Welcome to Dubai. Come and visito Soon.
B: Nice to meet you. Steve x
Sent from my iPhone
A: Good flight? J
B: Yeah.They had some great movies.

I ® Steve's first tweet from Dubai

A: That's good. Anyway, let's get going.
. ~~
:;::~:
_. x

The car's over there.

B: Yeah. Er,I was wondering if I could just Steve
use the bathroom. Dubai. New life. Gr8 2b
A: Sure. 1'11
wait for you here. here. I think!
1
""'""""
09 Apr 19:20

76
What is register?
When Steve writes Gr8 2b here (lt's great to be he1 e) he uses ABBREVIATIONS because he
r

doesn't want to use too many characters (letters) and because that is the style that some
people use on TWITTER (a social networking site) -+32. However, when Steve says 1 was
wondering if 1 couldjust use the batbroom he uses a PAST TENSE with present meaning and the
modal could because he is feeling TENTATlVE and thinks he needs to sound more FORMAL.
In both cases he has chosen the type of language to use. We call this kind of language
choice REGISTER.
• When Steve arrives at the airport, he is met by Caroline, his new boss. They use a
mixture of fairly NEUTRAL language (Welcome to DubailNice to meet you) , INFORMAL
language (Good jlight?IYeah. They had some gnat movies), and formallanguage (1 was
wondering if 1 couldjust use the bathroom), but they are always POLlTE to each other.
Politeness is different from formality; in other words, we can be polite whether or not
our language is formal.
• When Steve says 1 was wondering if 1 could just use the batbroom, he is tentative because
his new boss has just said The car's over there and he doesn't want to upset her by
making her wait. We choose our words based on the PARTICIPANTS in a conversation
and the relationship we have with them.
• Steve writes lt was a rubbisb jlight. Miss you already in a very informal and friendly
TONE. He uses an informal adjective (rubbish) and ELLlPSIS (Miss you already). He can
write like this because he and Ana are close friends and because of the MODE (type of
communication) he is using (an email).
• The chief flight attendant uses more formallanguage when he says 1 would ask that you
please direct your attention to the jlight attendants as we review the emergency procedures [or
this jlight. This is because of a) the TOPIC he is talking about, and b) the mode (an
official announcement - a MONOLOGUE).
• The sentence fram the novel that Steve reads on the plane is extremely long, uses a
number of subordinate clauses, very LOW-FREQUENCV vocabulary (nets buncbed ... scorcb
in the glaring sun ... medicinal remedies). It is typical of a kind of LlTERARV prose.

Register, therefore, is a combination of the kind of activity and topic we are writing and
talking about (sometimes called FIELD), the tone we wish to use (based on the participants
and their relationship to each other) and the mode of the communication (for example
email, formal oral announcement, literary novel or tweet).

What do U think? R txt msgs gr8 or not?

When young people started sending TEXT MESSAGES in the 19905, many people were very
worried. They said that the language would be damaged and that nobody would write well
anymore. In fact, this has not happened. Text messaging was (and is) just a different
language register.

However, there would be something to worry about if students started to use abbreviations
like r (for are) and gr8 (for great) in more formal writing beca use it would not be appropriate.
We need to be sure that they recognise this, and one way of doing it is to draw their
attention to the register of the texts they read and hear.

When students write themselves, they should consider field, tone and mode so that they
can use APPROPRIATE LANGUAGE: language that is right for the situation. If they are writing a
formal essay, they need to use formallanguage rather than the kind of colloquiallanguage
andabbreviations that are found on social networking sites. But if they are communicating
informally, they will want to be able to use some of these written devices in order to be
appropriate.

77
 Ratih's conference blog
Cohesion and About .•.. Servlces ••. Gat ideas y 8109 Events .•.

coherence My first day!

., 'eo ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
by RATIH on NOVEMBER 1 . LEAVE A COMMENT

This is my first blog from the teachers' eonferenee in the UK. The
organisers gave me the 'ñrst-tíme' speaker seholarship. They really
liked the topie of my talk! It is all about what should be in a
pre-servíce teaeher-training eourse.
1 arrived from Jakarta in the afternoon. Then 1went to the opening
eeremony and party. 1met some really interesting people ineluding
Hassan [from Egypt). Arnulfo [from México). Isil [Turkey) and Begoña
[Spain]. She used to live in Jakarta so we had a lot to talk about!
Today 1went to four presentations. The first was by a Chinese
woman ealled Shengmei. She organised a fantastie workshop about
the problems that Chinese speakers have when they are learning
English. After that, 1went to a talk by a Canadian teaeher ealled
Nieole about teaehing writing. She deseríbed her elass and the kinds
of lesson she teaehes so that they learn about eoherenee and
eohesion in wríting.
In her session. Roberta, a seeondary school teacher from Brazíl.
showed us how to teach using Twitter. Her students formed a "I'wibe'
and wrote eollaborative storíes together. It was great fun. On the
other hand, 1 couldn't imagine doing it with my young learners.
They would be too scared!
The last one 1went to was by someone ealled Manuela from
Argentina. Her session was all about using Skype for prívate lessons.
1have never had prívate students but it sounds very challenqínq.
So that's my first day! All in all ít's been great! But tomorrow it's my
turn! I'm really nervous.

What is cohesion?
COHESION is the use of certain stylistic devices to guide readers and show how the
different parts of a TEXT relate to one another. These devices are the 'glue' that helps us
to connect different sentences and phrases to each other.
• Ratih uses the words teaeher, teaeh or teaehing quite a few times in her blog. This
repetition gives it LEXICAL COHESION.
• Ratih glues her blog together by using SEMANTIC FIELDS (groups of words that have
related meanings - another form of lexical cohesion). She writes about presentations,
workshop, talk and session. She also mentions learning, teaehiñg, class, lesson, students,
learners, priva te lessons, etc.
• Most of Ratih's blog is written in the PAST TENSE. Consistent tense usage helps to make
a text cohesive.
• When Ratih says They really liked the tapie of my talk, 'they' refers back to the
organisers. We call this PRONOUN reference 'ANAPHORIC' (see also She organised a
fantastie workshop ... which refers back to Shengmei and it sounds really ehallenging

78

.--
 where she is referring back to usíng Skype for prívate lessons). We also use CATAPHORIC
REFERENCE to refer forward (for example Here sbe comes, the next speaker) and EXOPHORIC
REFERENCE to refer to things outside the text (for example, Tbis is my first blog, where
this = this thing that you are reading).

• She uses a number of TlMEADVERBIAlS ~11 (then, today, after that, tomorrow) to
structure her narrative.
• Ratih uses ElllPSIS like The first (instead of the first presentation) to refer back to
something she has already mentioned (1 went to fOU1'presentations).
• She joins ideas together by using lINKERS such as then (Tben 1 went to the opening
ceremony), so (She used to live in Jakarta so we had a lot to talk about), after that (After
tbat, 1went to a talk), on the other hand (it was great [un. On tbe otber band, 1couldn 't
imagine doing it) and all in all (All in all, it's been great). Linkers show the sense
relationships between different elements.
• When Ratih writes The last one 1 went to ... she is substituting one for the word
presentations. We use substitution with words like one, kind, etc.

What is coherence?
Even if we use COHESIVE DEVICES, it doesn't mean that people will automatically
understand what we say or write. We need to be able to put our ideas together in such a
way that people understand us - and understand our purpose for writing or speaking.
• If Ratih had written She organised a fantastic workshop about the problems that Chinese
speakers have when they are learning English. The first was by a Chinese woman called
Shengmei. Today 1 went tofour presentations, we wouldn't understand what she meant
because the ideas are in the wrong order. Sequencing our ideas appropriately - so that
they have internallogic - makes our texts (written and spoken) COHERENT.
• For a text to be coherent, we need to be able to understand the writer or the
speaker's purpose.
• Ratih assumes that her AUDIENCE will know more or less what she is talking about.
But if she gave this text to a group of cement engineers, it might not be coherent
because there would be too much there that they did not understand. We need to
consider our audience if we want people to understand what we write and sayo

................................................................................................. .
·~· Teaching ideas: cohesion and coherence
.~
·: Students need to understand how cohesion works. They need to think about how to present .:
: their ideas coherently, Most of all they need to consider the audience they are writing for - :
: since this will affect what they write and what REGISTER they use ~33. :
··: We will draw our students' attention to cohesive devices so that they can use them. We
..:
: should also try to make sure that our students plan their writing so that they express :
: themselves coherently. :
·
•....•.•...•.•.....•......••....••..........•............................•.....•.......•......... .
................................................................................................ .
Going to conferences .
Teachers' conferences are good places to learn about other people's experiences and to get ··
new and exciting ideas. They also offer great opportunities to meet people and discover that
teachers share many of the same triumphs and preoccupations. ··
We discuss teacher development Cincluding conferences) in ~78.
·..........................................................................••......••....•........ ·.
/ 79
 Section B: Background to language
L-__~ __~ teaching methodology
_

In this section we look at some of the background issues which language teachers need
to think about when they plan how they want to teach and what kind of lessons they
want to offer their students. For example, we look at what people have said about how
we learn languages and we list some of the most prominent learning and teaching
methodologies that people have used.
We consider student mistakes and errors as part of the learning process, rather than
something terrible that they do wrong!
We look at various differences in language learning. For example, learning takes place
in many different situations. But whatever the situation, learners are not a11the same: a
lot depends on what level they are at, how old they are and what kind of learners theyare
(because different individuals are, well, different). We discuss how to deal with
these differences.
We emphasise the importance of student engagement and consider how students can
take responsibility for their learning - and we look at the crucial issue of student
motivation.

35 How people learn languages 1

36 How people learn languages 2
37 Students make mistakes
38 Learning at different ages
39 Student-centred teaching
40 Learner characteristics
41 Different contexts, different levels
42 Large and mixed-ability classes
43 Motivation

81
 Acquisition and learning
Unless some physical or mental condition gets in the way, all of us speak and understand
at least one language well. We got that language from our parents and from other people
around usoAs far as any of us can remember, we didn't have to think about the process of
How people learn getting that language; it just happened. AlI we had was a lot of EXPOSURE to the language
(we heard it all the time, especially when people talked to us) and opportunities to use it
languages 1
.'.
I •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
as much and as often as possible. In other words, this kind of lANGUAGE ACQUISITION is a
subconscious process.
• Many children acquire more than one language in childhood. Indeed, in many
countries and societies it is unusual for people to be MONOllNGUAl (able to speak only
one language).
• Age seems to be an important factor in language acquisition ~38. Children often
acquire (and forget) languages easily, partly because they get such a lot of exposure
to them, and partly because of their DEVElOPMENTAl STAGES ~91 and the lives they are
leading. TEENAGERS and ADULTS don't seem to acquire languages so automatically.
However, they may, in fact, be more efficient learners, in part because their
circumstances and developmental stages are different.
• If acquisition is a subconscious process, lEARNING, by contrast, is something we do
consciously - for example, when we study how to use the PRESENT PERFECT ~6, think
carefully about what order ADJECTIVES go in ~15, or concentra te on which part of a
word we should STRESS ~26.

Why does the difference between acquisition

and learning matter?
In classrooms all over the world, students learn languages. They are taught GRAMMAR,
FUNCTIONS and VOCABUlARY. But perhaps that's the wrong way to do it. Perhaps we should
only give students a lot of exposure to the language, together with opportunities to use
it - just as we do with children.
• In a theory that he called the INPUT HYPOTHESIS, the linguist Stephen Krashen
suggested that people acquire language if they get COMPREHENSIBlE INPUT. This means
that they are exposed to language that is just above their own lEVEl ~41 but which
they more or less understand. He suggested that this is all they need.
• Krashen also suggested that the language that we learn consciously is different from
the language we acquire through comprehensible input. We can use 'learnt'
language to check (or MONITOR) our conversation (or writing), but these checks may
stop us being fluent because we are worrying about whether we are speaking
correctly. In the 1980s, Krashen said that learnt language could not become
acquired language.
• Many researchers questioned Krashen's Input Hypothesis. They said it was difficult to
test because people cannot usually say if their language was acquired or learnt, and if
you can't say which it was, then the theory cannot be proved or disproved.
• Many people suggest that exposure to comprehensible input is not, in itself, enough
for people to know and be able to speak a language. There has to be an element of
conscious attention to the actuallanguage that is being used in the input, This is
especially important for learners who have reached (or gone through) puberty
~38-39 - i.e. teenagers and adults.

82

- ------ - -
 -

- -- - --- --- ----

Which way is best?

Perhaps the best way to get a new language would be to go and live in a country where
the language is spoken. There would be both exposure to the language and opportunities
to use it. But would that be enough for children or adults?
• Most people learn languages in classrooms. They don't have the opportunity to live in
a foreign country, and they don't get the same amount of exposure to the language
that children do when they learn their first language.
• Most educationalists believe that children are not ready to learn language - to STUDY
grammar, etc. - because of their age -+38. For them, acquisition-like activities may
be the best.
• Some students seem to acquire a new language without too much effort. Many
others, however, like, need and want to examine and understand what they are being
exposed to.
• Most language-learning lessons today include a mixture of activities, some more
focused on acquisition and some more focused on learning.
• Many teaching methods have focused more on learning than acquisition. Teachers
following these methods have offered their students individual grammar and
vocabulary items one by one. We look at these methods in more detail in -+44-48.
• Some teaching methods have concentrated more on acquisition than learning.
Teachers have involved their students in communication and encouraged them to
think more about the CONTENT of what they say or do than the FORM of the language
they are using.

How Fernando learnt

English
Fernando Torres, a footballer from
Spain who has played in the UK,
says that he learnt English there
by listening to the radio a lot and
(while he was doing it) trying to
concentrate on what he was
hearing. He also looked at big
advertisements at the side of the
road and tried to see - to NOTICE -
what they said and what the
meaning was. When he had noticed
the words in the advertisements
(= concentrated on the words
so that he could recognise them
again), then he could learn thern.
In other words, he had exposure to
the language, but then he thought
consciously about what he was
seeing and hearing.

·
··

·.•..•..•....•..•..•.....•.......•......•.........................................................
83
 Four methods
Although there have been many attempts to find the perfect language-learning method,
no one has yet come up with the 'best' one. This is partly because different students
learn differently (we discuss DIFFERENTlATIONin ~42), and partly because teaching
How people learn methods often change as society itself changes. However, some methods are worth
discussing because they are either a) widely used, b) talked about a lot or c) still have
languages 2 influence in modern teaching practice. Methods 1 and 2 below are more LEARNING-based,
• '1, •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
whereas methods 3 and 4 are significantly more Acoursrnon-Iike ~35 .

1 Grammar-translation
GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION was the most common way of learning languages for hundreds of
years. Students studied the grammar of sentences in the TARGET
LANGUAGE (the language they
wanted to learn). They translated them into their own language - or the other way round .

................................................................................................
·· ..
.
~ Adrian's story l
· At his English secondary school Adrian learnt French up to lower-intermediate level with .
•
grammar translation. He had to translate sentences such as My unc/e's garden is bigger than
my aunt's pen into French and he had to learn the rules of French grammar. When he went to
France at the age of 17, he could say very little for a few days, but then suddenly he started to
be able to communicate and he beca me more and more fluent over the next three weeks.
· Many people learnt (and continue to learn) languages in ways that are similar to this.
.·................................................................................................
Grarnmar-translation became unpopular because students translated written sentences
rather than spoken conversation, and because they didn't do enough speaking. However,
it is clear that asking students to translate into and out of their language and English can
teach them a lot about the similarities and differences between the two languages.

2 Audio-lingual methodology
AUDIO-LlNGUAL METHODOLOGY (A- L) gave students a lot of speaking practice by using
habit-formation DRILLS.Students repeated sentences again and again until they were
memorised. A-L methodology is connected to the theory of BEHAVIOURISM .

............•..•....••.•.......................................•..•..•....••.•...................
·· ..
: Pavlov's dogs :
Perhaps the most famous example of early Behaviourist
theory is the story of Pavlov's experiments with dogs.
The dogs responded to a stimulus (a ringing bell) by
salivating. This is because they had been conditioned to
expect a reward (food) when they heard the sound of
the bell. Every time they heard the bell, they salivated
and this response was reinforced, in their minds, when
food arrived.

·
..................................................................................•..•........... .

• A- L methodology uses a STIMULUS-RESPONSE-REINFORCEMENT approach to language

learning. A stimulus (a teacher's prompt) provokes a student response (a sentence),
and this response is reinforced by the reward of, for example, teacher PRAISEand

84

.- -
 Students make
mistakes
...........................................
'

We all make mistakes

When people are learning a language, they never get it right first time: they make
MISTAKES. This is a normal part of learning a first, or any other, language. Native speakers
of a language make mistakes, too, especially in informal conversation.

Why do learners make mistakes?

• When people are learning a second language, they make DEVELOPMENTAL ERRORS.
These happen as a natural part of language learning because (either consciously or
subconsciously) the learners are trying to work out how the language system works.
• When children are learning English as their first language, they often learn early on
how to say past tense forms such as went, came, ran, etc. However, later, when they
become aware of regular PAST TENSE endings, they start saying geed, eemed, ~, etc.
We call this OVER-GENERALlSATION because the child is using the new 'rule' too widely.
In the same way, learners of English as a second language often say things like He must;
te-ge, because they appear to be over-generalising to + INFINITIVE, which they have
become aware of in sentences like He has to go.
• When students are learning a second language, they often make INTERFERENCE errors.
These happen because they are (consciously or unconsciously) trying to use their first-
language knowledge to speak the new language. For example, J apanese speakers may make
sentences such as Skiing is very interesting (because the J apanese word which they would
use in this sentence, omoshiroi, means both great fun and interesting), Spanish speakers
may get their word order wrong and say SEe is a we19la1~beautifol (because in Spanish
the sentence would be Es una mujer bonita), Arabic speakers may say When 1 can seeyeu?
(because in Arabic there is no subject-verb inversion for questions) and Turkish students
might say I-htfppy (because in Turkish Ben mutluyum doesn't contain an overt verb).
• Researchers talk about a language learner's INTERLANGUAGE - that is their own version
of the language they are learning at a certain stage in their language development.
• There is a danger that if mistakes are left uncorrected for too long - or if the learner is
unaware of them - they may become FOSSILlSED. They are then more difficult to put right.

What kind of mistakes do students make?

Students make several different kinds of mistakes.
• Sometimes they make SLIPS. We can think of these as the result of tiredness or because
the students are speaking quickly and are careless. In other words, they know how to
use the language correctly, but it just comes out wrong.

86

- - ----
 -~ -- - ---- ----
Students make mistakes

• Sometimes students make ERRORS. These suggest that they either don't know
something, that they have learnt something incorrectly, or that their knowledge of
the language has been affected by developmental or interference factors.
• Sometimes students make ATTEMPTS to say things which are beyond their language
knowledge and so they have a go and make a bit of a mess of it!
• We need to be aware of what kind of mistake is being made so that we can CORRECT it
appropriately ~ 73. Students can often self-correct slips, but may need more help and
explanation if they have made an error. Attempt mistakes are perfect opportunities for
teaching new language because it is language that the students clearly want.

What do mistakes look like?

• Language learners may make pronunciation mistakes, many of which are caused by
LI interference. For example, Chinese speakers might say 1 /fi:WIW/ instead of 1fiel ill.
• Learners may make grammatical mistakes, such as word order problems (1like 1Jel)'
~), the omission of ARTICLES (She is teacher) or the addition of words that are not
necessary (Thcy 1'H/{;t5t te help us).
• They may make mistakes in word formation, such as cooker instead of cook, or misuse
grammatical categories, such as 1 am interesting (PRESENT PARTICIPLE) instead of 1 am
interested (PAST PARTICIPLE).
• Students may use wrong or inappropriate vocabulary; they may select the wrong word
in COLLOCATIONS, saying childish crime instead ofjuvenile crime, for example.

Do mistakes matter?
We all know people who speak fairly 'broken' English (or another language), and yet
they can make themselves understood perfectly well and no one worries too much about
the errors they make. However, in certain circumstances, both inside and outside the
classroom, mistakes do matter.
• When students speak, they may have an accent which is influenced by their first or
second language. There is nothing wrong with this unless what they are saying is
UNINTELLlGIBLE. PRONUNCIATlON teaching ~28-29 is all about making sure that the
students are as intelligible as possible to as many people as possible. We will need to
concentrate on STRESS~26 and INTONATlON~27, especially, since when mistakes are
made with these, they can affect meaning.
• Mistakes matter in writing. This is partly because writing doesn't flash past like
conversation, but stays there for us to look at again and again. People can think that
someone's English (or other language) is worse than it is if they see spelling mistakes,
bad handwriting and poor vocabulary use - whereas if they heard the same person
speak, they might have a better impression.
• In lessons we often make a difference between language activities which concentrate
on ACCURACY (the students' accurate and correct use oflanguage) and activities which
concentra te on FLUENCY (the students' ability to cornmunicate effectively and
spontaneously) ~73.
• When we are working on the students' accuracy, we are helping them to study
language (that is, to understand the construction of GRAMMAR, a LEXICAL PHRASE, a
LANGUAGE FUNCTION, etc.). Because of this, we will probably correct mistakes when they
occur and try to help the students to say or write things correctly.
• When we are trying to encourage fluency, we probably won't correct quite so
irnmediately since the students are learning how to communicate.

87
 Voung learners
Many people think that children are better language learners than other age groups
-+35. As a result, English is taught to young and veryyoung children in many countries
around the world.
Learning at • Children need a lot of good exposure if they are to acquire a language. One or two
different ages hours a week is usuaIly not enough for successful ACQUISITION, though it maya) give
students ataste of the new language, b) make them feel very positive about languages
e •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••

other than their own and e) be a lot of fun.

• Children take in information from everything around them, not just what is being
taught. They learn from things they see, hear, touch and interact with. This is often
just as important as more formal explanations.
• Children are usuaIly curious about the world and like learning.
• Children often find abstract concepts (such as grarnmar roles) difficult to understand.
However, this depends on what DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE they have reached. We look at
developmental stages in more detail in -+91.
• Many children are happy to talk about themselves, and like learning experiences
which involve and relate to their own lives.
• Children are pleased to have the teacher's approval.
• Children often find it difficult to concentra te on the same thing for a long time.
• The Russian educational psychologist Vygotsky (1896-1934) said that children learn best
when they are in the ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD): when they are ready for the
next bit of learning. Later experts have suggested that teachers should SCAFFOLD -+91
students' learning (provide guidance and support) until the students can do it for themselves.
• We need to remember, however, that children develop at different rates and that there
is a clear difference between a child of five, for example, and a child of ten .

...............................•.....•.••.•..••....••....•.......................................
·· ..
: Tips for teaching young learners .
··
: • Change activities frequently.
: • Combine learning and play.
• Use appropriate activities Cincluding songs, puzzles, games, art, physical movement, etc.)
: for different kinds of student.
: • Make the classroom an attractive, light and convenient learning environment.
• • Pay special attention to your own English pronunciation - children are good imitators!
·
................................................................................................. .
We discuss YOUNG LEARNERS in more detail in -+91-101.

Adult and older learners

How are adult learners different from children?
• Adults can think in abstract ways and so there is, perhaps, less need for them to
engage in activities such as games and songs in order to uñderstand things.
• We can introduce a wide range of topics into adult classrooms and expect that the
students will have some knowledge of what we are talking about.
• Many adult learners have strong opinions about how learning should take place, often
based on their own schooldays. They sometimes dislike teaching methods that are
either different from those they are used to or which remind them of earlier learning.
• Although some adults have good memories of learning success, others have experience
of learning failure and are worried that they will fail again.
• Adults usually (but not always) behave well in class - at least better than some other
age groups.
• Many adults (but not all) understand what they want and why they are learning. This
means that even when they are a little bored, they can still keep working .

·................................................................................................
·
.
.:.
: Tips for teaching adults
··
: individuals
Find out what interests different student in order to plan the most
..:
: appropriate lessons.
• o Be prepared to explain things (such as grammar rules) But remember that many adults
: learn by doing things, too.
o Discuss the best ways of learning with your students so that everyone is happy with
• your lessons.
: o Provide clear short-term goals so that the students can achieve success at each stage.
·
...............................•..........................................•...................... .
We discuss teaching adults in more detail in -+39.

Adolescents

For many teachers, ADOLESCENT students are the most exciting - but also the most
challenging - people to have in classrooms.
• Depending on their stage of development, teenagers can start to think in abstract
terms. In other words, they can talk about ideas and concepts in a way that younger
children probably cannot.
• Many adolescent students become passionate about the things that interest them.
• Many adolescent students have a Iarge amount of energy. This is sometimes a good
and creative thing, but sometimes, if we don't channel it correctly, it can lead to more
or less serious DISCIPLINE problems -+71.
• Many adolescents are extremely conscious of their age and find ir irritating when adults
continue to teach them as children - even though, in many ways, they still are children.
• Adolescents usually have not chosen to come to our English lessons. They are there
because they have to be there. They may not see any good reason for learning English.
• Many adolescents want and need PEER APPROVAL (the good opinion of their classmates)
far more than they want and need the approval of the teacher .

·................................................................................................ ..
·
: Tips for teaching teenagers :
.
·· ..
·
:
:
Encourage teenagers to have opinions and to think critically and questioningly about what
they are learning.
.
:
;
: o Use the students' own knowledge and experience as much as possible. :
• • Treat the students like adults but remember they are still children. •
• • Encourage the students to have AGENCY -+39 (take responsibility for their own learning).
Be super-organisedl Teenagers like to know what they are doing and why. •
: • Be consistent when there are discipline problems. Criticise the behaviour, not the student. •
·•.•...........................•........................•..•....•................•............... .:
We discuss teaching adolescents in more detail in -+39.

89
 The right priorities
The most important thing in a classroom is not how the teacher teaches, but whether
(and how) the students learn.

Student-centred
Personalisation, agency and learner training
teaching
There are things we can do to help our students have some control over their own
learning.
• PERSONAlISATlON is one of the most important stages of any learning cycle. When
students use new language to talk about themselves, or to say things that matter to
them (for example in the PRODUCTION phase of the PPP procedure -+44), they have to
think about the right language to use to express their own ideas and to talk about
their own lives and what interests them.
• When learners have some responsibility for their own learning, they are more
likely to be engaged than if they are just doing what the teacher tells them to.
In other words, if students are sometimes 'in the driving seat', they have some
AGENCY - some control over what is happening in their learning. They might decide
such things as which words from a list they want to focus on, what topic they want
to discuss, what activity they want to do next, or what HOMEWORK -+76 they think
would be most useful to them. We rnight discuss with them how and why they want to
be CORRECTED -+73-75.
• Many students find it extremely useful to think about how they learn and we can help
them by providing LEARNER TRAINING. This means getting them to think of the best
ways of doing things, such as writing words down to remember them, what to do in
conversation when you don't know a word, or how to take notes.

Talking about adults

Adult students bring a lot of previous learning experience to the classroom and they
bring their own ideas about what good learning looks and feels like.
• Some adults are not keen on COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING -+36, for example,
because it is not like the way they were taught at school. As a result, we need to explain
why we use PAIRWORK and GROUPWORK -+67: to help the students to ACTIVATE their
language knowledge because we think activation helps them to process the language
they have ACQUIRED and LEARNT -+35.
• We need to listen (where possible) to our students' own learning preferences. For
example, they may want to TRANSLATE every word of a reading text into their own
language (or have every word explained), but we want them to read for GIST -+54.

I We can make a bargain, where they agree to try to do what we want (read for gist) and
we agree, when they have done this, to work with individual word meaning.
• Some older learners have (or appear to have) more problems with memory than

I younger students. We need to RECYCLE and REVISE what we have done constantly, and
we should back up what they STUDY with visual and other resources.
• When we teach middle-aged and older adults, we should find out how they like to be
addressed (not everyone likes to be called by their first name) and take care that what
we show and tell them is both clearly visible and audible.

-
••
-
Talking about teenagers

Although teenagers often learn faster than children or adults, there are other issues we
need to take account of.
• Teenagers don't always see (or want to see) why we are asking them to do the things
we are suggesting. It is important, therefore, to explain what benefit they will get
from an activity or a lesson. They need to understand the LESSON OUTCOMES ~ 79
we expect for them.

• Because some teenagers have unresolved problems with SELF-ESTEEM, we need to be

sure that we don't do anything that will make them feel vulnerable or embarrassed in
front of their PEERS. F or example, instead of making them READ ALOUD from a text they
have never seen before (and therefore risk them not reading very well), we may let
them choose what they want to read and give them a chance to practise reading it so
that when they do, they can have some confidence that they will be successful ~29.

• Teenage students can be incredibly creative - offering ideas, energy and enthusiasm.
We need to direct that creativity, pointing them in the right direction and helping
them to focus on how to make TASKS manageable.

• Students at this age are far more likely to enjoy (and be engaged with) lessons if they
can see the relevance of what they are doing to their own lives and interests. For
example, instead of making our students work with music that we like (although there
is nothing wrong with that), we may try to get them to talk about music that they like.
Instead of using the STORIES of famous historical people, for example, we may have the
students work with stories of their contemporaries, people in the school or characters
from TV shows that they watch or online games that they play. However, it is worth
remembering that teenage students do not necessarily want to share their world with
adult teachers, so we have to be careful about how much we become involved with
their interests.

• Teenage students want to know and see that their teacher is interested in their
progressand their wellbeing and that, above all, the teacher is fair and treats all
students the same. This is especially important so that DISCIPLINE does not become
a problem ~ 71.
 Getting to know our students

If we want to know how to teach our students, we need to know what the students are
like. How are they different? How are they the same?

Learner
The good learner
characteristics
1

"
la .•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Many studies have tried to identify the characteristics of GOOO LEARNERS. There are
variations in the conclusions that are reached, but most people say that good learners:
• try to guess when they don't know something - and often succeed;
• try to get their message across even if their knowledge of the language isn't very good;
• are prepared to make mistakes;
• try to figure out how language works;
• practise whenever they can;
• analyse the way they and others talk;
• have a good self-image and confidence.
We need to remember that many good LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS tend to represent a
'western' view oflearning. Nevertheless, we should encourage our own view of good
learner behaviour, in particular by rewarding appropriate efforts and by talking about
how to learn.

Talking about differences

• Many people suggest that some students have more APTITUOE for language learning
than others - in other words, some students will automatically be better at it than
others. However, it is difficult to know how to measure this, and a lot will depend on
how, when and where people are learning and what their MOTIVATlON is ~43.
• Some people suggest that intelligence plays a part in language learning. However, it
is clear that most people are capable of learning a language whatever their
intellectuallevel.
• The psychologist Howard Gardner proposed a theory of MULTIPLE INTELLlGENCES (MI
THEORV) to show how we can think about people's knowledge and abilities. 'It is not,'
he wrote, 'how intelligent we are that matters, it is how we are intelligent.' He
suggested that everyone has the same intelligences: spatial (the ability to visualise
things), linguistic (the ability to use, understand and memorise language), logical-
mathematical (the ability to reason with and understand numbers and other
abstractions), musical (the ability to respond, reproduce and interpret music), bodily-
kinaesthetic (the ability to understand, use and control one's bodily actions skilfully),
interpersonal (the ability to empathise and interact with others), intrapersonal (the
ability to think and reflect internally), naturalistic (the ability to understand and enjoy
the natural world) and existential (the ability to see and empathise with spiritual,
religious and psychic belief). However, according to Gardner we are all different: for
some of us, perhaps, our musical intelligence is more developed than our
interpersonal intelligence. Others may have a strong bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence,
and this may be more developed than their logical-mathematical intelligence.
• Emotional intelligence - which is similar to Gardner's interpersonal intelligence - has
been described by a number of different psychologists as the ability to understand and
deal with our own emotions and the emotions of others.
• Many people have tried to categorise students accorqing to their LEARNING STVLES - the
way they behave when they are learning in classrooíns. According to these categories,
enthusiasts, for example, try to take part and listen to the teacher, whereas rebels want
to do it 'their way'; communicative learners try to do everything by letting the language
flow, whereas analytic learners spend their time trying to understand everything.

92

~- ---
- -
--------------~=- -

Learner characteristics

• The only problem with these descriptions is that very few students remain one 'type'
or the other, even if we could clearly establish what the different types were. Perhaps
it is more helpful to think of different lesson stages where different styles are more or
less appropriate.
• NEURO-L1NGUISTIC PROGRAMMING (NLP) - which is a model for psychotherapeutic
counselling - has been used to explain learner differences. The founders ofNLP,
Richard Bandler andJohn Grinder, wanted to help people to re-frame their
experiences (visualise things in a different way) to help them perform better. They
also suggested that all people respond to the same stimuli - visual (what we see),
auditory (what we hear), kinaesthetic (associated with physical movement, touching,
etc.), olfactory (what we smell) and gustatory (what we taste) - but that for each of us
one of these VAKOG elements has more 'power' because it stimulates us more than the
others do, and this is different for different people.
People have raised doubts about the scientific status ofboth NLP and MI theory (and
about many attempts at learner categorisation). However, they all remind of us of an
essential truth: different students are good (and not so good) at different things. They
respond better to some things than to others.

What to do about student differences

• We need to make sure that we use different lessons to cater for different kinds of student
preferences. We might use visual stimuli in one lesson, but rely on music for the next.
We will give the students exercises for analytic learners at one stage of the lesson, but
balance them with more holistic communicative activities at other times.
• We should keep a record of what kinds of activities are successful with which kinds
of student so that we can make effective future decisions.
• We need to try to encourage LEARNERAUTONOMY (the students learning on their own and
relying on their own abilities) by offering LEARNER TRAINING, where we get the students
to think about how they learn best. Learner training involves tasks such as showing
the students different ways of note-taking and asking them to think about which ones
they prefer, or talking about different types of listening text and the SKILLS and the
SUB-SKILLS that are appropriate for them. It involves thinking about the best ways of
remembering words -+22 and what the students can do to help this happen, etc.
We discuss DIFFERENTIATION in -+42.
 Different kinds of English learning
English language learning takes place in many different situations and for many
different reasons.
Different
• The vast majority of students are learning GENERAL ENGlISH: they are learning the
contexts, language for no special reason. This is the case in many school situations and in many
different levels (private) language institutes, where groups are made up of students from a range of
ages and backgrounds.
• In some schools around the world, teachers use CONTENT AND lANGUAGE INTEGRATED
lEARNING (CLIL), especia11yat primary and secondary level. CLIL marries the
learning of new language to the learning of school-curriculum SUBJECTS. We discuss
CLIL in -+102-110.
• Many students study ENGlISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES (ESP). If they are aircraft engineers,
they may study the special English of engineering. If they are air traffic contro11ers,
they willlearn language specific to that occupation.
• Many people study BUSINESS ENGlISH. Classes can a) take place in schools where
students are learning business and English at the same time (pre-service) or b) can be
given to people who are already working in the business world (in-service). The
teacher may travel to a company to give lessons.
• ENGlISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES (EAP) is studied by many people who need to use
English at co11egeand university.
• We need to think about why our students are learning English and what kind of
English they want and need. We can do a NEEDSANAlYSIS to find out what future
contexts they will need to use English in. Business English teachers, for example,
will find out what situations their students need English for (perhaps business
meetings) and what they will need to do in such situations (make presentations, give
opinions, ask for clarification, etc.).
• Students around the world study in anything from classes of one to groups of 30, 60
and even more than 100. We discuss lARGE ClASSES in -+42.
• In ONE-TO-ONE ClASSES (one student, one teacher), we can find out exactly what our
student needs and wants. We must be we11prepared for lessons, but at the same time
we will need to be flexible as the lesson progresses.
• In one-to-one classes we can adapt to our student's feelings and wishes about language
learning. We can negotiate the content of the course.
• In countries such as the USA, Canada, Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and Britain,
students in a group may have a range of first or HOME lANGUAGES (u). As a result,
English is both the language of instruction and the language of communication.
In other places, the students a11share the same first language and, as a result,
teachers can teach and students can learn in different ways. We discuss the uses of the
LI in -+77.

Language levels
For many years, people have suggested that there ate six different language learning
levels (see diagram 1): BEGINNERS (with little or no language), ElEMENTARY, LOWER-j
PRE-INTERMEDIATE, INTERMEDIATE, UPPER-INTERMEDIATE and ADVAÑCED. Although these terms
can mean different things to different people, it is often said that students can complete
a level in between 90 and 120 hours. /
• Some people make a difference between REAL BEGINNERS (who know nothing at a11)
and FAlSE BEGINNERS (those who have already picked up a few words and bits and pieces
of English).

94
 Different contexts, different levels

• Many teachers enjoy working with beginners because their delight in learning is
obvious - and because there often seems to be a clear connection between what is
taught and what is learnt.
• Teachers sometimes talk about the PLATEAU EFFECT, which often happens when students
have reached the intermediate level, The students feel that they can speak English and
find it difficult to see when they are making more progress. It is vital that we should
provide clear goals for them to aim at, and explain what they are learning and what
progress they are making.
• There are other ways of describing levels, too. The Council of Europe and the
Association of Language Testers of Europe (ALTE) produced the COMMON EUROPEAN
FRAMEWORK OF REFERENCE FOR LANGUAGES (CEFR), which is now used in countries around

the world. As you can see in diagram 2, the CEFR has six levels from Al (beginner) to
C2 (very advanced).
• What makes the CEFR special is that it can be used for any language because levels
are described in terms of CAN-DO STATEMENTS, such as (for writing) 'can complete basic
forms and write notes including times, dates and places' (Bl) or (for speaking and
listening) 'can contribute effectively in meetings and seminars within their own area
of work or keep up a casual conversation with a good degree of fluency, coping with
abstract expressions' (C2).
• Students can use the CEFR to judge their own language level. In recent years, many
COURSEBOOK writers and CURRICULUM designers have encouraged students to evaluate
their own progress by checking whether their learning has been successful. For
example if, at the end of a unit, they tick the statement 1 can invite people out and accept
and refuse invitations, it means that they have learnt one of the language functions that
were being taught.
• We need to give students more support when they are beginners, and teaching
procedures such as PPP ~44 may be more appropriate than for students at higher
levels. It may be easier to encourage LEARNERAUTONOMY ~43 at higher levels than at
beginner level. At lower levels we will use a lot more demonstration when we give
instructions ~69 than we do at higher levels.
• We need to choose appropriate tasks, topics and language for students at different
levels. We will not expect beginners to discuss complex issues and we will not ask
advanced students to do simple language drills.

Ditterent student levels advanced

1-
upper-intermediate

1-
intermediate

1-
lower-intermediate/pre-intermediate

1-
elementary

"
real beginner false beginner

beginners elementary intermediate advanced

1'-------,---AA.-.-1 -1-aA2Y--r---IIiIB"-'-1 -1-----NB:9-2- C1 d2

false beginners pre-intermediate upper-intermediate

Levels and C[FR levels

95
 large and
mixed-ability
classes
'l' •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

Teaching large classes

Some teachers dislike the idea of teaching large dasses (30 to 100+ students), and it is true
that it is more difficult to give individual attention to students when there are so many
of them. However, teaching in such circumstances can be rewarding and productive.
Big dasses can develop a strong group identity, and the atmosphere can be exhilarating.

• It is important to be very organised when teaching large dasses. We must be sure that
we have all the material that we and the students need. We need to have a dear idea o:
what we are going to do.

• The bigger the dass, the more important it is to give very dear INSTRUCTIONS (and
check them) ~69 so that everyone understands exactly what they need to do. We
should plan exactly how we are going to explain things and think about how to
demonstrate what we want the students to do.

• We need to make it dear when we are moving from one STAGE OF A LESSON to the next.
the students, even the ones at the back, should know exactly what is going on. We nee
to vary our voice and the pace of the lesson when we move from one stage to the other.

• It helps to establish dear routines. Students need to know when they should quieten
down at the end of an activity ~70 and what signs and signals we use to indicate
this. 'Ve also need to have a dear system of collecting in and giving back HOMEWORK
~76, etc.

• We will maximise the use of PAIRWORK and GROUPWORK ~67. For example, students
can do INFORMATION-GAP activities ~50 or rehearse scenes from plays ~64. We can
ask them to reconstruct stories m!l!m) or do STORY CIRCLE-typeactivities ~58.

• Students can complete WORKSHEETS and do reading and listening tasks in pairs and
groups.

• We can use CHORAL REPETITION for reaction and practice ~47. We can divide the da
into two or three groups for choral practice ~.

• We can use activities (such as poetry.fill-ins ~63, :It s;~J M~·e' reading al~ud
~29, 69 and ~ or 'stand up, srt down' listening •• ) where we glVe all the
students the same input, but they have to think and respond individually.

96
Teaching mixed-ability classes
In a sense, all dasses are mixed ability because students are all individuals and have
different LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS ~40. And even in a dass where everyone is supposed
to be at the same level (UPPER-INTERMEDIATE ~41, for example), it is unlikely that the
students will all be able to speak, listen, write or read as well as each other. In primary
and secondary education, children learn at different speeds and there is often a much
greater range of ability, even where dasses are STREAMED from, say, group 1 (high
achievers) to group 3 (lowachievers).
• DIFFERENTIATION (teaching different individuals in a different way) means trying to
provide different learning experiences for different individuals - for example, offering
different learning material or activities to suit different abilities and needs.
• We need to try to ensure that every student has a chance of success so that they can
enjoy praise which they believe they deserve ~72.
• We can give different students different material. For example, we can give out
TEXTS at different levels. We can refer students to different online websites or give
them different exercises and activities to do. However, this creates a lot of extra
work for teachers.
• We can put the students in ability groups so that groups of stronger students work
on different content or tasks from the weaker groups. In effect this is like in-class
streaming.
• We can put students in groups where weaker and more able students areworking
together. We can give the group a task and say that it will not be complete until all the :,;>
students (stronger and weaker) have completed it. As a result, the stronger students
have to help out the weaker students.
• We can give students different roles when we give them tasks so that the stronger
ones act as 'chairpersons' and take on the more difficult parts of the activity.
• We will take great care to respond to each individual student in a way that is
appropriate for that student. This will affect such things as our choice of CORRECTION
techniques ~ 73, 75, how we reward and PRAISE students ~ 72 and how we respond
to DISCIPLINE problems ~71.
• We can give all the students the same task, but expect different responses. For
example, we can get some students to answer all20 questions about a reading text, but
only expect others to deal with the first ten. We can give a series of tasks which start
by being general but then go into more detail. Some students do the first set of tasks,
the others do the second.
• We will remember that weaker students need more help, not less. For example, when
the students are working with a reading text, the stronger ones may go straight into
the reading tasks and then move quickly to the FOLLOW-UP TASKS ~56, whereas the
weaker students may spend longer in a pre-reading prediction phase, and we may
give them more help with the language that they are likely to encounter in the
reading texto
• We need to have material ready so that we can give those students who finish early
something interesting to do whilst the rest of the das s catch up.
One of most important ways of dealing with both large classes and mixed-ability classes
is to indude LEARNER TRAINING ~40 so that individual students can take responsibility for
their own learning and progress.

97
 The importance of motivation

It almost goes without saying that students who are not motivated find learning difficult,
whereas students who are motivated usually have more chance of success. But what is-c.
MOTIVATION and how can teachers have an effect on it?

Motivation
·1': .•.•..•...••....••.••..•.••.....•..••.•••

Where motivation comes from

When we want something badly enough, when we want to feel better about ourselves or
when we want to know that other people like what we are doing, we get into a state of
mind that provokes us into doing something. In other words, if we want something
badly enough, we act on that desire. That state of mind is what we call motivation.
• Experts talk about EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION, which comes from outside the learner and
may, for example, be related to a need to pass an exam, or the desire to elicit praise
from the teacher, or because the learner has a forthcoming trip where the foreign
language would be an advantage. INTRINSIC MOTIVATION, on the other hand, comes from
the task itself - and exists because the learner has a drive to learn.
• Differences have also been drawn between INTEGRATlVE MOTIVATION (where a language
learner wishes somehow to integrate into the target language culture) and
INSTRUMENTAL MOTlVATlON (where a language learner is studying because with English
they will get a better job - or for some other more materialistic reason). It has been
suggested that integrative motivation has a more positive effect on student success
than instrumental motivation, but perhaps it is more sensible to say that the
strength of a student's motivation is what matters, wherever it comes from and
whatever kind it is.
• The students' motivation may be affected (negatively or positively) by a number of
factors such as a) the society they live in and that society's attitude to language
learning, b) the people around them and how important those people think that
learning a foreign language is, c) whether or not they ha~e a definite goal for language
learning (students who are preparing for exams are often highly motivated -+89) and
d) by the natural curiosity that most students possess.
• The students' motivation will also be affected by their learning experiences.
Although motivation is personal to each learner, what teachers do can have a
profound effect upon it.

98
Sustaining motivation

Most teachers can motivate their students. It is, after all, one of the things we are
supposed to be able to do, and when, for example, we are asked to substitute for a
colleague, it is not difficult to produce our 'best' lesson for the students to enjoy. Being
a SUBSTITUTE TEACHER can be great fun. In the same way, the students' natural curiosity
often makes the first lesson of a semester with a new class an enjoyable evento Helping
our students to sustain their motivation throughout a semester or ayear requires more
effort, however.
• Students are far more likely to stay motivated if they think that their teacher cares
about them - if their AFFECT (feeling) is positive. We need to listen, watch and respond
to our students in a genuine and interested way. We discuss the importance of RAPPORT
(the relationship between teacher and students) in ~66.
• N othing succeeds like success, and students who succeed in language learning are far
more likely to remain motivated than students who constantly fail. However, it is
important that students' ACHIEVEMENT should be the result of some effort. If everything
is either too easy or too difficult, achievement will be either meaningless or
impossible. Good teachers set an appropriate LEVEL OF CHALLENGE so that individual
students can experience appropriate success (we discuss DIFFERENTIATION in ~42).
They set achievable GOALS at every stage of the language learning process.
• Students are far more likely to remain motivated if they think their teacher has a
professional ATTITUDE. The way that we present ourselves to the class is important.
Students need to know that we have thought about what we are going to teach
(PLANNING ~79-80) and that we know what we are doing. Part of a teacher's job is to
convince the students, whatever the reality, that they have this kind of professional
competence.
• Students will always stay more motivated if we involve them in enjoyable and
challenging ACTIVITIES. However, not all students enjoy or respond to the same things
in the same way. It is important for teachers to keep a record of what works and what
doesn't (for the class and for individual students). REFLECTIVETEACHERS do this anyway,
and it helps them to decide what to do next.
• Students are far more likely to remain motivated if they have AGENCY (that is, if they
have some control over what is happening). When students can make some decisions
themselves - when they are the agents of their own actions - then they stay engaged
in the process of learning because they have a stake in it.
• Because we believe that students should have agency, we encourage LEARNER
AUTONOMY, where students do some or a lot of the work on their own. We want them
.to take charge of their learning by doing such things as DISCOVERING things for
themselves ~46, doing a lot of EXTENSIVE READING ~54 and listening to PODCASTS,
completing HOMEWORK tasks ~76 and doing their own language investigation.
We will provide LEARNER TRAINING, encouraging our students to think about the best
techniques for their own individuallearning. For example, how can they remember
vocabulary best? What is the best way of studying at home?
None of these things will sustain motivation on their own, but taken together they offer
us a clear guide about how to keep students motivated over a period of time.

99
 Section C: Teaching language and
language skills
In this section we look at ways of teaching the language system (grammar, vocabulary,
etc.), and we also look at ways of teaching language skills (reading, writing, listening
and speaking).
We start by looking at ways of introducing, researching and practising language - and
give examples of a large number of different types of exercises and activities.
In the language skills units we discuss different issues to do with speaking, reading,
writing and listening - and then we go on to look at a range of different activities for
each skill.
There are activities which involve poetry, too, as well as ideas for using music and drama.

44 Introducing new language 1

45 Introducing new language 2
46 Researching new language
47 Repetition and drilling
48 Practising new language 1
49 Practising new language 2
50 Practising new language 3 ~
51 Teaching speaking 1
52 Teaching speaking 2
53 Teaching speaking 3
54 Teaching reading 1
55 Teaching reading 2
56 Teaching reading 3
57 Teaching writing 1
•...•. 58 Teaching writing 2
59 Teaching writing 3
60 Teaching listening 1
61 Tea-ching listening 2
62 Teaching listening 3
63 Using poetry
64 Using music and drama

101
 A popular way of introducing new language
Many teachers use a procedure called PPP (PRESENTATION, PRACTICE ANO PROOUCTION) to
introduce simple language at ELEMENTARV and INTERMEDIATE levels. We present the FORM
(the construction), the meaning and use of the new language, and then the students
Introducing ~ practise it (often using DRILlING and CONTROLLED PRACTICE -+47). Finally, when they have
become familiar with the new language, we ask them to produce their own sentences or
new language 1 phrases using what they have just learnt .
",
.........................................

An example of PPP in action

In this example m!.mi), the teacher is introducing the third person singular (he, she, it)
of the PRESENT SIMPLE tense to describe habitual actions. He wants to make sure that his
students understand the way we use the present simple to talk about what people do on
a regular basis. He wants to ensure that they understand that we need to add the -s
MORPHEME to the verb with the third person singular. He also wants the students to hear
the different pronunciations of s (/zl in goes, Isl in works, etc.).

Stagel
Conor (the teacher) shows his elementary students a picture of a young woman. He tells
them that her name is Meera. He asks them to guess what Meera does, before
confirming them that she is a doctor. Guessing helps to engage the students' attention
and we often ELlCIT language or information from the dass in this way.

Stage2
Conor puts the picture of Meera next to a dock face, which shows six o'dock. He now
introduces the idea of habitual actions by saying (with the students): Monday, Tuesday,
Wednesday, Tbursday, Friday ... eveTy day. He then MIMES the action of getting up and
elicits the sentence he wants.

Stage 3
Conor MODELS the sentence by saying: She gets up at six o'clock ... get ... sss ... gets ... she
gets up at six o'clock.
Notice how he says the sentence normally but then he ISOLATES the main grammar point
(gets). He distorts it (get ... s ... get ... s) before modelling the sentence again in a dear voice.

102
Conor could also have written the sentence on the board like this:

But in this case he didn't think it was necessary.

Stage4
Conor now gets the students to repeat the new sentence using CHORAL REPETITION -+47
(they all say the sentence at the same time) and then INDIVIDUAL REPETITION.

Stage5
The students now see different pictures to teach sentences such as She works in a hospital,
She goes to work by ear, etc.

Stage 6
Conor now organises a CUE-RESPONSE DRILL -+47. He points at different pictures and the
students have to say the sentence for the picture.

Final stage
When the students have practised all the sentences about Meera's daily routine, Conor
encourages PERSONALlSATlON -+39 by asking them to make their own sentences about what
they themselves do every day (1get up at seven o'cloek, 1 take the train to work, ete.). This is
the point at which the students take the language for themselves and make it their own.

Teaching ideas: showing language construction

We can use fingers and arms to show language construction (word order, contractions, etc.)
1!m9.
We can use diagrams to show grammatical relationships. For example, we can use a
squiggly line to show the meaning of the present perfect continuous in the sentence They've
been playing together in the orchestra since 2009.

\v..ey sh:wte,A
plO\yl\\3 l-Ieye.
~ I

200'1

We can also use lines, boxes and arrows to show such

things as the relationship between statements and
questions. We can use different coloured pens to
highlight such things as verb tense construction or
show agreement between subject and verbo

At various stages during a PPPprocedure we can CHECK MEANING (make sure the students have
understood the new structure) by asking concept questions, such as Does she get up at six o'cfock
on Thursdays? (Yes, she does because she gets up at six o'clock every day), Does she go to work
by bus? (No, she doesn't. She goes to work by car). We discuss checking meaning in -+69.

Apart from PPP there are other ways of introducing new language -+45.

103
 Ways of introducing new language
There are a number of ways in which we can introduce new language.

Situations
Introducing We used a SITUATION (Dr Meera's daily life) to introduce the PRESENT SIMPLE using PPP
new language 2 ~44. Situations like this are extremely useful for introducing language at lower levels,
~...................••.•.•.•.••••.••••••• as the following few examples will show:
• We can teach the WILL FUTURE with an imaginary visit to a fortune teller (the fortune
'1 teller can say You will meet a handsome stranger, etc.).
• We can teach can and can 't by talking about someone in prison (He can 't go to the
cinema, he can exercisefor one hour every day, etc.).
• We can teach PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT by describing an adventure trail (Run to the
tree. Climb up the rope ladder. Walk along the wire, etc.).
• We can teach POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS (mine, his, yours, etc.) by describing a lost property
office. The students are told what colours certain people like so that when they hear
that there is a blue purse in the office, they can say It's hers.

Stories
Stories can be used to contextualise new language. For example, we can tell the students
the following STORY (and use pictures to illustrate it, if we want):

One day seven years ago, TV presenter Mary woke up late because her alaroz didn 't go off.
She ran out of her door and foil down the steps. A neighbour called an ambulance and
Mary went to hospital. In the hospital she met a handsome doctor. Sbe offered him ajob on
ber TV programme. They started to work together. They foil in lave and gat married.
Now they have three children.

Now we ask the students to imagine if things had been different, using the THIRD
CONDITIONAL ~2. For example, IfMary's alarm had gone off, she wouldn't baue got up late.
If sbe hadn 't got up late, she wouldn 't have run out of her door, etc.
We can tell stories about our own lives and experiences to contextualise new language.
We can get our students to tell stories about their lives (where appropriate) and use these
stories to introduce and explain the language that they need. Students can also read
stories ~54-56 or listen to them ~60-62 on an audio track.

Dialogues
Dialogues can be used to introduce language. At pre-intermediate level, for example,
we can draw two faces on the board (or show two people on the screen). We can then
pretend to be each of the characters, one by one. We can stand in front of each picture
in turn and elicit a dialogue as in the following example:

A: Would you like a drink?

B: Yes, please.
A: Coffee or tea?
B: Coffee, please.
A: Would you like milk?
B: Yes, please.
A: Would you like sugar?
B: Yes, please.
A: Here you are.
B: Thanks.
A: You're welcome.

104
 Introducing new language 2
o •••••••• o ••••• o •••••• o •• o ••••• o •• o •••••• o •••••••• _,

We will need to use MIME, GESTURES and exaggerated INTONATION so that students can
understand what is happening B!i:D.

Texts
Many teachers get their students to meet new language in TEXTS; they read (or listen to)
a text and then study some of the language they find there.

Pictures, objects and mime

Even in a technological age, teachers still
need to be able to draw quick pictures and
diagrams when they are needed. For
example, we can show pictures of people
getting off, onto, out 01, into cars, buses, etc.
We can draw happy and sad faces, or rain or
snow. But we can mime these things, too,
just as we can mime people sleeping, having
a shower, making a cup of coffee or frying
an egg.

Learning by doing
Learning by doing is especially useful for students at low levels. Using GESTURES and
movement, we can get our students to follow instructions such as Stand up! Sit down! Go
to the window! Open the window! etc. They can then start giving instructions themselves.
This way of doing things, first suggested in the 1970s, is called TOTAL PHYSICAl RESPONSE
(TPR) ~4.

We look at more ways of introducing (and practising) language in ~7, 17,22.

Alternatives to introducing new language

In DISCOVERY lEARNING we ask students to RESEARCH language. We look at this in more

detail in ~46.
We can change the sequence of PPP and put the production stage at the beginning (rather
than at the end) of the sequence. This was once amusingly called the DEEP-END STRATEGY
-like throwing people in at the deep end of a swimming pool to teach them to swim!
In other words, we can put the students in situations where they have to use language
- and then, later, teach thein the language they couldn't manage, or which they used
incorrectly. Some people call this procedure TEST-TEACH-TEST. It has the advantage of
making the students need to use thenew language, and so it helps them to see what they
need to learn.
In TASK-BASED lEARNING (TBl) ~36 we ask students to perform TASKS rather than just
learn new grammar and vocabulary, and perhaps we only deal with language they had
difficulty with after the task is overoIn many ways this is like test-teach-test - a kind of
bigger deep end strategy. What is special about TBL is that language learning only
happens because of the task, the task comes first and the students learn language in
arder to do it.
AlI the ways of introducing language in this unit are appropriate for grammar teaching
or for a more lEXICAl APPROACH, where we introduce vocabulary, lexical phrases, etc., for
example in the teaching oflanguage functions ~30.

105
 Repetition: choral and individual
We frequently ask students to repeat things that we have said or that they have heard. We
do this because it is useful for them to try to make the new sentences or try out new word
- to see what it feels like. REPETITION is usuaIly part of an introduction sequence ~44, but
Repetition we can also use it at any stage if we want to re-present things (for example, if we just
want to have the students saya word correctly in the middle of some other teaching).
and drilling • We can use CHORAL REPETITION to get the students to repeat a sound, a word, a PHRASE
,I'e ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

or a SENTENCE all together. This helps them learn how to say the new language using
correct sounds, stress and intonation. It gives individual students confidence and it
can be enjoyable for them.
• When we want our students to repeat in chorus, we have to give a clear MODEL ~44.
We must make sure that aIl the students start at the same time so we will use GESTURES
like a conductor, to get them going. We can beat time with our hands, arms (and even
stamping feet!) to establish a clear rhythm and to try to keep the whole class together .

.••...............•...............................•............•.•...............•.•.........•...
·· ..
· An example of choral repetition ~
Teacher: She gets up at six o'clock ... listen ... gets ... gets ... get ... s ... get ... s ... gets ...
gets ... she gets up at six o'dock. Everybody.
· Students: She gets up at six o'clock
Teacher Again.
··
·
Students: She gets up at six o'clock.
................................................................................................. .
• Choral repetition is highly motivational when we get the students to CHANT phrases,
sentences, rhymes, po~ms and songs, etc.
• Choral repetition works well with words, phrases and short sentence. It is more
difficult to organise for longer sentences.
• We can use BACKCHAINING to build up sentences and phrases from the end. For
example, if the sentence is You should've told her, the teacher can have students repeat:
her ... told her ... should've told her ... you should've told her. (The teacher, Conor, does
thisin~.)
• We can use HALF CHORUS work by dividing the class in two. For example, we can have
half the class saya line from a dialogue, and then get the other half of the class to say
the next line of the dialogue ~ .
.: 't' ,
. .7~
• We often use INDIVIDUAL REPETITION to give the students a chance to saya sound, word,
phrase or sentence on their own, and to check that choral repetition has been a success.
First of all, we NOMINATE a student and then, when they have repeated the phrase or
sentence, we give feedback. We can nominate by using a student's name, by looking at
individual students or by gesturing towards them. However pointif& seem rude. Ir it;
is better to use the hand with the palm upwards as Conor does in •• .
• It is important not to nominate students in order (by going along a row from left to
right, for example); it is much more dynamic to nominate individual students in
random order. The students will then pay more attention because they don't know
when they will have to speak.
 Repetition and drilling
..........................................

Drills and drilling

When we start nominating individual students one after the other and we ask them to
repeat, we call this a ORILL. When we have more than one target sound, word, phrase or
sentence and we get the students to choosewhich one to say,we call this a CUE-RESPONSE ORILL.
• In a cue-response drill we give a CUE (we indicate what we want the students to say),
then we nominate the students we want to speak and they respondo
• Cue-response drills are especially useful when we want the students to practise
questions and answers. We can, for example, give a question word as the cue and the
student has to make a question with that word .

............................................................................................... .
· An example of a cue-response drill
· Teacher: (gives a cue by holding up a picture of a dock saying 6 o'dock)
Teacher: (nominating a student) Alice.
· Alice:
Teacher:
She gets up at six o'clock.
(gives a new cue by holding up a picture of Meera the doctor at work)
Teacher: (nominating a different student) Mohamed.
Mohamed: She works in a hospital.

In the example of a cue-response drill on the DVD, the teacher (Conor) uses gesture rather
: than calling the students by name~.
·................................................................................................ .

An example of a question and answer cue-response drill

Teacher: Question ... what ... Mohamed.
Mohamed: What does Meera do?
Teacher: Answer ... Alice. •
Alice: She's a doctor.
Teacher: Question ... what time ... Piotr. :
Piotr: What time does she get up?
Teacher: Answer ... Yumiko. •
Yumiko: At six o'clock ... she gets up at 6 o'clock.
·
................................................................................................ .

Have a good mumble!

Sometimes, when we ask students to say something in a drill, or in other practice or speaking
activities, it is a good idea to allow them think about what they are going to say before we ask
them to speak. In fact, we can suggest that they MUMBlE the words to themselves for a bit

· before they have to say the word, phrase or sentence out loud.

·· When all the students are mumbling to themselves in a classroom, it does sound a bit
strange, but it gives them a chance to try something out and, as a result, gives them
confidence when they have to speak in front of the teacher or their classmates.
·.....................................................................•..........•...•............
How much repetition and drilling is the right amount?
We have said that drills help students to get used to the new language. But if we continue
with drills for too long, they quickly lose their appeal. We have to judge when they stop
being useful and challenging. That's the moment to move on to something else.

109
 Controlled practice
In CONTROLLED PRACTICE activities we want the students to use and think about specific
language item(s) as often as possible. In this unit we willlook at SENTENCE activities,
DICTATlON, DICTOGLOSS and MATCHING activities. We generally use very controlled practice
Practising activities at lower levels. When students are more advanced, the practice is often freer
and less teacher-controlled.
, new language 1
.,1" . . There are more controlled practice activities in ~49.

Sentence activities
Sentence completion
We can have our students make and complete sentences in a number of different ways.
Example 1 Example 4
Complete the sentence/text with the correct Rewrite the following sentences using the word
forro of the verb in brackets. in brackets.
When 1 (see) __ Mike yesterday he (sit) __ in a If you don't arrive on time, you will miss the bus.
café. He (7Tad) __ a newspaper. (Unless)

Example 2 Example 5
Complete the following sentences with one word Complete the sentences with words from the box.
for each gap. The first letter is given to you.
adventure animated comedy
In the evening Shelly likes w__ television before
docurnentary horror romcom western
she g__ to bed.
In __ films people draw the characters with pens or
Example 3
on computers.
Complete the following sentences with some or any.
J
1went shopping but 1didn't see __ shoes that 1liked.

Sentence pictures
We can show the students a picture and have them make as many sentences as they can,
using certain target structures or vocabulary.
Example 1 Example 2
The students are shown a picture of a kitchen with The students see a picture for 45 seconds. In the picture
many ingredients on the table and the worktops. people are sitting in a café doing different things
They have to write/say as many sentences as possible (drinking coffee, talking on a mobile phone, playing
using There is/there arce+ some/any (e.g. There is some the guitar, etc.). The picture is then taken away and
sugar on the table). the students are asked what they can remember. Who
can remernber what evetyone was doing? Who can
remember the most sentences using the past
continuous (A girl was talking on her mobile phone, etc.)?

Many INFORMATION-GAP ACTIVITIES ~50 encourage students to make sentences in similar

ways.

Dictation
• We can DICTATE short texts to the students using specific language items.
• The students can dictate sentences and texts to each other.

110
 Practising new language 1
................................................

• We can use a RUNNING DICTATION. The students are in groups. They each send
representatives to the front of the class to read a text, line by line, and take the lines
back to the group and dictate them. Who can finish first? This is especially effective
with short poems -+63.
• We can do a SHOUTED DICTATION. The students shout a sentence or paragraph to a
partner (the other students are all doing the same). It is noisy, but fun (and good for
listening practice)~.

Dictogloss
• Dictogloss is not quite a dictation as the students don't write down every word.
• The students hear a short texto The text is written to illustrate a particular language
item(s). In this example, for elementary students, Emily wants her students to notice
the use of would to talk about habitual actions in the PASTo She uses this text:

When 1 was a child, we used to go to Spain every year by caroWe' d take the ferry
to France and we'd drive from France to Spain. In Spain we'd spend most of our
time on the beach.

• The students try to understand what they hear (they can make notes, but they don't
sat idea write down everything). They then try to reproduce it as accurately as possible.
• The students compare their text with the original. They see the difference between
- . to the cinema l what they have written and what was in the original. This helps them to focus on the
language in the original (we'd take the ferry, we'd drive, we'd spend most of our time on
the beach).

Do you fancy You can see this sequence on ~.

about r~
----- Matching activities
I'd lave to but
We can get students to match lists and cards to practice questions and answers, phrases
and sentences.
- afraid I can't
Example 1
In the following activity to practise questions with how, the students have to match the
if I can questions in column A with the answers in column B.

A B
1 How many brothers has Mary got? a) He's one metre 82.
2 How often doesJohn go to the gym? b) He's twenty three.
Notto 3 How old isJohn's brother? e) She's completely fluent.
4 How old is Mary? d) He's nineteen.
5 How tall is J ohn? e) Three times a week.
6 How well does Mary speak Chinese? f) Three.
That's
When they have done this, they can practise asking and answering the questions. They
can then ask each other the same questions.
Example 2
worry!
--- Each student is given a card like the ones in the margin with half a phrase on it. They
walk round the class and find another student who has the other half of their phrase.

Ves I'd You can find more practice activities for PRONUNCIATION -+7 and the
in -+29, VERBS
NOUNPHRASEin -+17.

111
 Practice of specific language items
CONTROLLEO PRACTICE ACTIVITIES(like the ones in this unit and in ~48) are different from
more COMMUNICATIVE SPEAKING ACTIVITIES because we want the students to use specific
language ACCURATELY, rather than trying to use any or all of the language that they can.
Practising We look at more communicative speaking activities in ~52-53.

new language 2 Most of the activities in this unit can be adapted for a number of different specific
..
" . language items.

Story chains
Example 1: things 1 have never done (present perfect)
The students sit in a circle. The first student says, for example, My name is Roberta and 1
have never eaten raw fish. The next student has to say Roberta has never eaten raw fish. My name
is Thais and 1 have never climbed a mountain. The third student has to say Roberta has never
eaten raw fish, Thais has never climbed a mountain. My name is Marcus and 1 have never ... , etc.
Example 2: the never-ending story (first condicional)
The students are told to imagine a woman having breakfast. They are then asked to
imagine the consequences if she has another coffee. Student 1: If she has another coffee, she
might miss her bus. Student 2 has to continue the story: If she misses her bus, she will be late
for work. Student 3 continues: If she is late for work, her bosswill be ang;ry. Student 4 goes
on: If her boss is angry, ... We can keep the story going until the students cannot think of
anything more to sayo

Interviewing each other

Students can INTERVIEW each other in order to practise specific language items.
Example 1: what can you do? (quescions for beginners with can and can't)
The students have a CHART like the one in the margino They have to walk around the
room interviewing their colleagues, using can + one of these verbs:

bake paint play speak use write

They ask Can you play the guitar? Can you bake a cake? etc. If a student replies Yes, 1 can,
they write that student's name in their chart.
We can extend this kind of chart activity by designing a FINO SOMEONE WHO ... chart. The
students have to find someone who likes watching movies, has at least one brother and sister,
got up early this morning, etc. J
Example 2: present perfect with since andJor (lower-intermediate)
This example is slightly more complex. The students have to complete some or all of the
following SENTENCE STEMS about themselves - some suggestions are given in brackets:

1 live in ...
1 study English at ...
1 have (pierced ears/a tattoo) ...
1 play (football/tennis/the violin, etc.) ...
1work in a ...

They then give their sentences to a partner. The partner has to ask about their sentences,
For example: How long have you lived in England? How long have you played the violin?
And they have to answer: 1 have lived in England since 2008. 1 have played the violin for ten years.

112
Quizzes
QUIZZES can be good fun and provide a lot of practice of specific language items at the
same time.
Example 1: superlative adjectives (elementary to lower-intermediate)
The students have to write general knowledge questions about world geography (or any
other world facts). They may have to do some research for this. For example:

What is the tallest mountain/building in the world?

What is the highest capital city in the world?
What is the biggest ocean/desertlcountry/lake in the world?

The students now divide into two teams and ask each other their questions.
We can get the students to write general knowledge questions about discoveries, works
of art, buildings, etc. They can practise SUBJECT QUESTlONS ~ 3 (Who discoveredpenicillin?
Who wrote Romeo and Juliet) or questions using the PASSIVE ~1 (Who was penicillin
discouered by? Who was Romeo and Juliet umtten by? etc.).
(We need to remember that 'general' knowledge isn't necessarily shared by everyone.
Different people know different things, especially when they come from different
cultural backgrounds.)
Example 2: our students' lives
We can rnake a class quiz with questions about the students themselves. They can ask
questions such as Who lives [urtbest from the school? Who is the oldest student in the class?
Who has the most cousins? etc. :,P-

Games
Many games (sorne of which were designed for radio or for general use) can also be used
for language practice.
Example 1: 20 questions
The students have to find out what a mystery object is by asking 20 (or fewer) VES/NO
QUESTIONS ~3. The person who uses the fewest questions wins the round.

Example 2: mystery description

Students at the interrnediate level have to rnake sentences about a 'rnystery' object using
passive sentences (It's made of/used for ... ). For example:

It is often made of plastic.

It is sometimes made of metal.
It is used in the kitchen.
It is used for stirring soup and things like that.

How many sentences can they make before their classmates guess what the object is?
Example 3: backs to the board
One student from each team (Student A) sits with their back to the board. The teacher
writes a word or phrase on the board. The other students in the team have to give
Student A information so that they can guess the word or phrase on the board.
Example 4: charades
The students take turns to act out the names of books, play and films. Their team has to
guess what it is by asking questions. The acting students can only answer yes or no.

We willlook at more GAMES (for younger learners) in ~93. See also NOUGHTSAND
CROSSES ~23.

113
 Information-gap activities
Many practice activities (and COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES, too) have an INFORMATION GAP to
make the activity/practice more meaningful.

• An information gap is created when two (or more) students have different bits of
Practising information. They have to share these pieces of information if they want to understand
new language 3 the whole thing - a bit like the way in which different jigsaw pieces make a whole picture.
~~•.•......•..............................
, , • The students don't show each other their information. They have to talk to each other
to close the information gap.'

• We can make information-gap activities CLOSED (the students can use only specific
language items) or more OPEN (they can use a range of language items). When they
can complete the task using any of the language that they know, we say that the
activity is a communicative activity.

Describe and draw

• In DESCRIBE ANO DRAW activities, Student A describes a PICTURE to a partner, Student B.
Student B cannot see the picture, but has to try to draw it as exactly as possible from
Student N.s description. The following picture could be used for this:

• Student B can ask Student A for more information or for clarification.

• We can use these activities to practise various prepositional phrases, such as at the
bottom o/ the picture, in the top right-hand corner, in the background, behind, in front of, e

Finding similarities, finding differences

• Student A and Student B have different pictures. They have to ask each other questio
like What colour is the woman ~ hat in your picture? or What is the woman wearing on ber
feet in your picture? in order to find either what is similar about them or what is differe -

• We can use almost any pair of pictures for this activity. For example, they can show
street scenes, groups of people, different buildings or different scenes from films.
Teenage and younger learners can compare two pictures of a teenager's bedroom
before and after it was tidied! (In my picture the jeans are 012 the fioor. In my picture the
jeans are 012 the cbair - voy tidy!)

• We can use this activity with poems, too, as we shall see in -+63.
114
Information-sharing
• Students can use CHARTS to ask and answer questions, using specific language. In the
example below, both students in a pair have information about different countries.
For example, Student A has the following information:

A'sinformation:
Name: Wales
Where: Western Britain
Capital city: Catdiff
Languages: English, Welsh
Most popular sport(s): rugby, football, cricket
Interesting information: Wales has its own parliament.

• A and B also each have the following chart. They have to complete their chart by
asking their partner questions, such as When is your country? What's the capital?
What languages do people speak tbere? They can answer each other's questions but must
not say the name of their country. When they have completed the chart, they try to
guess their partner's country.
,
Where?
Capital?
Language(s)
Most popular sport(s)
Interesting information

Using texts for information-gap language practice

We can use TEXTS for information-gap activities.
• We can give Students A and B texts with different words blocked out. In the following
extract, the students have to ask each other questions (A: What did Mandela do at
school? Wbat happened to Mandela in 1962? etc.).

StudentA
After school (where he was a keen (1) __ and runner), Nelson Mandela became an
important member of the African National Congress, which fought against the
anti-democratic racist government of South Africa.
Mandela was (2) __ in 1962 and stayed in prison for 27 years. Many of those years
were spent on (3) __ , a notorious prison outside Capetown.
Mandela was relased from prison on (4) __ .
He was elected president of South Africa in 1994 and served until (5) __ .

Student B
After school (where he was a keen boxer and (1) __ ), Nelson Mandela became an
important member of the (2) __ , which fought against the anti-democratic racist
government of South Africa.
Mandela was arrested in 1962 and stayed in prison for (3) __ years. Many of those
years were spent on Robyn Island, a notorious prison outside (4) __ .
Mandela was relased from prison on February 11, 1990.
He was elected president of South Mrica in (5) __ and served until1999.

• In JIGSAW READING, students can be given three different texts which each tell only part
of the same story. They have to ask each other questions about their texts to complete
the whole story. We willlook at reading in more detail in ~54-56.
115
 The reasons for speaking activities
There are a number of reasons why we ask students to do speaking activities in class.
• We want to get our students to speak so that they have to retrieve and use the
language that they know. RETRIEVAl ANO USE is one of the ways in which students are
Teaching helped to remember language -+22.
speaking 1 • In genuinely COMMUNICATlVE SPEAKING ACTlVITIES we want to give the students a real
desire to speak and a communicative purpose for doing so. The content of the
communication - and the achievement of the speaking task - are as important, in a
way, as the language they use.
• We will not tell the students exactly what language to use because we don't want them
to focus on specific language items in the same way as we do for PRACTICE ACTIVITIES
-+48.
• Speaking activities give the teacher and the students a good idea of how well everyone
is doing.
We should take care to match the speaking task with the lEVEl -+41 of the students.
BEGINNER students will not find it easy to have a discussion unless it is very structured.
AOVANCED students will not be motivated by simple speaking tasks.

Building the speaking habit

The following activities (mostly game-like) aim to make students relaxed and
enthusiastic about speaking.
• We can OICTATE sentences to the class, such as 'One of the most beautiful things 1 have
euer seen is ... '. The students have to complete the sentence with a word or phrase.
They then read their sentences out. Any SENTENCE STEMS can be used in this way.
• We can write topics on pieces of paper and put them in a hat or bowl. The students
take turns to pick out a piece of paper and have to say at least one sentence (instantly)
about the topic they have chosen.
• The students have a dice. They choose one topic for each of
the numbers 1-6. One student throws the dice and has to
speak immediately (one or more sentences) about the topic
for the number that occurs. If we use two dice, then we can
e
list 12 topics.
• The students have to talk about a topic, such as What 1 did yesterday, Every time they
saya sentence, they can pick up a counter. Who has the most counters at the end of
the discussion? We can also turn the activity around so that the students each start
with five counters. Every time they saya sentence, they can put a counter into a bowl.
Who finishes their counters first?
• We can choose two or three students. They have to construct an instant 'letter' to a
writer, thinker, artist, musician or celebrity of their choice. But they have to speak
their letter one-student-one-word at a time. For example, Student A: Dear, Student B:
President, Student C: 1, Student A: am, Student B: writing ... When they have finished
their letter, three other students have to reply in the same way. This game is funny,
makes the students think about words and syntax (what can follow what), and takes
away speaking performance nerves.

Interviews
We can use INTERVIEWS to practise specific language items, but we can also use them for
more communicative speaking activities.

'16
Example 1: the hot seat
• The students have to prepare short statements about what they did last weekend or
their favourite sport or hobby, etc.
• One student now sits in the HOT SEAT and delivers a statement. The other students ask
as many questions as they can about it.
• When the student runs out of things to say, someone else goes to the hot seat.

Example 2: interview the picture

• The students look at a PICTURE which shows several people - perhaps a famous work of
art or a photograph. They have to write questions for the people in it.
• Several students come to the front and pretend to be the people in the picture. The
rest of the class ask their questions and the students at the front have to imagine how
the characters might answer.

Turning on the inner voice

In a lesson there is usuaIly not enough time for individual students to do as much
speaking as they or we would like. We can compensate for this by getting the students to
use their INNER VOICE - the voice we all use in reallife when we imagine conversations we
could have or could have hado
• We can encourage the students to use their inner voices for 'silent' speaking activities.
For example, we can tell them to imagine that they are going to an English-speaking
doctor and have to explain what is wrong with them. They can imagine that they meet
their favourite film actor by accident. What will their conversation be? .
• We can encourage the students to think about what they are going to say (using their
inner voice) before we ask them to speak out loud in a DISCUSSION or a SIMULATION (or
ROLEPLAV) -+53. This will give them a better chance of speaking success.

• We can set inner-voice tasks for students to do on their own. For example, on the way
home they could imagine that they have a blind person sitting next to them and they
must describe everything that they see. When they notice (in the street) a person that
they think is interesting, they could imagine how they would introduce themselves
and the conversation that they could have with that persono After school they can
imagine ringing up an English-speaking friend and teIling them about their day.

117
 Discussions
When DISCUSSIONS are organised well, they can be highly motivating and successful.

Example 1: buzz groups

Teaching At almost any stage we can put the students into BUZZ GROUPS, where they can quickly
discuss anything from what they are going to read about to what they want to do next.
speaking 2 Buzz groups are normal events in the life of a classroom.

Example 2: from sentence to discussion

We can give the students a topic, such as boxing or mass tourism or school uniforms
(anything that people hold strong opinions about). They have to write three sentences in
favour of the topic (e.g. Boxing is exciting to watch or Mass tourism helps poor countries) and
three sentences against the topic (e.g. Boxing encourages violence or Mass tourism destroys
the environment). Then one student reads out a sentence and another student has to
either agree (Yes, 1 agree and boxers are very braue¡ or disagree (l don't agree; boxing is a
horrible sport). We can also put the students into 'for and against' teams.

Example 3: prompt cards

We can give the students PROMPT CARDS, each with a point of view about a topic, as in the
following examples:

SC.hool uVlifoY"rY1s aY"e foo

1
SC.hool uVlifoY"rY1S look SrY1aY"faVld
qive fhe SC.hool o. qood irY1aqe.
e'l<peVlsive foY" SOrY1epaY"eVlfs.

--~--j~~~-==-~==~~¡~r~,,
__~t~w~L-~~~---=~~~----~-
ChildY"eVl Vleed aVl oppoY"fu'fli-_
SC.hool uVlifoY"rY1S rYlo.ke 0.11 fhe WheVl sfudeVlfs weaY" SC.hool
fo e'l<pY"ess fherY1Selves fhY"o..:..
C.hi IdY"eVl look fhe sarY1e. uVlifoY"rY1s, fhet..¡ doVl 'f have fh~ C.lofhes fheLj weaY". Sc.hcx:
fo wOY"Y"t..¡o.bouf fash iOVl aVld uVI/foY"rY1SdoVl 'f allow fhis.
c.orY1pefifioVl.

We then give the students time to think about what they can say to support the points oI
view on their cards before we start the discussion.

Example 4: formal debate

We can decide on a motion (an idea, a proposition) for a debate, such as Women have
better lives than men (or the other way round). We divide the class into two groups, one
for the motion, one against. Each group has to prepare arguments for their position and
think of three questions for the other side. Each group then chooses someone to speak
first and someone to speak secando The others (from both groups) are the audience. The
debate sequence is Team A speaker 1 followed by Team B speaker 1. Then the audience
can speak and ask questions. Then Team B speaker 2 makes concluding remarks and
Team A speaker 2 makes concluding remarks. The audience votes. Who won the debate:

Example 5: panel discussions

We can set up a panel discussion on just about any topic - or indeed replica te the kinds
of 'contemporary issue' panel debates that are common on television in most countries.
Students may feel easier if we give them ROLES ~53 to 'hide behind' so that they are not
judged on their own opinions.

118
Although successful discussions are frequently prepared in the ways we have discussed,
some happen quite by accident, in the middle of a lesson. When this happens, we have to
take an instant decision about whether to let the discussion continue (often a very good
idea) or whether to stop it because there are other things we have to do. We will discuss
MAGICMOMENTS like this in -+79.

Reaching a consensus
Consensus-reaching activities work because the students have to speak in arder to reach
a decision.
• We can give the students a situation (such as You see a parent treating their child badly in
the supermarket) and five options about what they could do:

1 Do nothing.
2 Look at the parent and show them that you disapprove.
3 Go and speak to the parent and ask them to stop.
4 Ask the people around to help you stop the parent.
5 Call the police.

The students reach a CONSENSUS on the best option.

• We can guide the conversation by giving each student a ROLE-CARD -+53, telling them
which option they should argue foro
• Any decision-making activity (e.g. which out of five video clips should win a prize) is
good for this kind of discussion.
• In PYRAMID DISCUSSIONS, we start by putting students in pairs to decide, for example, on
five things to put in a time capsule for future generations to find. When they have
made their lists, two pairs join together to form new groups of four. They have to
negotiate their five-item lists so the new list is agreed by the group. We then join two
groups of four and the new groups of eight have to negotiate their lists.

The teacher's roles in speaking activities

When students are trying to express themselves in speech, we should do everything we
can to make this work.
• We will often need to be a PROMPTER -+65, pushing students forward, suggesting things
they might say next, and helping them out of difficulties. We may also need to keep
on encouraging them to speak in English rather than using their first language -+77.
• Sometimes we may decide to take part in the activity as a PARTICIPANT. This will allow
us to keep the conversation going from within. However, we need to be sure that we
don't dominate the activity.
• At the end of a speaking activity we need to give FEEDBACK, showing not only what errors
mayor may not have occurred, but also (perhaps more importantly) telling the students
what was successful, and commenting on the content of the speaking activity -+72 .

................................................................................................
·· ..
: Turn-taking
.
:
• We can help our students to be good at TURN-TAKING Cknowing when we can speak in
.
•
conversations). We can teach them expressions such as: •
·
, Co«# ¡1«5"15"cry5"ometlrri7q Irr?rr?? m« mcry IrcrrYr?a:¡J'cri7¿ C«!Cr7 !lre c!lre!' 1rC!r7c?.. :
.
/'d like to say something if you don't mind. 8efore you go on, /'d just like to say ... etc. •
.................................................................................................. .
119
 Telling stories

Storytelling is good for speaking, not only because it encourages the students to use a lot
of language, but also because we tell stories all the time in reallife.

Teaching Example 1: reconstructing a story

speaking 3 For a STORY RECONSTRUCTlON activity, we can put the students into six GROUPS. Each group
is given one or two of a series of PICTURES that tell a story m!mI!).

After each group has had a chance to study the pictures, we take the pictures away.N ow we
form new groups of six; each of the new groups has one student from each of the origina,
groups. They have to tell each other what was in their pictures and try to work out a storr
that connects them all. When they have finished, the different groups compare stories.

Example 2: string things together

We can give the students pictures of any four items and ask them to work out a story
which connects them.

Example 3: what happens next?

We can show the class a FILM CLIP from YouTube or Vimeo and stop it half way through.
The students have to imagine what happens next. When they have made their
suggestions to the class, we show them the whole video to see if they were right.

Example 4: taking time away

A student tells a story, based on a text they have read or something that has been
discussed in class. They have a time limit to tell the whole story. The next student has
to tell the same story, but the time limit is shorter. Each time a new student tells the
story again we take some time off so that they have to tell it more and more quickly. Thi
activity is good fun. It also ensures that the storytelling will get more and more efficient.

Example 5: truth and lies

In groups of three, the students prepare three stories. One of them is true, the other two
are falseoThey tell their stories to the class. Can the class guess which is the true story?

Making oral presentations

When students make an ORAL PRESENTATION, we should give them time to prepare what
they are going to sayoIf we want oral presentations to be successful, we need to find
tasks, too, for the students who are listening to the presentation.

120
• We can give the students topics to choose from and questions to guide their
presentations. For example, we could prepare the following questions for students
who choose to give a presentation about sound effects in radio, TV and film: Who was
the first sound effects expert? Where are sound effects used? Can you describe some typical
sound effects and how they are made? etc.
• We can help the students to research their topic by finding WEBSITES and other sources
for them to look ato
• We can encourage the students to use PRESENTATION SOFTWARE and the INTERNET to back
up their presentations.
• In a multilinguallmulticultural group, the students can prepare talks about their
countries or their region.
• We can show the students model presentations and discuss how to introduce and
develop a topic. We can givethem language for the different stages, such as I'd like
to start by ... Another thing I uiould like to say is ... In conclusion, I uiould just like to say
that ...
• We can set up POSTER PRESENTATION sessions. The students prepare a talk and create a
poster to back it up. Half of the class stand in front of their posters. The other half
visit them one by one and listen to the presentations. They have to report back on the
two or three presentations they enjoyed the most and why. Then the two halves of the
class swap round. We can also get the students to stand in front of pictures and
describe them as if they were art gallery guides.
• We can ask the students to write at least two follow-up questions as they listen to each
poster presentation. We can choose students to summarise the presentations they
have heard.

Simulation and roleplay

• In SIMULATIONS, we give the students a chance to rehearse real-life encounters. For
example, we can move the classroom furniture so that we represent a station office
"W1Ul a ticket wmóow. Tne sruóenrs simuiate an excnange between a passenger and a
travel clerk.
• In ROLEPLAY simulations, the students are given a roleo For example, Student A
(the passenger) can be given the following ROLE-CARD:

You want to buy a ticket to Boston. You are very nervous and you are in a great
hurry because the police are chasing you.

Student B (the travel clerk) can have a card saying:

You don't like your job and you hate it when passengers start trying to make you do
everything in a hurry.

• Because they are playing roles rather than being themselves, students often find
roleplays very liberating.
• Some simulations and roleplays can involve considerable preparation and time. For
example, we can set up a job INTERVIEW situation. The interviewing panel can prepare
the questions they want to ask, and we can give the candidates role-cards. At the end
of the process, the panel have to choose the successful candidate.
• Students can roleplay TV programmes, parties, United Nations debates, etc.

See also using DRAMA ~64.

121
 The need for reading
We all need to be able to read in our own language, whether from books, documents,
computers, mobile devices, signs or billboards. Students ofEnglish need to be able
to read these things in English, too. But reading also helps them to learn and
Teaching acquire English.

readingl We can divide reading into EXTENSIVE READING and INTENSIVE READING.

~...•••.••...•.•.•...•••.••.•••..•...•....

Extensive reading
Reading at the appropriate level is one of the best ways for students to get
COMPREHENSIBlE INPUT -+35 - that is, language that they can understand. The more
comprehensible input they receive, the better their English gets.
• When students read extensively, they are not just looking for specific language or
trying to do vocabulary and comprehension exercises. They are reading either for
pleasure or for information that interests them.
• We need to encourage our students to read on their own so that they can keep
learning and acquiring language even when there is no lesson and no teacher to
help them.
• Students will get the most benefit from extensive reading if they read at an
appropriate level. If the text is too difficult, it will be more like work than pleasure.
If it is too easy, it may not be very engaging.
• Students will get most benefit from reading texts that they themselves want to read.
Different students have different interests: this means that they should, if possible,
read different books.
• Many publishers offer GRADED READERS (sometimes called learner literature). These
range in level from beginner (CEFR Al) to advanced (CEFR el) -+41. Some of them
re-tell stories from famous books or films. Some describe the lives of famous people.
Some are original stories written especially for the appropriate level.
• Where possible, we should have a collection of books (or texts) that individual
students can choose from. When they themselves choose what to read, they are more
likely to be enthusiastic about reading.
• We can give students time to read in lessons - say ten or 15 minutes a week.
Some teachers (and schools) have DEAR (drop everything and read) moments to
encourage this.
• We can ask our students to tell other students about what they have been reading.
They can do this orally, or they can fill in fairly simple report forms such as the
following (for intermediate students):

TITLE:

AUTHOR:

Type of book (non-fiction, thriller, romance, etc.)

What you Iike/don't Iíke about it

Would you recommend the book to your colleagues? Why? Why not?
• Students can also, of course, fiIl in WORKSHEETS with language exercises based on a
book, but they should only do this after they have read the book, usuaIly as
HOMEWORK ~ 76 or private study.

• Some students enjoy reading more than others. Some of them wiIl read extensively
(and enthusiasticaIly). Some will noto Nevertheless, we should encourage extensive
reading, explain why it is such a good idea, have DEAR moments and make our
classes 'reading friendly'.

Intensive reading
We often get students to read intensively in class. This means that they wiIllook at a
short reading text and do various exercises based on it. Texts for more advanced students
are usuaIly longer than those for students at lower levels.
• Good reading exercises help students with TOP-DOWN PROCESSING (getting a general idea
of meaning) and BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING (understanding individual words, phrases and
text construction).
• Intensive reading is often used to train students in different reading skills, such as
READING FOR GIST (getting the general meaning from a text) or READING FOR SPECIFIC
INFORMATION (looking for particular things, such as the times of a film at a cinema,
rather than trying to get the general picture).
• Reading for gist is sometimes caIled SKIMMING. We often ask students to read a text
quickly (skimming over its surface) and get the main idea(s) first, before we ask them
to read for more detailed information.
• Reading for specific information is sometimes caIled SCANNING - because the eye is
searching around just for the special information that we want - a bit like a computer
scanning for only the information it needs.
• Some people say that we don't need to teach reading skills like scanning and
skimming because these are things that people do in their LI anyway - and they can
transfer them to learning English. Others say that many students (especiaIly those
from certain cultural and language backgrounds) don't read very much even in their
Ll, so it is a good idea to train them when they read in English. What is ce~i:ainis
that it is a good idea for students to read in different ways as often as possible since
this helps them to practise reading. It also helps them to see new and previously
learnt language in contexto
• When we get students to read in class, we often give them a more general task first
(such as skimming or scanning) before asking them to look for more detailed
information (relating to both meaning and language).
• Although we use intensive reading for showing vocabulary and grammar in context,
we should never forget that the best response to any text is to ask whether or not the
students like the text and why. This makes them think about the content and the
language and encourages them to re-use both.
• Any text can be MINED for language ~46.

We look at ways of using intensive reading in ~55.

123
 Read the text and choose the summary of lt. 3 Find words or phrases in the text tnat mean the following:

a The narrator was gíven a glídíng lesson as a present and 10\'00 it. a a place where planes and gliders take 0[[ and land
He wants to do it agaín. b people who travel wíth you
b Christophe took the narrator's daughters Ior a flight in his glider. e playing with, rnoving somethíng
e The narrator was gíven a gliding lesson as a present. It terrified d the place where a pilot síts in aplane or glider
him and he ís unllkely lo go agaín. e beating strongly
d Chrístophe bought bis daughter a glídíng lesson as a presento
She really enioyed ít.
~
Teaching 2 Look back at the text and answer these cuestlons.
a How many people were in the ear?
4 IN GROUPS, talk about:

• whether you bavc been - or would like to go - gliding

reading 2
b \Vhere were they going?
• the most excítíng thing you have ever done
e \Vhy were lhey goíng lhere?
• what you would like lo try that
d What happencd when they got thcre?
you have never tríed before ~
~ . e \Vhal did the narrator think of the experience?

I~~~~g~ ~~dw~~~i:re~O(¡ h~ ts~eJukfiu~~~~~ ~~d ~~ihl~~~e B~a5

they were sitting lhere, ane beside hlm ond the oiher behtnd hlm.
1I he scrd he drdn't wonllo do il, Ihey would Iough et him. So he

ke~~~id:~ up 10 !he dubhouse ond gol out. The mon in chorge ol

the ctrheld opeoed the door ond \et them in.
'Come lar your Aight?' he sold.
'Ves,' he rephed, more cheerfully than he lelt.
'Ffrstnmea looking forword lo il?'

ho~ ~~~h:~~;~t ~~e~hado~ros~~n'~rT~. ~~ 5~~I~IJ h;~ell

rhem that he wos obsolutely terrified?
A new mon come up lo lhern. 'Hi: he sotd. 'My nome's
Chrtstopbe. 1'11be loking you up.'
He greeted Chrtstopbe ond shock hís hondo

r::' t~' ~:¿~Hlii~ehi~~lif.h~f~~ ¡rr;~,=~l~~~side

~im, cholling owoy oñd gitgling. Then Chrislophe helped bím on wilh

hi5H~~~~ld~,~t~fl~~:w~~Og~~i~:: ther~~;~~~~ ~dochule?!

stropped blrnseii in. Christophe qot ~n behind him. Andlhen suddenly,
fcr lar too qu,ckly, Ihey were bouncmg over the grass behmd ¡he
tow-plane ond belore he could soy 'Stop. 1 want lo gel out' they were
bouncing up rmo ihe oir.
He Iried lo remoin domo Ined lo tell hrmsef thot he wos sale cnd

~~r~:s:~ad~~n h~so~~!s~~
togethel. Every lime Ihey shpped in !he
t~r~!1
wtnd, he
~~Ii~;¡~\!~king
thoughl he would
be sick.
Cbrtsopbe wos choffiog awoy fopply. '1001,,' fe sed. 'look clown
there. Ibots Royston.'
So he lcoked from their height of 2,000 leel. And leh síck ogoin.
forT~~e~l.i~h~1
~~Irh~o~~ ~~udi~~i~t~~ ~~;htg~n~ :=~h~dai~90n
down onto the grOS5, slopping a few Ieet 110m where hrs Iwo
doughters were standing, lheir hclr Ilying in the wind.
He gol out onto íhe gross ond suddenly os he wolked up to íhe two
~irls he fel! o sense of huge e~cilement .. o qreot feeliog 01 lTiumph, o

ee~¡~¡g~f ~;~~ ~td~; ~~~~~ont

What texts should we give students for intensive reading?

We should give our students TEXTS that are appropriate for their level. We need to give
them material on a variety of topics and let them read in a variety of GENRES ~32
(stories, advertisements, reports, poems, newspaper articles, etc.).
Things I know

What to do before students read a text

It helps if we give the students a chance to think about what they are going to read.
That's why we give them PREDICTION activities so that they are thinking about the topic
Things I think I know and getting their brains ready for reading with the knowledge they have about the genre
or the topic of the texto

1 • We can teIl the students what the topic of the text is and ask them to guess what they
wiIl find in it. Sometimes they can form BUZZ GROUPS ~52 to do this.
• We can ask them to read some questions about a text before they read the text itself.
They should try to guess the answers, and then read the text to see if their guesses are
Things I would like to know correct m!m!).
• We can teIl the students what the text is going to be about añd ask them to fiIl in a
CHART like the one on the left about the topic.

• We can also get them to write their own questions about the texto
• We can show the students any PICTURES which accompany the text (or headlines,
captions, etc.) and get them to guess what wiIl be in the texto

124
 Teaching reading 2

• We can give the students words or phrases from the text and ask them to guess what
the text is about. We can give different phrases to different students in a group
(instead of the pictures we used for the STORV RECONSTRUCTlON activity ~53). They
have to guess the story which links all the phrases.
• We can project the first line of a text on the screen. The students have to guess what
the next word will be. We show the next line and again they have to guess what the
next word will be, as in this example:

It is difficult to remember what it was like before educational technology

changed classrooms for ever. Once we were lucky if we had a board and
so me chal k, but now many classrooms have a variety of educational

Like poetry with blanks for the students to complete ~63, this keeps the students'
attention and makes them think about language.
• We can display part of a text and ask the students to predict what comes next. They
then read the next section of the text to confirm their predictions before predicting
what comes after that.

Reading activities
We can ask our students to do almost anything with a reading texto Here are some of
the most common activities. They are designed so that the students get a general
understanding of the text first.
• The students read the text and then tell each other if they liked it and why (or what
they agreed with or didn't agree with). This kind of GIST reading exercise ~54 makes
them think about meaning in general, and invites them to ENGAGE ~80 emotionally
with the texto
• The text is presented as a reading puzzle. We cut it up and give the students the
different paragraphs in random order. They have to work out how to put the text back
into the correct order.
• For JIGSAW READING we can divide the students into groups of three (or more) and
create an INFORMATION GAP ~50. Each student has a text which tells part of a story (or
contains part of the information they need). They cannot show each other their texts.
They have to ask each other what is in their texts in order to tell the whole story.
Jigsaw reading gives the students a reason to read and understand what they are reading.
• We can ask students to TRANSFER INFORMATION from texts to graphs, charts or other
graphics. We look at this in more detail in ~105.
• We can ask students to answer gist questions about the text, such as the following:

1 Which of the following topics are mentioned in the text? Tick the boxes.
2 Choose a title for the texto
3 Read the textoWhat three things does the writer suggest?
4 Read the text and match the statements to the different paragraphs.
5 Read the advertisements. Which one is about a.... , b .... , e ... .? etc.
6 Say whether the following statements about the text are true or falseo
7 Say which of the statements about the text are true.
8 Read these short summaries. Which (a, b or c) is the best sunlmary of the text?

• We can set a time limit for reading tasks and stress that the students should use the
appropriate SUB-SKILL to get what they need from the text in the time they have.
• At higher levels, many teachers help their students to get used to reading TEST
exercises, such as MULTIPLE-CHOICE questions ~89 and other question types.

125
Teaching
reading 3

Responding to a text
When the students have read a TEXT in class, we can ask them to respond to it in various
ways. They may answer questions which they chose or which they were given. They
may discuss whether they liked the text or noto Or they may go back to the text and read
it for different reasons.
Before we ask individuals in the class to give us their responses to questions, it Ís a good
idea to let them compare answers in PAIRS or small GROUPS -+67. This is good for
co-operation and helps to reduce any tension that the students may be feeling.

More comprehension
When the students have read a text for the first time (for general comprehension), we
often ask them to read it again and look for more (detailed) information. This allows
them to absorb more information and language and helps to ensure that they have reall=
understood what they have read.
• We can get the students to look for details using WH-QUESTIONS -+3. For example, if
they have read a text about the Wright brothers, the inventors of the first aeroplane,
we can ask them questions such as Who fint had the idea? What did Wilbur Wrigbt do
next? Wben did the Wright Flyer 1first leave tbe ground?

• We can give the students a series of numbers such as 2, 7, 12 and 1903. They have
to search the text and say what the numbers refer to (2 = the wings on their flyer,
7 = the number of Wright brothers, but only Wilbur and Orville were involved,
12 = the seconds in the air of the first flight, 1903 = the date of the first flight, etc.).
• We can ask the students to give more detailed answers to questions such as In your
oum words how would you describe ... ? about characters, places, ideas or things.

• Different students can be asked to find out detailed information about different
people or things in the texto
• We can ask the students to find sentences in the text which either confirm or
contradict different statements that we give them.
 Teaching reading 3
....................................

Language questions
We often ask students to look at a text to find out things about words and phrases, as in
the following examples:

Vocabulary
1 Find a word or phrase in the text that means ...
2 Match the words in blue (in the text) with the following meanings ...
3 Replace the underlined word in these sentences with a word which means the
same thing.
4 Explain the meaning of the phrases in blue.

Grammar
1 Find all the uses of had in the texto Which are examples of the past perfect?
Which are examples of something else?
2 Look at the texto Find comparative forms of the following adjectives ... How do
we make comparative adjectives?
3 Read the text again. How many different ways of referring to the future can you
find? What is the difference between them?
4 Find six verbs in the texto Do they refer to the past, the present or the future?

Follow-up tasks
When the students have read a text and done the exercises that go with it, we will often
want them to do some kind of FOLLOW-UP TASK, using the topic of the text or exploiting
some of the language in it.
• At the INTERMEDIATE level (or above) students can discuss any issues that were in the
textoThey can get into groups to decide whether they agree or disagree with what the
text said. We can use the text as preparation for a FORMAL DEBATE ~52.
• The students can read a text and then tell the same story from different points of view.
For example, if they have read a story about an argument between two neighbours
(about how each neighbour's children are behaving), they can tell the story as if they
were one or other of the neighbours, or one of the children concerned.
• Students can ROLEPLAY ~53 a situation leading from the texto For example, if the text
is about a neighbours' argument (see above), they can roleplay a police INTERVIEW or a
TV or radio interview about what happened.
• The students can do more research (in the library or on the INTERNET) about the topic
of the texto
• The students can rewrite the content of a text as a dialogue, a newspaper report, etc.
They can write a real or imaginary letter to the characters in the text or to a
newspaper about the content of the texto
• We can introduce or practise some of the language that was in the texto For example,
if the text contains some MODAL AUXILlARY VERBS ~8, we can ask the students to look at
how they are used and practise saying or writing sentences using them.
• We can use the content of the text as the springboard for some new language
presentation. For example, if the text tells a story, we can retell the story imagining
what tuould have happened if ... to introduce the THIRD CONDITIONAL ~2. We can use a
text about an animal or animals as the start of a longer lesson in which we teach
vocabulary about animals.
• We can MINE ~46 a text for any language that is interesting, such as how ADVERBS

~11 or PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES ~16 are used in it.

127
 The importance of accuracy
When we make mistakes in spoken English, we can correct ourselves quickly - or say
the same thing in a different way. But when we write, we need to be more ACCURATE.
People don't tolerate mistakes in writing as generously as they do spoken errors.
Teaching
writing 1 Teaching the 'nuts and bolts' of writing
Students need to learn a range of technical skills if they are to write successfully.
• Although many people use COMPUTERS or MOBILE DEVICES ~86 for written
communication, there are still many occasions when we use handwriting in English.
• Some students find English script difficult to master, especially if the way people wrize
in their language (the symbols that they use) is very different from English. We will
need to give them training in letter formation by using specially lined paper to help
them imitate typical handwriting.

Name:

~ lA - - [6---CJ-C- - -Jja ------------

We can also give them gradually disappearing letters to teach them the pen strokes

• •
for each letter.

This kind of training is vital because readers sometimes judge people on the basis of
what their writing looks like.
• Students need to learn when to use PUNCTUATION features in writing ~31. We can
explain the rules and we can give them unpunctuated paragraphs like this and ask
them to put in capitalletters, FULL STOPS (PERIODS), COMMAS and INVERTED COMMAS
(QUOTATION MARKS):

he remeiñbered the day they had met in a café in new york after five minutes he
said you're the one for me and she laughed that was rwenty-five years ago

The process of writing

When we write in our first language, we usually think about what we are going to say
before we do it, and we often check what we have written to see if it looks OK before _
put the paper or card in the envelope or we click on Send on fue computer. This is pan
of the WRITING PROCESS.
• In the PLANNING STAGE we think about what we want to write and, where appropriate.
make notes. We also think about the AUDIENCE we are writing for ~34.
• We can then start the first DRAFT (the first attempt) of what we want to write.

128
• We REVIEW what we have drafted and EDIT it before writing the final version.
• The writing process does not go in only one direction, however. For example,
sometimes we plan what we are going to write, but after we have drafted it we go
back and plan all over again. Sometimes at the last moment (the final version) we
rethink what we have written and go back to the planning or the editing stage.
The writing process is a bit like a wheel, in other words, and we tend to go round it
and across it in many directions.

The writing process

~
Planning Drafting

Final Version? Editing

/
Final Version
~

• Sometimes (but not often) we have a thought, and with almost no planning we write
a TWEET -+32 or an EMAIL (for example) and send it without reviewing or editing it.
As a result, our writing may have spelling and/or typing mistakes and if we had
thought longer, we probably wouldn't have sent it! Reviewing and editing are almost
always a good idea.
• We can encourage our students to think carefully about writing by having them plan
what they are going to sayoThey can discuss ideas in BUZZ GROUPS -+52. They can
research ideas on the INTERNET or in the schoollibrary and make notes either on paper
or on the screen.
• We can encourage the students to review and edit what they have written before they
produce a final version. This is important for exam training. Students need to check
through their answers before they hand them in.
• We can give the students a checklist to use while they are reviewing their work. For
example, if they are writing emails, we might give them the following questions:

Checklist
1 What have you put in the subject line? Does it give a clear idea about the
content of your message?
2 How do you greet the person you are writing to? Is it appropriate (not too
informal or formal, for example)?
3 Have you made your message clear? Rave you separated parts of your
message into paragraphs? Why? Why not?
4 Have you used correct punctuation? Do you think it is necessary for this email?
5 How do you sign off? Is it appropriate for the person you are writing to?

• When the students have written a first draft, we can look at their work and RESPOND
-+72 to what they have done, making suggestions about the CONTENT, their use of
English and whether or not their writing is COHERENT -+34. We can become a kind
of EDITOR -+65.
• We can ask the students to look at each other's work and to make suggestions. This
kind of PEER REVIEW only works when the students trust each other. We will have to
watch carefully to make sure that everyone is happy with the idea.

129
 Encouraging writing

Many students don't enjoy writing very much and so our task is to make them
comfortable and enthusiastic about it.

Teaching
Spontaneous writing
writing 2
~ c , •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
We can ask our students to write things instantly (without worrying too much).
• We can say Write down three things you want to do before you are 35 or Write down one
thingyou like about learning English and one thingyou don't like about it.

• We can ask the students to write an 'instant sentence' about someone in the class
(or someone well known). The srudents pass their sentences round the class. Can they
identify the people in the sentences?
• We can give them a simple sentence, such as Aman was playing the guitar. They have
to expand the sentence using as many adjectives, clauses, etc. as they can, but the
sentence still has to make sense ~17.
• We can give students in PAIRS ~67 a time limito Student A suggests ideas and Student
B has to write as quickly as possible. Then it is Student B's turn to write. They correct
each other's work.

Students writing together

There are a number of activities which provoke COLLABORATIVE WRITING.

• We can get the students to write a sentence and pass ir on to another student, folding
the paper first so that the next student cannot see what the person before them has
written. In the example below, Student A completes the first blank (e.g. Peter) and hand
the folded piece of paper to Student B who wrires, for example, Satly. The paper now
goes to Student C who has to write where they met, for example at the swimming pool.
The paper then goes to the next student to continue the story. When the activity is
finished, the paper is straightened out and the students can see the whole story.

• The students sit in a STORY CIRCLE and each has a blank she-et of paper. We dictate a
sentence, such as When he opened his eyes tbat morning, he did not know where he toas.
We then ask them to write the next sentence in the story. When they have written the
sentence, they all pass their papers (in the same direction) to the person next to them.
Each student now writes a sentence for the story they have in front of them (which is
not the one they started out with). For each new sentence, they pass the papers to the
person next to them again. When the papers get back to the original writers, they
have to write a conclusion.

130

--

---------------
- - -
 Teaching writing 2

• The students work in groups. We give them a controversial sentence, such as Everyone
likes football. The groups have to rewrite the sentence so that everyone in the group
agrees with it.
• We can get the students to write EMAILS to each other. If they don't have access to a
computer, we can give them sheets of paper which look like email windows.
• We can get the students to TEXT each other (using their mobile phones) to arrange
a meeting.
• The students can complete a wiki story using an online WIKI ~87. Each student adds a
sentence to the original story (with, perhaps, a different colour for each). They can do
this activity on the board, too (perhaps in teams): one by one the students have to
write a story, sentence by sentence.
• The students have to compose a story using social media such as TWITTER, where they
can only use a certain number of characters each time.
• We can give the students the first and last lines of a story. In groups, they have to
write what comes between them.
• Students do a RUNNING DICTATION or a SHOUTED DICTATION ~48.

Pictures and writing

• We can give the students a series of holiday postcard PICTURES. They have to write
imaginary messages, such as Today the snow was really beautiful. 1 went down tbree red
slopes and one black one. The other students have to guess which postcard they are ~
writing about.
• We give the students famous portraits. They have to write a diary entry for each one.
They can also write letters or emails from one portrait to another.
• We give the students pictures. In pairs or groups, they write a story to connect them.

Music and writing

There are various activities which use MUSIC (without words) to stimulate writing.
• We can play music and ask the students to write down what they think the composer
is describing.
• We can play any music which has a strong feel (sad, happy, dance-like, etc.) and ask
the students to write words that come into their minds while they hear it.
• We can tell the students that they have to write a description of a scene in a movie.
They should listen to a piece of music and then write directions, such as Night.
A street. Ii is raining ...
• We can dictate a sentence to the students, such as As he came round the corner he
saw her. We tell them that this is the first line of a story. They have to continue the
story when we play them some music. Perhaps we play them some really sad music.
We then dicta te the same sentence again and they have to write a new story, but
this time the music is cheerful. The students then swap papers and read out one oE
the stories in front of them. The rest of the class have to guess which piece of music
it was.

We discuss music in more detail in ~64.

Many teachers use POETRY ACTlVITIES to engage their students in creative writing. We look
at poetry in ~63.

131
 Producing a finished product
We will involve our students in an extended WRITING PROCESS -+57 if they are going to
produce something which they are going to display in public or put in their portfolios -
or which is going to be graded.
Teaching
writing 3 Preparing for writing
............................................
Before we ask our students to do any substantial writing, we need to encourage them to
start planning what they are going to write.

"
• Students can get into BUZZ GROUPS -+52 to discuss the topics they have chosen and
think of any words and ideas that might be involved.
• We can put a SPIDERGRAM or WORD MAP -+22 on the board. The students can come up
and extend the diagram with new ideas.
• We can ask the students to group their ideas in a logical sequence.
• We can give them a checklist to think about as they start (and continue) to write and
review their work.

From analysis to production

• We can demonstrate COHERENCE and COHESION -+34 by giving the students paragraphs
and sentences in the wrong order. They have to reorder them and discuss why they
made their choices.
• If we want our students to write within a certain GEN RE -+32 or type of writing, we
will get them to start by doing GENRE ANAlYSIS. This means looking at various examples
of the kind of writing they are going to do to see how the genre is normally written.
For example, if we want INTERMEDIATE or UPPER-INTERMEDIATE -+41 students to write
their own online newspaper article, we might ask them to look at a number of online
texts in order to answer questions like the following:

1 What is the audience for the article? In other words, who do the writers expect
will read it?
2 Who wrote the article?
3 How many headlines are there?
4 What language is used in the headlines? What tenses are used? What language
(if any) is left out?
5 How many paragraphs are there in the text?
6 What content is in the first paragraph?
7 What is the content of the other paragraphs?
8 What verb tenses are used in the article?
9 How does the article end?

Portfolio writing
We can ask our students to keep a PORTFOllO (a collection) of-their writing. At the end 0-

a semester or ayear we (and they) can use this as part of their FINAL ASSESSMENT -+88.
• We can give the students examples as models for their own writing. For example, we
can show lower-level teenage students a text like the one on page 133. The students
now have to write about their own friends, saying where they live, where their paren~
are from, what languages they speak, how long they have known their friends and
what they do together.

132
 ==

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I
__ HJf-_~I&-~~n_021.o~~L~ 6af-.h.eJL_~
_º-6ll..o'Yv\ Gll..e-e-e.e- a'Y\.d Á.LS _-,

,__ Y]/'.ofke:r: LS 6~o~ eif'fftÍ "- _

__ H~¡z.e-aK.s Gll..e-e-t._a'Y\.d _
1- ~ 'Y\.?!~LSÁ.a'Y\.d A ll..abLe. 1A...Ie-
- _ j\.p,y~_K."'f\.QfNYI-
e.oc]: ofÁ.e-ll.. 6CJ/l..

-~L~-'ff~~._!<J~_o6te-~ f1Cl'ff-
~-pba1.1. o~_sJafu~da'ffs a'Y\.d
l_.!YLSQ~e-fL~s_ ?!º-~ClL1.L'Y\.V~
j ___ .;:1""=-----'---' ~ ,¿ ;' ~ -

• Portfolios can also contain the students' POETRY -+63, emails, Ietters, cards and any
other kind of writing they wish to do. They can keep their work in folders or online if
they are using an ONLlNE LEARNING PLATFORM.

Writing journals
We can encourage our students to write JOURNALS in which they talk about the things
that interest them mosto
• It is a good idea to encourage students to write journals because they can use them to
reflect on what they are learning - and the more writing they do the better.
• Journals are a good place for teacher-student dialogue. We can find out what our
students are thinking, and encourage them to use writing for real communication.
• When we respond to journals, we should always focus on the content of what the
students write before correcting mistakes. We can ask the students if they want us to
correct their mistakes or noto
• We can give class time for our students to write their journals. This will encourage
them to continue writing.
• We cannot respond to all our students' journals all the time. There are not enough hours
in the day (or week) for that! We can look at different students' work over a period of
time, making sure that we read and respond to every student's work during that periodo

Blogs, wikis and contacts

• We can get our students to write BLOGS -+87. They can do this either on an INTRANET
(which is only viewable by the class or the school) or online (where everyone can see it).
• We can tell them how often they should post a message on their blog (perhaps once a
week). We can set a time limit of, say, a month or two months for them to keep
blogging. If we don't do this, they may welllose interest.
• We will encourage our students to comment on each other's BLOG POSTS.

• We can get the students to build up a WIKI with their writings, pictures, audio or video
clips. We discuss blogs, wikis and other ways of sharing information in -+87.
• Students can exchange information with students in other countries. They can do this
via EMAIL or on blog sites using WEB 2.0 tools such as Eduglogster and Wallwishe1' -+87.

We discuss writing for HOMEWORK in -+76.

133
 The importance of listening

For many people, speaking on the telephone is one of the scariest things to do in a
foreign language because, when you can't see the speaker, you just have to rely on what
you hear. In a face-to-face conversation we get clues from the speaker's facial
Teaching expressions, gestures, etc., but when all we have is the sound of the voice, these clues
aren't there to help uso
listening 1 Many students feel the same about listening in classrooms! But listening is a vital skill in
any language, and in language learning it also helps students ACQUIRE (and LEARN) -+35
WORDS, LANGUAGE CHUNKS, GRAMMAR and PRONUNCIATION.

Types of listening

Most of the listening that students do happens when their teacher is talking. This kind 01

COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT -+35 is very useful for language ACQUISITION. However, there are
two other main sources of listening input.
• We use RECORDED LlSTENING when we want our students to hear dialogues and
monologues from COURSEBOOKS -+81, news broadcasts, radio programmes, PODCASTS,
phone messages, film announcements, etc.
• Recorded listening TRACKS are great for letting students hear different voices and
different accents. They are extremely useful because students can listen to them again
and again - and they will always hear the same thing.
• Recorded listening gives students potential access to the whole English-speaking world.
• Although we hear recorded listening in reallife (in phone messages, automated
information on company phones, on the radio, etc.), it sometimes seems unnatural to
have a class of 30 people alllistening to the same audio track at the same time,
especially since speaker-listener interaction is not possible.
• We use LlVE LlSTENING when a speaker (the teacher or some other visitor to the
classroom) is in the same room as the students.
• Live listening includes GEN RES -+32 such as lectures, conversations between two
teachers (which the students watch and listen to), face-to-face interviews, readings
from books, poetry, drama, etc.
• Live listening works because the students can see who is talking, observe their body
language and their facial expressions and, sometimes, interact with the speakers.
When the speakers are in front of other people, they often speak differently from the
way they speak in front of a microphone.
• Live listening is more likely to expose students to speech phenomena such as
hesitations, repetitions, interruptions, etc. than some recorded listening does
(especially in some COURSEBOOK DIALOGUES). It is important for students to experience
speech phenomena.
• When students listen to audio
tracks (or a live speaker) in the
classroom - and do activities and
exercises - we call this INTENSIVE
LlSTENING. When they listen
outside the classroom, often by
themselves and for pleasure, we
call this EXTENSIVE LlSTENING.

134
Audio devices and who uses them
A wide range of AUDIODEVICES
can be used for recorded listening.

• In some classrooms around the world teachers still use cassette recorders. These are
extremely versatile, especially if they have counters, which can help you find where
you are on the cassette. Rewind,jast [oruiard, play and stop are easy to use. However,
cassette machines are rapidly disappearing as newer devices take their place.

• Many teachers use CD and DVD players. These are easy to use when they have tra -
numbers, but can sometimes be more difficult (than cassette recorders) for fast
forwarding and rewinding within a track.

• Many teachers play audio (or VIDEO-+62) from computers or the interactive
whiteboard (IWB)-+85. This is ideal since by using sliders with a mouse, a pen or
your finger it is easy to find your place on the track or control the volume.

• Students can listen to recorded audio in LANGUAGE LABORATORIES.Sometimes the whol ••

class listens to the same thing at the same time, but at other times we can have
different students listen to different audio tracks. Language laboratories are no"
much less common than they once were.

• Many students have their own listening devices. These can be used for INDIVIDU
WORK-+67 in lessons. The students can all download the same track, or listen to
different tracks for JIGSAWUSTENING(where each student listens to part of a text o
by sharing what they have heard, they can reconstruct a story or a report).

• When we use audio devices it is vitally important to try them out before we go into
class so that we know how to find the track we are looking for and so that we don t
waste time and look unprofessional.

• Although teachers usually control the audio device, we can sometimes let our srudenzs
be the controllers, too.

• We can let the students become 'remote controllers'. They can tell a live speaker ID
stop, pause, rewind or jast forward.

How often should students listen?

There is disagreement, sometimes, about how many times students should listen to me
same thing, whether recorded audio or live listening.
• In reallife, students often only listen to something once and they need to practise
that skill. We can make sure that our students are given 'one-listening' tasks to hel~
them get used to this. These are often GIST(USTENING FORGENERAL UNDERSTANDI G
SCANNING-typetasks (listening for specific information) -+54.

• A language class is not, however, like the outside-the-class real world. In intensive
listening, we want to give our students chances to listen more than once so that rhey
get the maximum benefit from what they are hearing. When they listen for the :>a.-U_.'-'
or third time, they can focus on different things, such as sounds, intonation or
or the way speakers use certain words or grammar.
 Teaching
listening 2

,'

Prediction
There is almost no limit to what can be done with RECORDED AUDIO or lIVE lISTENING ~6
However, it is important to give the students a chance to PREDICT what they are going to
hear. This will allow them to get ready and to remember what they already know about
the topic and the listening genre that is coming. We call this knowledge SCHEMATA.

Before listening
There are many things that we can do before the students actually listen to the speaker
or the audio track:
• The students can look at the questions which accompany an audio recording (or a li e
listening session). They have to predict what the answers will be.
• The students see a picture or pictures related to the SITUATION or topic of the listening
and they have to predict what they will hear.
• We can give the students words or phrases from the audio - perhaps in the lesson
before - and ask them to guess what it will be about.
• We can give the students a form, telephone message pad or chart which they are
going to fill in when they listen to the audio. They use this to predict what kind of
information they will hear on the audio before they listen to it.
• If we can bring a visitor to the lesson to speak to the students, we can tell the students
the general TOPIC that the visitor is going to talk about. They then have to think of
questions to ask the visitor.
• The students are told the topic they are going to hear about. They have to do some
research (or form BUZZ GROUPS ~S2) about the topic. They can say what they know
about the topic, what they think they know, and what they would like to know.
• We can playa short extract from the audio recording and ask the students to tell us
anything they heard - and what they think about the speaker(s). They can predict
what is coming next.

136
• We can play the whole recording but tell the students not to listen for meaning.
Instead, we ask them to tell us about any other information they have understood: the
location, relationships between the speakers, etc. Using this, they predict the content
of what they will hear when they listen far a secand time.
• Should we PRE-TEACH VOCABULARY before the students listen? If we don't, there is a
chance that they will not understand enough. If we do, however, they may
concentra te too much on the words we have taught and so not hear all the other
words that are rushing pasto A sensible compromise is to pre-teach only that
vocabulary which is absolutely necessary for the topic - or vocabulary which is
impossible to guess from the contexto

Listening tasks
• If we are organising live listening, we can teach the students to be good listeners.
They do this by showing their agreement or disagreement, and by asking questions
when something is not clear.
• We can give the students a live listening lecture. Every minute or two we can stop and
let pairs or groups of students reconstruct what we have said before moving on to the
next stage of our talk.
• Each student can be given a bingo card with, say, 12 words from a listening text on it.
Each card has different words. The students cross out their words when they hear
them. Who crosses out all their words first?
• We can choose a text to read to the class. We take some (not all) the words from the
text and arrange them in random order (or alphabetically) on the board. Each student
then has to choose one of the words, whichever one they like. They can talk to their
neighbour to make sure that they haven't both chosen the same one. We then divide
the class into two teams and get all the students to stand up. We read the text aloud
and each student carr only sit down when they hear their word. Which team sits
down first? ~
• We can ask different students to read different texts aloud (or tell different stories)
all at the same time. It will be very noisy! Other students have to try to listen to just
one of the speakers and write down what they sayoHow much can they hear and
understand? This SHOUTED DICTATION ~48 is a way of making students feelless
anxious about listening in general ~.
• We can play an audio track (or tell a story), but keep stopping. Each time, the students
have to say what they think is going to happen next. Then we continue and they see if
their predictions are right.
• The students can listen to a series of vox pop (mini) interviews on a topic, such as
favourite hobbies. They have to match the speakers to different hobbies (football,
reading books, playing chess, going to the cinema, playing music, etc.).
• The students listen to a NEWS BROADCAST and have to list the five topics they hear.
• The students listen to a picture description and have to choose which one of four
pictures is being talked about.
• The students listen and put a sequence of pictures in the right order.
• The students listen to an audio track and identify some differences between what they
hear and a written version of the same contento
• Th» studeass )útel1 to phon« meSS3{{es. Tney nave co fj]] ia pnone message pads.
• The students listen to an interview or a conversation and have to fill in a form, chart
or graph with the information they hear.

137
 Teaching
listening 3
' .

..

Listening again
When the students have listened to a live speaker or an audio recording for the first
we can ask them to listen again and do a variety of tasks.
• We can ask them to listen again to try to identify more detailed information, such as
names, facts, numbers, times and dates.
• We can ask them to listen again and transfer the information in the audio recording
(or what a live speaker has told them) to a different genre. For example, if they hear _
story, they have to rewrite it as a newspaper article.
• When the students hear a NEWS BROADCAST or a story, we can ask them to retell it as i;
they were one of the people in it.
• Students can act out the roles of people from the original audio recording.
• Students have to retell what they have just heard, making one (or more) mistake(s).
Can their colleagues find the mistake(s)?
• Like real filmmakers, the students have to draw/design STORYBOARDS showing the
scene and the camera angle for the speakers they have just heard. They film the scene
with video cameras or their mobile phones ~87.

Listening again: language matters

We can also ask students to listen (again) in order to study language.
• Students are given a section of the written TRANSCRIPT with blanks in it. They have to
complete the blanks and then listen again to check if they were correcto
• We give the students a WORKSHEET with excerpts from the listening. They do a
language exercise. They then have to use the language in sentences of their own.
• The students look at a written transcript of what they have just heard. They rewrite _
section so that any grammatical MISTAKES, hesitations and other speech phenomena are
cleaned up. With the teacher, they discuss the differences between speaking and
writing ~31. .
• The teacher and the students MINE ~46 the listening for interesting language.
• When the students have listened to a dialogue, the teacher displays it on the BOARD.
The students read it aloud. Then the teacher starts to remove words and phrases one
by one. Each time, the students have to continue speaking the dialogue. By the end
this DISAPPEARING DIALOGUE activity, they can do the whole thing from memory.

138
Extensive listening
If students really want to improve their English (especially their PRONUNCIATION ~23-29
and speaking ~51-53), they should listen to as much spoken English as possible.
• EXTENSIVE lISTENING means listening for pleasure, usually outside the classroom.
Most audio material can be heard on CDs, MP3 players or online via COMPUTERS and
MOBILE DEVICES.

• Extensive listening is most successful if the students choose what TOPICS they want to
listen to and the level they want to listen (or feel comfortable listening) ato
• We can encourage our students to listen extensively by talking about the advantages
of listening in this way and showing them where they can find material.
• We can ask our students to keep a record of what they have listened to, including
language that they have found interesting or puzzling. We can ask them to
recommend good listening material to other members of the class.
• Students can download PODCASTS ~87 from English-Ianguage-Iearning sites (we can
help them find sites like these with a simple internet search), from news organisations,
radio programmes and any other podcast outlet.
• Students can listen to English-speaking radio online.
• Students can access the wide range of freely available VIDEO ClIPS on sites such as
YouTube, Vimeo and Videojug.
• Students can listen to audio recordings of books, including GRADED READERS ~54, and
COURSEBOOK audio material (although some teachers prefer them not to do this before
the lesson because it spoils the 'surprise' of coursebook-based lessons).

Usingvideo
VIDEOis an extremely useful resource for listening, especially now that we can share
on sites such as YouTube and Vimeo. But students can also watch video clips
FILM ClIPS
from DVDS, COMPUTERS or MOBILE DEVICES and IWBS, for example ~85.
• We can play the students a video clip and then stop it so that they have to guess what
happens next. They can do this in PAIRS or GROUPS. When they have discussed their
predictions, we show them the end of the video.
• If we are using a DVD, we can fast forward a video clip. Students then discuss what
they have seen and try to work out what happened and what the people in the video
said. Then we play the video clip at normal speed.
• We can playa video clip with the sound turned down. The students have to guess
what the people are saying and/or what background sounds they will hear.
• We can playa video clip so that the students hear the sound but don't see the picture.
They have to say where the speakers/participants are and what is going on.
• We can let the students watch a video clip without sound. They do this two or three
times. Then they have to invent their own conversations and speak along with the
people in the video clip. 'Doubling' like this can be very funny.
• Students are given a list of the VERBS ~4 (or NOUNS ~12, etc') from a video clip.
They have to watch the clip and put them in the right order.
• After the students have watched a video clip for the first or second time, we can give
them the transcript (if it is short enough) with BLANKS. They have to try to FILL IN the
blanks before they watch again.

139
 Choosing the right poems
Because poems can express big ideas and stories in just a few lines, they can be used for
comprehension, writing and language work. However, we have to choose the poems
we use very carefu11ybecause some poetry is extremely complex and culture-bound.
Using poetry We need to find short, clear poetry at the right level for our students.

Predicting poetry
As with a lot of reading, we can get our students to make PREDICTIONS about poems they
are going to read or hear.
• We can give the students the title of a poem (or poems) and ask them to guess some o~
the words that might be in it.
• We can give them some or a11of the words from the 'poem - perhaps in a WORDLE like
the one below. The students have to guess what the poem is about .

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• We can give the students words from a (short) poem. They have to try to use them to
write their own poem. They then compare their attempts with the original.

Poetry and language

• We can use POETRY REORDERING ACTIVITIES like the one shown below. For this, we put
students in GROUPS of eight.Each student is given a line of poetry on.a STRIP OF PAPER.
They can speak their line, but they must not show it to anyone else. \hM)~ave to put
the lines in the right order to make a poem ca11edBuying a new phone •• .
We will need to go raund the graups helping them, where necessary,
• Using a COMPUTER with a DATA PROJECTOR, or an OVERHEAD PROJECTOR (OHP), we can
reveal (and speak at the same time) the lines of a poem with a large number of BLANKS
(spaces where words should be). We use a nonsense word or sound for the blanks.
The students have to try to guess the missing words. They will find this very difficult'
Next we reveal and read the poem again, but this time the students can see the first '
Ard" ra.,iseO- fhe O-ishe-lofh to W\1j ea.,r
letter of each blanked word. When we read the poem for the third time, they can see
the first two letters of each blanked word, and so on. This is a very good activity for
As 1 wa.,s Sfa.,í1O-If'tj ai ti-e slí1k making students search their own mentallexicon (their store of words).
~
• The students study a poem and think about how they wouid speak it. We give them a
O-iect. So I'W\ l-ere
chance to MUMBLE -+47 the poem to thernselves. We then read the poem or playa
recording of it (which we can make before the lesson if we have to). The students read
as they listen and try to work out where the pauses are, what words are stressed -+26.
etc. They mumble the poem again. We can then use SHADOW SPEAKING (they speak
along with the recording). Fina11y,after more mumbling, the students will be able to
speak the poem well.

140
Poetry and meaning
• We can give the students different poems. Without showing each other their poems,
they have to discuss the similarities and difference between them. This is a kind of
INFORMATlON-GAP activity -+50.

• We can ask the students to write a word, phrase or sentence saying what a poem
means to them (they canwrite 'nothing' if that's how they feel). They do this in
silence. They then go round the classroom (still in silence) reading each other's
sentences.
• We can ask the students to discuss who they would like to read a poem to and why.

Writing poems
We don't expect our students to be great poets (though some of them may be!). But we
can use POETRY FRAMES and shapes to help them produce something enjoyable.
For all poetry-writing activities it is important that the students have a chance to
BRAINSTORM ideas and vocabulary first, perhaps in BUZZ GROUPS -+52. We cannot expect
them to be instantly creative.
• We can get our students to fill in frames which make simple poem-like verses. For
example, we can choose any topic (such as food, music, clothes, sports). They have to
fill in the following frames:

Ilike .
Ilike .
1 like .
But 1 don't like ... because ...
How could anyone like ... ?

• We can ask the students to write acrostic poems. They write a vertical word on the
left-hand side of the page. Each line of the poem then starts with a letter of the word.
For example:

Liking English is not

Easy because grammar is
Always difficult but it's
Really good fun and 1 will
Never stop trying to speak it well

• We can ask more advanced students to write SPINE POEMS. They take titles from the
spines of books (for example The Old Man and the Sea, War and Peace, The Cid with the
Dragon Tattoo). They write the words vertically down the page and then write poems
similar to acrostic poems, with each line beginning with one word from the title.
• We can have the students write HAIKU -+32.
• We can take one copy of a poem to the lesson and use it for a RUNNING DICTATION.
We put the poem on a desk at the front of the classroom. The students are in small
groups. One representative from each group comes up to the desk and reads (and
remembers) the first line. They go back to their group and dicta te it. Then another
student comes up to the desk and does the same for the second line. For each line,
new students come up to the desk to take their lines back and dictate them. Which
group finishes the poem first?

141
 Using music
and drama

Using songs and music

Many (but not all) students love working with English-Ianguage SONGS. They provide
memorable and engaging ways of working with the language.

• We can give the students words from a song and ask them to predict what the song is
going to be about.
• We give the students the jumbled lines of a songo They have to reassemble the lines ;-
the correct order. They listen to the song to check that they have done this correctlv,
This is similar to poetry reordering ~63.

• We give the students the lyrics of a songo The last word of each line is missing. We
give them the words and they try to put them in the right place, using meaning and
rhyme to help them.

• We give the students the jumbled verses of a songo They have to listen to the song anc
put them in the right order.

• If we type a grammar point such as If 1 had or 1 should have or 1 wish l'd and then lyrÍf::y
into Google (or another search engine) we can find a wide range of songs with that
specific piece of grammar or lexical chunk.

• Each student chooses a song that they like. They explain the meaning to the rest of
the class and play the songo

• The students lis ten to a song (which we hope they have not heard before) by a
singer-songwriter. They have to decide whether to tell the artist either a) Write
more songs - you've got real talent, b) If you must sing, sing other people's songs, or
c) If you must sing and play, do it in private - why should other people suffer?

We discuss using songs with YOUNG LEARNERS in ~94.

Talking about music and songs

We can use songs and other types of MUSIC in many different ways.

• We can ask the students to tell the class about a song that is really important to them
and why it is so special. This is a very good activity for getting classes of adults and
young adults to introduce themselves to each other at the beginning of a course.

• Students discuss which five songs they would take to a desert island or a trip to the
moon and why.

142
 Using music and drama
............................................

• We can ask adults and young adults to discuss their 'inheritance tracks': the music
they have inherited from their parents/during their childhood. We can then ask what
music they would like to pass on to their children.
• The students listen to a song and discuss what kind of a video they would make to
accompany it and why. They can do this in pairs or groups.
• We can show the students a music video without the sound. They have to guess what
the song will be.
• We can play excerpts of music. The students have to say what colour the music is,
what mood it is describing, what temperature it is (boiling hot or freezing cold, for
example), where they would like to hear it and who they would like to hear it with.
• We can show a FILM CLIP without any sound. The students have to guess what music goes
with the film clip. They then watch the clip with sound to see if they were correcto
• We can play the students some music from a film. They have to guess what kind of
SCENE it might be describing. They then watch the scene to check if they were right.

Being careful with music

We can use music to motivate and engage students, but not all students lave music - or singing.
• We should keep a record of who is engaged (or not engaged) by the music we bring to class.
• We can discuss music with the students and find out who likes it and who doesn't.
• We can ask our students to bring their own music to class. The other students can say
if they like it or noto
• We should ask our students if they would like us to play background music, while they
are working in groups, for example, rather than just making the decision ourselves.

Usingdrama
We can use DRAMA for a number of different purposes.
• After the students have read and understood a drama extract or short PLAY, the teacher
can discuss it with them. Which words and phrases should be STRESSED -+26, for
example? They practise and then act out the scene.
• The students read a scene (or extract) from a play. They have to write in their own
stage directions, including ADVERBS OF MANNER -+11 (such as angrily, in a strange voice,
etc.). When they practise (and then perform) the scene, they have to speak and act in
the way that the adverbs sayo
• The students read a PLAY EXTRACT. They have to tell someone else what happened.
• They read a play extract and each student chooses to be a character from the play.
The class INTERVIEWS that character and asks them how they are feeling, why they did
what they did, what they are going to do next, etc.
• The students write the scene that occurs immediately before a play or after it ends.
• The class chooses a location (such as a streeti and an event (such as someone gets knocked
off tbeir bicycle) and the participants (such as the cyclist, a pedestrian, the people watching, a
policeman,jirst aiders, etc.). They discuss what each person would do and sayoThey
then write the scene and act it out.
• In groups, the students act out a story in MIME (without using any words). The other
students have to guess the story.
• In CHARADES, students have to act out the title of a book, play or film without using
words. The others have to guess what it is.

143
 Section D: Managing learning
and teaching
Whatever we are teaching, the way that we manage the classroom is of vital importance.
In a well-managed classroom, students can learn and they are likely to be engaged. In a
badly-managed classroom, this is not nearly so easy for them.
In this section we consider pairwork and groupwork and how to use them, as well as
looking at using the whole class or having the students work as individuals.
We discuss the issue of students and teachers talking in lessons. Who, for example,
should do most of the talking, and if and when teachers talk, what kind of talking should
they do? (Note: there is an appendix of teacher classroom language on pages 247-249.)
Teachers need to be sure that their students have understood instructions and meanings
and so there is a unit on this. We also need to know what to do at the beginning of a
lesson or if a student is late, for example.
We especially need to know how to prevent discipline problems, and what to do when
they happen.
One of the most sensitive areas for learners and teachers is correction - how and when to
do it. In this section there are four units on giving feedback and on offering appropriate
and effective correction.
We also discuss the use (or non-use) of our students' home language (LI) - and we
discuss ways of making homework 'work' for teachers and students.

65 Teacher roles
66 Teachers and students
67 Where students sit
68 Teacher language
69 Giving instructions, checking meaning
70 Classroom moments
71 Discipline
72 Giving feedback
73 Correcting speaking 1
74 Correcting speaking 2
75 Correcting writing
76 Homework
77 Using the L1
78 Teacher development

145
 A variety of roles

When we think of people who have taught us, we can, perhaps, remember times when
they stood at the front of the class and told us things; there may have been times when
we were working in groups and they carne to help us; or perhaps sometimes we were
Teacher roles working on our own and the teacher didn't seem to be doing very much at all. In each
case they were fulfilling one or more of the different ROLES OF THE TEACHER.
• Teachers are at all times FACllITATORS of Iearning. This means that we must a1waysdo
everything we can to make learning happen smoothly and appropriately for the
learners - making learning possible, but without making it too easy.
• TRANSMISSION TEACHING (when we are giving the students information or explaining
things) is only one way for students to learn things. We must make sure that that we
also play many other roles in the classroom.
• We need to be CONTROllERS when we are explaining things, taking the ClASS REGISTER or
telling the students what to do. This often involves standing at the front of the class
and being very clear.
• When we are acting as ORGANISERS in arder to set up and start an activity, we should
1) ENGAGE the students in the task, 2) give our INSTRUCTlONS clearly and where possible
demonstrate the activity, 3) start the activity and 4) organise FEEDBACK ~72. We look
at instructions in detail in ~69.
• We often act as EVIDENCE GATHERERS. When students are doing a groupwork activity, for
example, we will want to MONITOR and make notes (gather evidence) of what they say
or do so that we can provide feedback later. We will check that the students know
what to do and are doing the right thing.
• We often act as PROMPTERS, pushing students to make new sentences and encouraging
them to speak when they are reluctant. We can offer words and phrases to help them
say what they want to sayoHowever, we must be careful not to intervene too much if
they are trying to learn how to communicate on their own.
• We need to act as a RESOURCE for our students. They can ask us questions about things
they don't understand. When they are involved in individual or groupwork activities,
we should be available to help them and answer their questions. However, we should
remember that no teacher knows everything about the English Ianguage and so we
also need to be able to tell them where they can find the answers to their questions
(in a GRAMMAR BOOK, a COURSEBOOK, a DICTIONARY, etc.).
• We often act as FEEDBACK PROVIDERS when we CORRECT students' rnistakes, make a
cornment on what they have said or praise their efforts. Feedback is discussed in ~72.
• We often act as a kind of EDITOR, for example, when the students are writing in English
or preparing an ORAL PRESENTATION. This means responding to what they have written
(or what they plan to write or say) with comments, questions and suggestions. We
should try not to insist on what they should do, but instead try to make them think
more carefully about what they want to achieve.
• We can act as TUTORS to individual students. This means giving them personal advice
and information about English and going through their work with them. We can
correct or edit their work - or make suggestions about what they can do. It is helpful
to organise tutorial sessions while the rest of the class is working on some other task.
If we can tutor a few individual students in a lesson, we can, over a period of time,
see all of them individually. .
• We should remember, too, that one of the teacher's most important jobs is
COMPREHENSIBlE INPUT PROVIDER to the students, speaking to them in ways that will help
their language acquisition ~35.

146
 Teacher roles

·
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• o •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1> •••

What scaffolding means

Many people use the term SCAFFOLDING to describe the role of the teacher. Scaffolding ··
derives from the work of Jerome Bruner, amongst others. It means supporting the students,
providing the framework to hang their knowledge on, just as we use scaffolding to support a
structure that is being built.

People who talk about scaffolding say it is like a music teacher guiding a child's arm as they
·
move the violin bow from side to side until the child can make the correct moment alone -
or like parents helping their children to ride bicycles: they hold on until the child can keep ·
upright on their own, but even then they stay close to provide emotional support until the
child is truly independent.
·
Although both examples concentrate on teaching children to do things, scaffolding is,
··
perhaps, a good METAPHOR for supporting students at any age. ··
We discuss scaffolding for YOUNG LEARNERS in ~91. ··

The teacher's role, the teacher's place

Because we have many different roles in a classroom, we tend to move around quite a loto
For example, if we are transmitting information or taking the register, we will often be at
the front of the class. But if we are gathering evidence, we may want to move round the
class listening to (and observing) the different groups at work.

• Sometimes we will act as a prompter, resource and feedback provider while working
with just one pair of students.
• Sometimes we will set up a desk at the side of the class so that we can tutor
individual students.
• We need to think of the best place to be for the different roles we play.

147
 Establishing rapport
One of the most important elements of a successfullesson is the relationship between
the teacher and the students. lf this relationship goes wrong, learning is difficult because
everyone is preoccupied with emotions like nervousness, mistrust, anger or boredom.
Teachers and When the relationship is satisfactory, everyone can concentrate on the lesson, rather
than their negative feelings.
students We call the relationship between teacher and students RAPPORT (which is very important
for MOTIVATlON ~43). Although it is difficult to say exactly how to create good rapport
(because so much depends on the individual personalities in a classroom), we do know
how to help it flourish.

The teacher in the c1assroom

• Some teachers are loud and extrovert; some are quiet and shy. Some teachers like to
command the class; some prefer to take a back seat. As teachers, in other words, we
are just as varied as any other human beings.

• However, whatever our personality, we are always performing in class, playing

different roles ~6S. So whatever our personality outside the classroom, it is how we
behave in the class that matters.

• Students expect to see teachers behave like professionals. The way we walk into a
lesson matters. The way we stand in class matters. The way we dress matters (though
different schools - and different cultures - have different ideas of forrnality).

• We should think about where to stand or sit in the classroom. We should not alwaj
be at the front. We should be prepared to move around when the students are
working in GROUPS, etc. .

• Students like it when they can see clearly that we know what we are doing. Even if we
have not prepared the lesson in detail ~79, the students should have the sense that
we have thought about an appropriate lesson just for them.

• We need to be able to react to what happens in the lesson. Students will respect
teachers who can react quickly and appropriately ~79.

148
 Teachers and students

Celebrating success
We should celebrate the good work that our students do.
• AlI students - not just the really good ones - react well to PRAl SE (but they have to
deserve it -+72). We must find something to praise for every student. It might be a
piece of HOMEWORK -+76 they have done, the fact that they have tried to answer more
questions than usual or even the fact that they have not interrupted as much as before.
• When we praise students for what they have done, we should then give them a GOAL
(a mission) for the future. We might say: That uias a very good piece of homework. Well
done (praise). For your next piece of homework 1want you to concentrate more on
punctuation - when to use commas, for example (future goal).

• When students produce good pieces of work, we may put them up on the classroom
walls or show them round to the rest of the class.
• We can collect work from all the students in the class and put it in a special
'achievement' folder.
• If students submit good work online on a learning platform such as MOODLE or
BLACKBOARD, we can tell the other students about it or make it available for them to see
as an example of good work (we will ask the students if they mind this - and if they
would prefer it if we didn't say who did the work).
• We can encourage the students to write BLOGS and/or record short video and audio
clips to upload onto public or internal WESBITES -+87. However, we may want to make
sure that the work is of a particularly high standard before the students put it online
(where it may be seen by people outside the schoollinstitution).

Respecting students
If we are to have good rapport with our students, the students need to feel that we respect them.
• Students need to feel that we know who they are. This is not easy when we teach six or
seven groups in a week. But over time we need to try to show them that we know who
theyare. Students often say that a good teacher is 'someone who knows our names'.
• We can ask the students to put name cards in front of them so that we can see who they are.
• We can make notes in the CLASS REGISTER next to our students' names to he1p us to
remember which student is which.
• We can ask the students to sit in a pre-arranged class plan. However, we have to be
careful to make sure they do this, and we may want to change seating arrangements
for GROUPWORK, etc. -+67.
• We need to try to respond to different students differently, especially when CORRECTING
them -+73-75.
• We need to listen to what our students say and show them that we are interested in it.
This means sometimes stopping what we are doing so that a student can complete a
sentence or a thought.
• We need to show - by the way that we look at them - that we are interested in our
students. We create rapport with our eyes, our expressions and our gestures just as
much as with our mouths and ears!
• We should respect what our students say and do rather than being critical and
sarcastic. This is especially important when we correct them -+73. If we suggest that
theyare stupid (for example) because they are making mistakes, it will be difficult for
thern to fed comíortabfe Ín me classroom aná rapport wÍ[[ suffer.
• It is especially important to treat all students the same, particularly when we have
DISCIPLINE problems -+71.

149
 Where
students sit
.- .

What classrooms look like

Traditional classrooms have straight lines of chairs or benches facing the front - where
the board and the teacher are. This can be very useful for some forms of WHOLE-CLASS
TEACHING, such as explaining things, demonstrating, showing pictures or films and
making announcements. However, there are other possibilities, too:
• Students often have individual chairs with a fold-down surface at the side which they
can write on. This is an ideal situation since they can move their chairs round if they
want to work in pairs or groups. It is always a good idea to insist that they lift their
chairs up when they move them, otherwise it can get very noisy.
• We can organise the class in a horseshoe shape, with the teacher (and the board, etc.) at
the open end. This is an ideal arrangement since the students can all see each other
and it is easy for the teacher to get round the horseshoe.
• Some teachers seat their students in a circle. This can help to create a feeling of
equality and inclusiveness.
• Some teachers have their classrooms organised with groups of students seated round
individual tables. This is appropriate for a large range of GROUPWORK tasks, but it can
sometimes make teaching the whole class more difficult.
• If the chairs are not fixed, we can ask the students to move around, sometimes sitting
in horseshoes, sometimes sitting alone and sometimes in groups around tables,
depending on the activity we are organising. We can have them stand up and move
around the room, forming pairs and groups in different corners. For many students,
moving around helps them to learn and concentrate.

Working alone, working together

Students can work alone or in a number of different pairings and groupings.
• Whole-class teaching helps to build class spirit, the feeling that everyone is involved
together. It is highly suitable for lecturing, explaining things and controlling what is
going on ~69. However, it is less appropriate for COMMUNICATIVE SPEAKING ACTIVITIES,
and many students don't like speaking or performing in front of the whole class.

150

•
~~ ~
- A ._ •

--- -
~
 Where students sit

• When we involve students in SOLOWORK (working on their own), we can go round the
class helping them one by one. Students can work at their own pace, reading texts,
doing exercises, writing compositions, planning talks, etc. Classes are often quiet
when students are working on their own. However solowork does not always help to
promote class harmony and it may be difficult for the teacher to get round the
whole class.
• PAIRWORK greatly increases the amount of speaking time that each individual student
has. It promotes LEARNERAUTONOMV (because the pair is doing the work, not the
teacher). It is highly sociable and is very useful for comparing answers, creating and
practising DIALOGUES, rehearsing dramatic scenes -+64, etc. However, it can be very
noisy and students can get distracted and go 'off-task' (they start talking about
something else). Some students don't always enjoy pairwork; they prefer to work
with a teacher or in groups.
• Groupwork increases individual STUDENT TALKING TIME (STT) -+68. It encourages
co-operation and allows the students to work on a range of tasks, such as BUZZ GROUPS,
discussion -+52, story-circle writing -+58, story-reconstruction -+53 and planning.
However, some students do less work in groups than in a whole-class setting. We need
to create tasks that involve MANDATORV PARTICIPATION (every single student has to take
part), Some students are not very keen on groupwork and it can be very noisy.
• Good teachers use a variety of different student groupings and use them for
different tasks.
• We can sometimes vary student groupings during a task as, for example, in story
reconstruction.
• For pairwork and groupwork to be successful, teachers need to give good instructions
and clear demonstrations -+69.

Putting students into pairs and groups

We have to decide who should work with whom and there are various ways of doing this.
• We can put the students into pairs with the people sitting next to them, in front of
them or behind them. This is ideal when chairs are fixed to the floor in straight lines.
• We can tell the students to get into pairs or groups and let them choose who they
work with. This is very easy but it can be chaotic and it may be difficult for some
students to find friends to work with.
• We can tell the students who to work with, making sure that they have to move so
that they are not always working with the same people.
• We can have the students stand in inner and outer 'wheels'. They work in pairs with
the person in front of them. When the outer or inner wheel moves, they work with
the new person they are standing opposite.
• We may want to group students according to ability so that we can give them different
tasks. We can also mix students of different abilities so that the stronger students can
help the weaker ones (and learn more by doing it).
• We can group students by chanceo For example, we can have them all stand in a line in
order of, for example, their birthdays or the first letter of their name and then group
the first five, then the next five, then the next five, etc. m!liI>
• We can ask the students (privately, in confidence) who they do and don't want to work
with. We can draw a SOCIOGRAM (a diagram with arrows between students who say
they can work together) for this.
• When we want our students to move, it is often Iess confusing (and more efficient) if
we make them stand first before we tell them where to move to.

151
 Teacher
language
., .

Who does the talking in class?

If you walk into some classrooms, the only voice you hear is the teacher's. In a language
learning lesson, however, this may not be in the best interests of the students.

• When there is too much TEACHER TAlKING TIME (TIT) in class, there will not be
enough STUDENT TAlKING TIME (STT), even though it is the students who need speaking
practice, not the teacher!

• One of the ways of maximising student talking time is to have the students working
in PAIRS and GROUPS -+67.

• There are, however, good reasons why some teacher talking time is a good thing.
Teachers are the best source of COMPREHENSIBlE INPUT -+35 (language that students
more or less understand the meaning of, even though it is above their own speaking
or writing level).

• If we want to be comprehensible, we need to 'rough-tune' the language we use. In

other words, we will simplify what we say, use repetition, say the same thing in
different ways and (sometimes) use exaggerated intonation. ROUGHlY-TUNED INPUT is no-
the same as baby talk (although that is a form of roughly-tuned input in a different
context); it is, instead, a way of helping students to ACQUIRE language.

• Most of the everyday language that students hear (especially at LOWER lEVElS -+41)
comes from their teacher, and it is the teacher's voice that is the main model for the
students' way of speaking the foreign language - at least st the beginning.

The teacher's voice

Our voices are perhaps the most important ClASSROOM RESOURCE that we have. We need
to use them wisely and well. .

• We need to be audible in class so that even the students at the back can hear us clearlr,
However, this does not mean shouting! Shouting usually sounds unattractive - and
when teachers shout too often, students no longer lis ten (or just tal k more loudly so
that they can hear themselves). This is especially true when we are trying to quieten
students down or regain control.

152
 Teacher langauge

• When teachers shout, it often looks as if they are not calm, and calmness is important
when there are DISCIPLINE problems -+71 in a lesson.
• It is important to vary our voice in a lesson. If we always speak at the same volume, at
the same speed or in the same tone of voice, then our students will get bored - and it
is more difficult to play different ROLES -+65 for different STAGES OF A LESSON -+80.
• Teachers need to look after their voices. We should try to relax our shoulders, breathe
properly (from the diaphragm, not just the upper chest), and make sure that there are
moments in every lesson when we are not straining our voice.
• When teachers have throat problems, they should speak as little as possible and avoid
caffeine, alcohol and very cold drinks.

Giving instructions
One of the most important things that teachers do is GIVING INSTRUCTIONS, for example
when we want to put students into GROUPS -+67, start an INFORMATION-GAP ACTIVITY -+50
or set up a DEBATE -+52 or a team GAME -+49.
• When we give instructions, we should keep them as simple as possible and try to put
them in a logical order.
• If we are going to give students a handout or ask them to open their books, it is a
good idea to do this after we give our instructions. If we do it before, the students will
look at the handout or book: they will not listen to uso
• When we have given instructions, it is often a good idea to check that the students
have understood them. We can ask the students to repeat the instructions back to uso
We can ask them questions, such as What must you dojirst? ls it OK [or you look at each
otber's pictures? (for DESCRIBE AND DRAW -+50), How long have you got [or this activity?
• If the teacher and the students share a language, the teacher can ask the students to
translate the instructions into their Ll -+77. This will clearly indicate whether or
not they have understood the instructions. However, this may break the 'English
atmosphere' in the class.
• The best kind of instruction is DEMONSTRATION. If we really want our students to know
how they should do an activity, we can get them to do it first with our help. One of
the best ways of doing this is for the teacher to do the activity with one student (or a
group of students) while the rest of the class watch. The teacher can guide the
demonstration students through the activity and then everyone knows exactly what
todo~ .

. .. ...
~ Teaching ideas: demonstrating a Find someone who ... activity ~
o •

: When we use a FIND SOMEONE WHO ... activity -+49 for the first time, the students need :
to understand exactly how it works. They have to go round the class finding someone who
o does/has done/will do (etc) the things on their chart - and writing down the names of
people who say yeso
o
o
o One of the best ways of doing this is to put the chart on the board (or have a student at the
o
front of the class with their chart in their hand). The teacher can ELlCIT the questions for the
o chart and show the students what to write - depending on the answers they get.
..••.....•..•...................•........•.......................................................
o o

We look at giving instructions and checking meaning in more detail in -+69.

153
 Giving instructions
There are a number of things we need to do when giving instructions.
Giving • We should keep our instructions simple, using short simple sentences. For example,
instead of saying (for a DESCRIBE AND DRAW activity -+50):
instructions, Today 1would like you to get into pairs with the person next to you and when that's all sorted
checking meaning out, then I'll give you one of the pictures I've got here which I'll hand out pair by pair and
then one of you takes the picture and he or she mustn 't show the picture that 1have given thC1J:
.1*······································· .
to their neighbour ...
we can say:
OK, 1 want you to work in pairs. You and you. You two. I'm going to give one student a
picture. Do not show it to your partner ... etc.

• We need to break down the instructions we want to give into manageable chunks so
the students don't have to take in too much information at the same time. We discus
SCAFFOLDING in -+65, 91.

• We must make our instructions logical and COHERENT -+34. For example, instead of
saying 1) Don't show the picture to your partner. 2) I'm going to give you a picture, we will
give the instructions in the sequence 2, 1.
• Where possible, we wiIl demonstrate the task. We can get a student or several
students to help uso
• Where possible, we should let the students see us doing the activity. For example, if
we want them to get involved in a DEAR reading activity -+54, they should see us
reading, too. If we want them to learn how to use dictionaries, they should see us
using them appropriately.
• We don't have to give our instructions all at once. We can feed in new instructions as
an activity progresses.

The teacher (Conor) wants the students to do an activity called

'It says here ..' -+29, Notice the times that he 1) gives clear
instructions, 2) marks stages of the activity and 3) DEMONSTRATES
parts of the activity by reading himself so that the students can
see him, and then modelling what he wants them to do,

Conor: (l) What you need to do is read the text and find your
favourite sentence. OK? Cool
(3) Conor reads the text, too, as an examoíe.
·• Conor: (2) OK, one more rninute.
Conor: (2) OK, so we've all read the text. What we're going to
: do now is look at the text and this time (1) I want you to
choose your favourite sentence, OK, and then practise
• reading it. Choose your favourite sentence and then
• practise reading it.
(3) Conor practises reading himself
• Conor: (2) OK, good, so what you're going to do now is (1) read
your sentence to the class and make it sound like the
most exciting, crazy thing you have ever heard. For
example (3) (he exaggerates) 'Tlle largest number ot
extras in a film was for Gandhi 1998; 300,000 for the
• funeral scene' Wow! Yeah, I know, it says here. (He
reminds the students of the task) OK?
·........•..•................................................................•.....•.................•................•.....•...•...... .
154
Checking instructions
We need to be sure tbat tbe students have understood our instructions.
• We can ELlCIT the first answer (or get the students to do the first part of a task) to see
if they have understood what to do.
• We can demonstrate the activity and make deliberate mistakes to see if the students
notice that we are getting it wrong.
• We can ask small detailed questions about the task, such a, &fi:o how long have you
got for this activity? or Can you look at your partner's picture? •• .
• We can stop activities at any stage, and say things like Can anyone tell me what
Student A should be doing right now?

Checking meaning
When teachers ask Do you understand? students often say yes, because, perhaps, they
think that is the answer we want - even if the answer should be no! We have to find
better ways of making sure they know what is going on.
• We need to include CONCEPT CHECKING when we introduce new language ~44.
For example, if we have presented the sentence 1 managed to open the window, we can
ask the students to choose the best way of explaining it:

a) lt was easy but 1 did it.

b) It was difficult but 1 did it.
c) lt was difficult so 1 couldn't do it.
d) 1 tried and 1 did it, etc.

• We can use questions to check meaning. For example, if the students are studying the
THIRD CONDITIONAL ~2 with sentences like lf the alarm clock had gone off, he wouldn't
have been late, we can ask CONCEPT QUESTlONS such as Did the alarm dock go off? What
time
does he usually get to work? What time did he get to work today? What was the reason? etc.
• We can get our students to give us more examples of the concept we have introduced.
For example, if we have introduced the word vehide, we can ask members of the
class to come up with more examples of vehicles. This will tell us if they understand
the word.
• We can ask the students to draw PICTURES of the words we have introduced. We can
also get them to act out the meanings of new words.

155

-_--.:- .-- --
 Classroom
moments
,~ .

How to start a lesson

• Some teachers put on music before the students start coming into dass. This sets the
mood for what is to follow. However, we need to remember that music may not be
popular with everybody -+64.
• We can make TAKING THE REGISTER/ROLL an enjoyable activity. Instead of just saying yes
when we call their names, the students have to answer with a word in a category we
give them (such as food, transport, feelings or PHRASAL VERBS -+9) or with a sentence
about what they did at the weekend, etc.
• Some teachers start their lessons with WARMERS to get the students in agood mood
for a lesson. These are often connected with the topic of the lesson that is coming.
Activities like this are also sometimes called ICEBREAKERS. They are often games or
activities such as RUNNING DICTATION -+48, POETRY REORDERING -+63 or MATCHING
activities -+48, where the students have to move around or puzzle things out.
• We can go straight into the lesson by ásking for a dass story. We give the students the
first line and they have to continue sentence-by-sentence; the storyteller changes
every time we throw a ball, blow a whistle or use some other method.

When students are late

There are a number of things we can do when students arrive late.

• We can get dass agreement on what to do about lateness. We can indude this in an
agreed CODE OF CONDUCT -+71.
• We can make sure that we start lessons with an engaging activity so that the students
don't want to be late. For example, we can say that at the beginning of the next lesson
they can ask us about a forthcoming test and that we will answer honestly.
• We can get late students to explain why they were late and allow the dass to give
their excuses a 0-5 GRADE.
• We can get the rest of the dass to surnmarise what has happened so far for the
students who are late.
• We can telllate students that they will have to give their reasons for being late at the
end of the lesson.
• We can say that students cannot come into the lesson if they are more than five
minutes late.

156

- --
~
._-~--
. - t •
--~---
--=---:-----
 Classroom moments

We need to be sure that our actions are in line with the policy of the school and that they
are not hurtful to the students involved.
We discuss DISCIPLINE in ~71.

When the class needs to be quiet

We often need to be able to quieten the students down - especiaIly after a noisy activity.
When we want to end an activity, we need the students to stop what they are doing.
• When teachers shout too often, the students ignore them and the noise level
increases. However, if the teacher speaks very loudly and this is unexpected, it may
make the students stop what they are doing because they are curious.
• Some teachers start talking very quietly to the people at the front of the class and hope that
the others wiIl quieten down because they are all interested in what the teacher is saying.
• Some teachers raise their arms. When they do this, the students have to raise their
arms, too, to show that they have seen and to indicate that they are quietening down
and finishing the activity.
• Some teachers use little bells or miniature cymbals or a whistle (or some other musical
noise) to indicate that an activity is overo
• Some teachers count backwards from five or ten. When they finish, the class has to be
quiet and stop what they are doing.
• Some teachers stand (usually in the same place each time so the students know what is
happening), watch and wait until the class has quietened down. It helps to maintain
eye contact with the class when we do this.
We need to find the technique which suits us and our students best. It is important that
we talk about it with the students so that they recognise the technique when we use it.

Finishing the lesson

One of the most difficult things for many teachers is to finish the lesson before the bell
goes! Getting our timing right can be challenging, especially if MAGIC MOMENTS or
UNFORESEEN PROBLEMS have happened ~ 79. However, if we can, it is sensible to finish the
lesson properly and end on a positive note.
• Ir is a good idea to summarise what has happened in the lesson and ask the students to
teIl you what they have learnt.
• Some teachers like to tell their students what they can look forward to in the next
lesson. They want the students to be enthusiastic about coming back to class.
• Some teachers like to end their lessons by asking the students to write down (three)
things that they have learnt, or (three) things that they think are the most useful for
them now or wiIl be in the future.
• Some teachers like to end lessons with an enjoyable activity such as a GAME ~49,
a SONG ~64 or some other fun activity to send the students away in a good mood.
• Some teachers like to end with some quiet EXTENSIVE READING ~S4 or, especiaIly with
young learners, with a READING CIRCLE ~96 where they read to their students.
• We can ask our students to write their own TEST question ~89 which they can give
to a colleague to take away (and bring back in the next lesson).
The most important thing, perhaps, is to vary the way we end our lessons so that our
students look forward to the end of the lesson for the right reasons!
We discuss PLANNING in ~79-80.

157
 Discipline

.1-········································
.

Reasons for discipline problems

All teachers have had to deal with DISCIPLINE problems in their lessons at various stages in
their careers. It is part of the life of being a teacher.
There are many different reasons for discipline problems.
• Some students have low SElF-ESTEEM (they doubt themselves and have no confidence).
They seem to need the approval of the teacher or their peers (fellow students). They
may try to get approval by asking for attention all the time or by behaving badly. We
discuss self-esteem in YOUNG lEARNERS in ~91.
• Some students become very DEMOTIVATED ~43 when they fail.
• Some students are afraid of the strongest members of the class and so they do what
those stronger members do, even when they know that it is wrong.
• Students feel very upset if they think that the teacher do es not respect them or if they
think the teacher treats individual students differently. 'lt's not fair!' is often stage 1 ci"
future discipline problems.
• Some younger learners come from families where education is not important. It is
difficult for teachers to change that attitude.
• Some students are unhappy in their home life and they bring this unhappiness into class,

Preventing discipline problems

If we create successful well-behaved classes, discipline problems are unlikely.
• We can talk to the class about what good behaviour means. We can ask the students
what they think is acceptable (e.g. We will respect other people'; opinions. We will wait tiC
the lessonfinishes before getting up and leaving the class. We should not interrupt people befar..
they have finished speaking, etc.).
• After a discussion about good behaviour we can negotiate aCODE OF CONDUCT, a kind -
contract between us and our students, They can help us by agreeing 'rules', such as
(for YOUNG lEARNERS ~92) No laughing at eacb other, Everyone has a turn, No speaking
when someone else is speaking, We put our hands up if we want to say something, etc.

158
 Discipline

• It is a good idea to remind the students about the code of conduct from time to time
- and sometimes we may need to discuss it again so that everyone understands clearly
what is acceptable and what is not acceptable.
• Discipline problems are much less likely if the teacher focuses on success rather
than failure.
• Discipline problems are always less likely if teachers know what they are going to do.
If the teacher is in control, the students are less likely to get out of control!
• Discipline problems are less likely if the students are engaged with the lesson. We
should always think about how to make this happen before we go into the classroom.
• Discipline problems are much less likely if we treat all our students equally. If we have
obvious favourites, for example, the students may resent this.
• Discipline problems are less likely to continue if we always act in the same way - and
with determination - when things go wrong.

But when there are discipline problems, what then?

The most important thing to do when things go wrong is to stay calm - or at least to
look calm, even if we don't feel it! Students of whatever age find it difficult to respect
teachers who panic.
• When something goes wrong, we should act immediately. If we wait and hope that
things will get better, they probably won't.
• Most discipline problems (but not all) disappear when the teacher shows that the
behaviour is wrong.
• We can make students go and sit somewhere else so that they are not next to the
person who is helping them to cause trouble.
• We should always try to respond to the behaviour rather than the character of the student.
If we use sarcasm or personal insult, it is more difficult to regain control. But if we focus
on what happened instead of who was responsible, it will be easier to stop the problem.
• We can use the code of conduct to stop discipline problems. We ask the class what
everyone agreed to do and what not to do and then show that someone is behaving in
a way that breaks the codeo
• When we praise students, we try to give them a GOAL for the future ~66. In the same
way, we should always look towards the future when a discipline problem happens.
Once we have stopped what is happening, we should talk about what will happen next
or how things could be better in the future.
• Sometimes it is better to walk up to a student who is behaving badly. However, we
don't want this to look like a physical chaIlenge. We should keep our distance, keep
eye contact and remain calm at all times.
• We should never threaten to do things that we are not going to do because students
will soon stop listening to our threats.
• When it is possible, we should talk to students in priva te. We can ask what they think
is the problem. We can discuss what happened. We will only tell them off (lecture
them about their behaviour) if the discussion does not go well.
• If we are having difficult and worrying discipline problems, we should always talk to
colleagues and to the co-ordinator, head teacher, etc. There is no shame in this. AlI
teachers have discipline problems sometimes.
• We should find out exactly what the discipline policy of the school is and always act
according to that policy. The students should know what the policy is, too, so that
they are clear what will happen next if a discipline problem goes on being serious.

159
 Teacher feedback
When students say or write things, they usually expect feedback from the teacher.
This often comes in the form of some kind of EVAlUATION. Here is a typical example
(the teacher is organising a question and answer drill -+47):
Giving
Teacher: Question ... what ... Guido.
feedback Student (Guido): What's the boy doing?
Teacher: Good.

When the teacher says Good, she is giving feedback. She is telling Guido that he said the
question correctly. This kind of evaluation feedback is extremely common and useful,
there are many other ways of responding to students' work too, as we shall see in this UL:...

Acknowledgement and evaluation

• It is important that our students know that we have heard what they have said or rea;
what they have written. We need to ACKNOWlEDGE their contribution and comment
both the language they have used and on how well we think they have performed a tass,
• Students like to know if their writing or speaking is correcto When we say Good
(like the teacher above) or just repeat what the student says without comment, this
indicates that we are happy with what they said, e.g.

Student: "" cinema.

Last night 1 went to the
Teacher: You went to the cinema.

However, we need to be careful to use approving and enthusiastic intonation -+27 =

that the students understand that we are happy with what they have said.
• We should be careful not to praise students too enthusiastically too often. If we saf
Fantastic! or Well done! to everything that they say, the words lose their meaning.
Students don't enjoy being praised if they cannot see a good reason for it.
• We often need to show the students that what they have said is incorrecto They can ofrer
correct themselves when we do this. We look at how to correct students in -+73-7

Going further
Instead of only giving evaluation feedback, we can follow up what students say or write
with repetitions and comments which will make them say or write more.
• 'IVe can REFORMUlATE or RE-CAST what the student has said, e.g.

Student: 1 have been to the cinema yesterday.

Teacher: Oh, you went to the cinema yesterday.

This is a popular correction technique -+73, but it is also a useful (and cornmunica .
way of encouraging the students to hear and think about other ways of saying things
• We can repeat what the student has just said with a rising INTONATION, e.g.

Student: 1 went to the cinema yesterday.

~
Teacher: You went to the cinema yesterday?

Depending on our facial expression and the intonation we use, this shows either thar
we want them to tell us a bit more (about what they have just said) or to think a bit
more about what they have said to see if they think it was correcto

160
 --- ~ ..

Giving feedback

• We can ask our students to clarify what they have just said, e.g.

Student: 1 went to the Arts Picture House last night.

Teacher: Oh, you mean you went to see a film?

This is a useful way of making them try to explain themselves more fully or in a
different way.
• We can comment on the CONTENT of what the students have just said, e.g.

Student: I saw 'The King's Speech' at the cinema last night.

Teacher: Oh you saw that film, did you? I hope you enjoyed it. Idid when I saw it.

Students appreciate this kind of (genuine) acknowledgement and it may encourage

them to say more.
• We can use FOLLOW-UP QUESTlONS to encourage students to say more, e.g.

Student: I saw 'The King's Speech' at the cinema last night.

Teacher: Oh really. Did you like it? What was your favourite bit?

Which kind of feedback?

We have to decide on which kind of feedback (or follow up) we want to use.
• If the students are involved in DRILLS or CONTROLLED PRACTICE, we often use evaluation
feedback -+ 73.
• When they are involved in more genuine communication, we often ask for
clarification, comment or use intonation to show that we want to hear more.
• There are many occasions, however, when any of the types of feedback and follow up
might be useful for students. We have to decide instantly which is more useful for a)
their accuracy, b) their creative use of the language or e) getting them to remember
language they know but aren't using mucho

Giving feedback on written work

As we shall see when we discuss CORRECTING WRITTEN WORK -+75, we give feedback on
written work in a variety of ways.
• Evaluation means telling the students when they have done well 01' made mistakes.
We often use CORRECTION SYMBOLS for this -+75.
• COMMENTING means reacting to the content of what the students have written. We
might write something like:

desc.'ripfioV\ of fhe fowV\ fhClf L-f0U visifed. Do L-f0u fhiV\k L-f0u will qo

This shows the students that we are interested in what they have written, not just how
well or badly they have done it.
• RESPONDING means commenting on students' written work and suggesting ways that
they might want to change it. This is especially useful when they are involved in
PROCESS WRITING -+57. We might write something like:

Youv- sfov-L-f is vev-L-f e'l<c.ifiV\q, buf L-fOUoV\lL-fuse fhe pClSf simple feV\se. CClV\L-f0u fhiV\k of
fimes wheV\ L-f0u C.ould use fhe pClsf c.oV\fiV\uous ov fhe pClsf pedec.f? 1f miqhf mClke
mov-e I VI+PV-/O< +. í Vlf1

161
 Differen! kinds al carrectiao
'Ttie way we CORRECT ausciees wi22aepena on ttie Kma ol mIstaKe tne studen: tuskes
-+37 and what kínd of activity the students are involved in~.
• We can make a difference between activities which focus on ACCURACY and those whi ~
Correcting focus on FLUENCY -+37. When students are trying to say (new) Ianguage correctly-
speaking 1 during PPP sequences, for example - we call this aeeuracy work. But when they are
engaged in COMMUNICATIVE SPEAKING ACTIVITIES -+51, we say that they are focusing on
•1
~ .
fluency - trying to speak spontaneously using any and all of the language they know.
• We tend to correct more during accuracy work. We help the students to say new
language correctly, partly by showing them what mistakes they are making so that
they can fully understand what they are learning.
• When students are involved in fluency work, we are, perhaps, more careful about
when and how to correcto If we correct too much, we will stop the students expressinz
themselves; we will stop the RETRIEVAl ANO USE -+22 which are important elements for
remembering language. However, correction can still be appropriate during fluenc -
work. It depends how we do it.

Students correct themselves

If we think that students can correct themselves, there are a number of things we can do
to make this happen.
• We can show that something is wrong by using FACIAL EXPRESSION (for example a rais
eyebrow or some other surprised or quizzical expression), or by using GESTURE andJo
body language to show surprise. This can be amusing, but it can also offend certain
students, so we must be very careful and try not to do this inappropriately.
• We can echo what the student has said using rising INTONATION. This indicates that we
expect something more. The students may realise this and then be able to correct
themselves:

Student: If I won a million dollars, I buy an aeroplane.

Teacher: If I won a million dollars, I buy an aeroplane?
Student: Oh, yesoIf I won a million dollars I would buy an aeroplane.

• We can draw the student's attention to the actual mistake by stressing the part of
the sentence where the mistake was made:

Student: If I won a rnillion pounds, I am travel round the world.

Teacher: If I won a million pounds, I AM TRA VEL round the world?
Student: Oh, yesoI would travel round the world.

• Or we can just repeat one word or phrase so that students know what part of the
sentence to try to correct:

Student: I have winning a million pounds, I would buy a house for my mother.
Teacher: Have winning?
Student: Oh, yesoIf I won a rnillion pounds, I would buya house for my mother.

• We can also use explicit statements and questions to show incorrectness in the hope
that the students can correct themselves:

Student: If I won million pounds, I would help the poor.

Teacher: Do we say 'million pounds'?

The teacher could also say Da we use an article with million, hundred, etc.?
162
 Correcting speaking 1
........................................

Students correct each other

If the students cannot correct themselves, what do we do then?
• We can ask other students in the class to help the student who is having prablems.

Student (Yutaro): If 1 am winning a million pounds 1 am stopping work.

Teacher: IfI AM winning?
Student: ... (the student is uncertain and cannot correct himself)
Teacher: Jun, can you help??
Student CJun): If 1 won a million pounds 1 would stop work.
Teacher: Yutaro?
Student (Yutaro): If 1 won a million pounds 1 would stop work.
Teacher: Very good.

• We should be careful when using students to help each other. Some people don't like
being made to look 'weaker' in this way.

...•.....•....•......•.••....•.••..•.•••.•.....••.•.......•..........................................................................
The Silent Way
.
Caleb Gattegno (1911-1988) promoted a teaching method called THE SllENT WAY, so called
because teachers do as little talking as possible.

After modelling new language, the teacher nominates the students in turn (usually with a
silent gesture). The students each have to say the new language. If they cannot do this, the
teacher silently nominates other students and keeps doing this until one of them says the
new language correctly. The teacher then uses that student as a model until everyone else
can say the new language as well as the successful student.

The students' reliance on each other is very powerful and forces them to pay attention really
carefully. However, it can also be quite stressful.

Reformulation
We can REFORMUlATE (or re-cast) what students say -+72, using the correct language formo

Student: lf is raining, 1 am getting wet.

Teacher: Yes you're right. If it rains, you will get wet.

For some students (but not all) this may be enough to make them (and the rest of the
class) think carefully about what they have just said. They may correct themselves - or at
least notice the difference berween what they said and what the teacher says.

From correction to (re)teaching

Sometimes we have to break off from what we are doing and (re)teach something that
our students are having difficult with.
• As an example, imagine that a teacher is not getting any response when she tries to
correct students who are usingfurniture as a COUNTABlE NOUN -+12.
• The teacher stops the sequence and puts two headings (Countable nouns, Uncountable
nouns) on the board. She elicits nouns that the students know (includingfurniture) and
writes them (or gets the students to write them) in the correct columns.
• The teacher then reviews the rules for countable and uncountable nouns before
returning to the previous activity.

163
 When should we correct?
As we saw in ~73, we use correction differently if the students are involved in a
COMMUNICATIVE SPEAKING ACTIVITY.

• If we correct our students all the time when they are trying to say something
Correcting interesting, we may make them feel nervous. We may stop them trying to find the
speaking 2 best way to say things in English - one of the main reasons for doing activities
like this.
~, .•.•.•...................•.••••.••.......
• Many students say that they want to be corrected at the exact moment when they
make a mistake. However, if we do correct all their mistakes in this way, they general';
become frustrated and the speaking activity is less successful.
1,
• However, it may sometimes be appropriate to correct students when they are trying
to say something that is important to them. They may have a strong MOTIVATION to
speak correctly.
• We have to decide how much to correct while a communicative speaking activity is
taking place. If correction will stop the activity, then it is probably better to wait until
afterwards. But if it is fairIy easy to help the students out through correction - and
this does not stop the conversation - then we may decide to go ahead.
• It is a good idea to ask the students when and how they want to be corrected and to
come to an agreement with them about how it will happen.

r Correcting while the activity is taking place

• If we correct while a speaking activity is happening, we will try to do so without
disrupting the activity too mucho Our correction will often be more like SCAFFOLDING
~65 than direct teaching.
• We can use REFORMULATION ~72 as a gentle reminder to the student who is speaking.
as in the following example:

Student: So I like listen to music when I driving and also in the house.
Teacher: You like listening to music when you are driving.
Student: Yes, when I am driving and I like listening W music in the house, and ...

Notice that once the teacher has reformulated the student's sentence, she does not
insist on the sentence being said again. She hopes that her gentle reformulation will
be enough.
• We can, of course, say things like Remember '[urniture' is an uncountable noun in the
middle of a communicative activity, but as with reformulation we don't usually insist
on the students stopping to correct themselves.
• However, if the mistakes that are being made are having abad effect on the
activity, the teacher may feel that they should stop the activity and do a bit of
(re)teaching ~73.

Making a record of what is being said

When our students are involved in a speaking activity, we will-make a record of
what they say so that we can give FEEDBACK and correct them when the activity
is finished.
• We can 'eavesdrop' on what is happening. In other words, we listen without
interrupting - and without dominating the evento We can sit just outside a group or
stand to one side of the class, listening to what is being said.

164

~-:~
-

-
-
- ~~== --
---- ~
.
=-
--
---
- ,
• While we are eavesdropping on groups or on the class, we can make a note of
anything that we want to talk about later - both mistakes that we hear, and also things
that students do or say well. However, we should not be too obvious about this since
this wiIl be almost the same as instant correction.
• We can use a chart to help us record both the successful and the less successful
aspects of what we hear, such as the following:

Content Grarnmar Words and phrases Pronunciation

• We can use a microphone or video camera to record a speaking activity, though this
wiIl only work if the microphone quality is good enough.

Correcting after the event

We can use the information we recorded to make corrections after the students have
finished a speaking activity.
• We wiIl respond to the CONTENT of what the students said, not just the language
they used.
• We wiIl tell the students what we liked (content and language). Positive feedback has ~
a strong motivational effect.
• We can write a few mistakes that we recorded on the board. We can ask the
students to say how they could correct these. However, we will not say who made
the mistakes on the board because we don't want to make any particular student feel
bad~.
• We can watch or listen to our audio or video recordings with the class and point out
where things were successful or not successful.
• We can play the audio/video recording and ask the students to comment on successful
and less successful uses of language.
• We can ask the students to transcribe a short section of a video or audio recording.
We can then analyse the transcriptions and a) say what we like and b) make any
necessary corrections.

Correcting for the future

The point of correction is to help our students achieve more success in the future.
• When the students are preparing to make an ORAL PRESENTATION ~53, we can let
them practise their presentation and give them feedback (making suggestions
and corrections) so that when they do their (final) presentation again, it wiIl be
even better.
• When students are creating DIALOGUES for acting out, we can go round the class
helping them to say things in a more correct and appropriate way.
• If we have the students tell stories more than once ~53, we can comment on
what we hear the first time round so that the next (and subsequent) teIlings of the
story wiIl be better.

165

--
----~
 How much to correct
It is often difficult to decide how many mistakes to CORRECT in a student's written work
and how to do it. We do not want to cover their paper in a discouraging mass of red ink
(or its equivalent).
Correcting • We have seen that it is important to comment on the CONTENT of our students' work
writing rather than just focusing on the language that they use -+72.
~ .................................••...... • We have said that when we are helping students in PROCESS WRITING -+57, we respond
to their work and suggest ways that they can improve it. This is rather different from
giving correction.
• However, when we return corrected students' HOMEWORK -+76 or other written work.
we want them to look at the corrections and suggestions and, where possible, to
rewrite their work correctly.

What to correct
If we correct everything, then students may be DEMOTIVATED -+43 by the number of
corrections we make. There are ways of correcting only some things:
• We can select what we are going to correct and tell the students before they do the
work. For example, we can say that we will only be correcting SPEllING. As a result,
the students are likely to think more carefully about how to spell than they would
otherwise have done.
• We can ask the students to choose what we should correct when we check their work..
We can give UPPER-INTERMEDIATE students a list which includes grammar, vocabulary,
spelling, PARAGRAPH CONSTRUCTION, good text organisation (introduction, argument,
conclusion, etc.) and ask them to put them in order of importance. Students will pay
more attention to correctness in the areas they have put at number 1!
• We can give our students a writing checklist to use when they have finished their
writing. We can ask questions such as Does the first paragraph of your text introduce
the topic? Do your verbs agree with their subjects (singular - plural)? Have you put your
adjectives in the right order? etc.

Using correction symbols

Many teachers use CORRECTION SYMBOLS to try to avoid too much 'red-ink' marking.
Correction symbols Although there is no agreed list, the following symbols are common.

Symbol Meaning Example error

S A spelling error. The asnwer is obvious.
WO A mistake in word order. 1 like very much it.
G A grammar mistake. 1 am going to buy some [urnitures.
r Wrong verb tense. 1 have seen him yesterday.
e Concord mistake (e.g. the subject and verb agreement). People iI. angry.
Á Something has been left out. He told Á that he was sorry.
WW Wrongword. 1 am interested onjazz music.
{} Something is not necessary. He was not {too}strong enough.
'?M The meaning is unclear. That is a very excited photograph.
p A punctuation mistake. Do you like London;
FII Too formal or informal. Hi M1' Franklin, Thank you for your letter ...

166

-
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----- -
---
- "

- ---- - -- ""~~:
- 1 --~-
--
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e
-
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.•..,~~~ -
"

-~ - : =----:--"-- -- -~
~
" -~- -=
-- --"--"---
I --~ _-.::- t . -'
 • We need to train our students to understand our correction symbols. We can do this
by a) getting them to fmd mistakes in sentences, b) asking them to say what kind of
mistake it is and c) choosing a symbol for each type of mistake.
• When the students submit work on paper, we can underline a mistake in a written
sentence and put the correction symbol in the margino
• When our students submit work electronically, we can underline words and phrases
and put correction symbols in brackets.
• We can get the students to try correcting each other's work using correction symbols.
• We should remember to indude ticks (./) or EMOTICONS and other symbols to show
when we approve of what the students have written.

!
{} I Mos+o-t~pe-ºple ILke +0 @Q ShQPpLY1~
bu.+ Ipt=_e-ter +~d.o=----~i
WW T o+her +hLY1!(
: 1~ M~+LMepcÚY1+Lni(->--tor eXilJlr¡ple. WheY1 ~
e SI? I ~ou.~PP4~0U. Y1eed.s lob o-t +LMe anclpCLt-Lense +0 ~+ l.

\ {} ~oci +hLY1C:SaJ Y1LCeprLces. You.MUS++0 sp~o.k +0 Man~ S(1les ~

tI WW -t-rersoY1s. WhO LY1 ~Y1eraJ are s+u.pLcii1hou.+~ Y1eCessL+~. . ~l
i Á 1+ ~ cil-t-tLCu.I+WheY1+he~ seY1ci~ou..+0 wroY1i(_pJ(]g,es
1
1

anci +he~_-I
.j-l~+ kY1oWLY1f(
answers +0 ~ou.rqu.est-LoY1so.,bou.+ +he sM.ppLY1~ __ !¡
1~~~~.n0CY1-",",s¡.:,,¡¡nT~~n,",,~~0n~~~0 •.=~ ...rFV?_'_'_~~'~~.'" ~"",¡¡:;;,,"=~=.:PJ

Other kinds of correction

• When we correct written work that has been submitted electronically, we can write
our own comments (in different colours) or use reviewing tools (such as Track
Changes) to add comments.

• However, it is just as demotivating to over-correct electronically as it is to do it with

a peno
• We can send our students AUDIO or VIDEO FEEDBACK, with a mixture of comments,
corrections and suggestions. Students can listen/watch as they read through their
own writing. Some teachers record themselves making corrections on screen, using
software like Jing or Camtasia. The students can hear what the teacher says and, at the
same time, see on the screen what corrections the teacher is making to their work.

167
 Hornework

The magic of homework

HOMEWORK is like magic! The more that students do it, the better their English becomes.
This is especiallyimportant when lessons provide the students' only other exposure to English.
Homework is like music practice or physical training. It encourages LEARNERAUTONOMY
~43 because we will be asking the students to work on their own.

What kind of homework?

It is important to set varied homework tasks so that the students don't get bored with the
whole process, and also because different students respond to different things and often
have different LEARNING STYLES ~40.
• We can ask our students to complete exercises in their WORKBOOKS or on WORKSHEETS
that we give them.
• The students can submit audio and video material via email or by using an ONLlNE
LEARNING PLATFORM such as MOODLE, BLACKBOARD, etc.

• We can ask them to do exercises on a learning platform and submit their work ONLlNE
~87.
1
• We can ask the students to submit homework with photographs and drawings
attached. In other words, homework does not always have to be words only.
• We can ask the students to research a topic for homework. For example, we can ask them
to find facts about a topic (such as tourism) in preparation for a FORMAL DEBATE ~52.
We can ask them to collect six different newspaper headlines from online sites, bring
them to a lesson and explain them to the class. We can ask them to look at dictionaries,
newspapers, magazines or WEBSITES and find, for example, six new PHRASAL VERBS ~9.
• We can ask our students to learn a POEM or a SPEECH by heart ~63.
• We can ask them to write a text to be included in their writing PORTFOLlO (a collection
of their work that they add to over a semester or a year) ~59.
• We can ask the students to write a new BLOG POST ~87 or to comment on at least t:wo
other students' blogs.

Using mobile devices for homework

Many students have a range of MOBILE DEVICES ~86: MOBILE PHONES (cellphones), digital
cameras or TABLET COMPUTERS. These can be used for doing a variety of homework tasks.
• We can ask them to make short VIDEO or AUDIO RECORDINGS. For example, they can
describe their day or show their house or their street (with commentaries).

168
• We can ask the students to use their mobile devices to record interviews with family,
friends or strangers (provided that we are sure of their safety).
• We can ask the students to record ORAL PRESENTATIONS ~53.
• We can ask them to take 'mystery photographs' (pictures from strange angles) on their
mobile devices. They then bring them into the lesson and the other students have to
say what they are. We discuss more uses of mobile devices in class in ~86.

Making homework 'work' for students

There are a number of ways in which we can make homework a positive experience
for students.
• We can include doing homework in the CODE OF CONDUCT we agree with our students ~ 71.
• We should find out what homework our students have to do for other lessons. We
don't want to overwork them.
• When students submit homework, we should do our best to mark it and give it back
as promptly as possible. This is not always easy, but if we give homework back late,
students may start to submit it late, too.
• One of the best ways of making sure that students do their homework is to give GRADES
for each piece of work that is completed. This grade can be instead of (or as well as)
any other mark that we give. The 'completion' marks all go towards a final grade.
• We can ask the students to decide what homework they want to do. They could
discuss this in groups. They can choose anything, such as working with a song or
watching/listening to a football commentary, provided that it either uses English or
helps them to learn English. We can use their (sensible) choices as homework tasks.
• Students can decide (with our guidance) how their homework should be graded.
• Teachers should keep a HOMEWORK RECORD so that they know who has done homework
and when.
• Where it is appropriate, with younger learners, teachers should give each student a
homework notebook. In this book the teacher writes each homework task. The
student's parent or guardian signs the record to show that they know the homework
has been assigned. The teacher signs the book when the homework is done.

Making homework 'work' for teachers

Teachers are happy when students do homework well, but marking and record-keeping
can take up a lot of our time!
• We shouldn't ask different classes to submit homework all at the same time.
• We should set clear homework limits (number of words, etc.) and ask the students to
respect them.
• We should encourage the students to suggest ideas for homework. This will be
interesting to mark.
• We can try selective marking. In other words, we don't need to comment or correct
everything in a piece ofhomework. For example, we might concentrate on verb tenses
but not comment on minor SPElllNG mistakes.
• We can mark only a selection of papers each time (and make sure that every student's
work is marked over a period of weeks).
• We can get the students to mark (and/or comment on) each other's homework (and
check that they are doing it well).

169
 L1 in the classroom
For many decades, teachers have discussed the following question: Should we allow
students to use their HOME LANGUAGE(S) in the English-Ianguage classroom?

Usingthe L1
Some background facts
There are a number of reasons why people have different attitudes to the use of the L1
in the English-Ianguage classroom.
• When people reacted against the GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION methods -+36 of the past,
they wanted to replace them with the DIRECT METHOD. The direct method encouraged
speaking the TARGET LANGUAGE in class instead of speaking about it.
• Many English teachers (NATIVE SPEAKER TEACHERS -+13 and others) travel to different
countries around the world to teach. If they can't speak their students' language, their
lessons have to be in English all the time.
• Many classes (especially, but not only, in countries such as Australia, Britain, Canada
Ireland and the USA) are MULTlLlNGUAL: the students come from a variety of different
language backgrounds.
• Many people around the world grow up speaking two, three or more languages.
When we discuss this topic, however, we tend to talk about a student's L1 to refer to
their firstlhome language.
• When people are learning languages, especially at the heginning, they translate from
one language to another in their heads whether we like it or not!

Arguments against using the students' L1 in the classroom

Even in MONOLlNGUAL classes using the L1 may not he a good idea.
• The more the students speak in their L1, the less English they speak.
• Students get fantastically good COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT from the teacher in English. If
the teacher uses the students' L1, they won't get as much English exposure.
• We want our students to think in English, not in their L 1. We want to create an
English environment in the classroom.
• Students learn best by trying to express themselves in English. The more they
communicate in English, the hetter. There is no point in COMMUNICATIVE ACTlVITIES if
the students are using their Ll.

Arguments in favour of using the students' L1 in the classroo

There are also a number of reasons why using the L1 may have advantages.
• Part of a student's identity comes from the language(s) they speak. We should
encourage our students to celebrate their multilingual identities.
• Using the students' L1, especially at lower levels, allows us to talk to them about
many different matters to do with class management, etc.
• We can help our students with any prohlems if we can communicate with them in their Ll.
• The use of the L1 can make a good contribution to the atmosphere in the class and
the RAPPORT -+66 between teacher and students.
• Students learn a lot by comparing English with their L1. They will do it anyway, so it
is better if we help them.

170
 UsingtheL1

An L1'policy'
Since using the students' L1 has both advantages and disadvantages, we need to make up
our minds about what to do.
• We should always acknowledge the students' L1 (and other languages which they
speak), for example by asking them to contrast that language with English, or talking
about pronunciation differences.
• Teachers should not overuse the students' Ll. Remember, it is an English lesson!
• The more advanced the students are, the less need there is to use their L1 in class.
However, we may want to make use of a range of TRANSLATION ACTIVITIES at any level
(see below).
• We should make sure that the students know when it is OK to use their L1 (when
they are discussing answers in pairs, for example) and when it is not (when they are
trying to communicate in English, for example). It is a good idea to get them to agree
a policy about this, perhaps as part of aCODE OF CONDUCT -+71.
• We should use the L1 (if we are able to) to help our students understand differences
between English and their L 1.
• If our students start using theír LI at ínappropríate times (e.g. duríng a speaking
activity), we should use encouragement, persuasion and prompting to get them to go
back to speaking in English.

Translation activities
Translation can aid motivation and help the students to think more carefully about language.
• We can evaluate our students' progress at the end of a course of study by asking them if
they can translate the phrases and structures they have been studying back into their L 1.
• The students can translate different sections of a text and then share their translations
to build up the complete story in an activity similar to JIGSAW READING -+55.
• Students can translate short texts and then compare their translations with those of
their classmates.
• Student A translates an English sentence into their Ll. They give the translated
sentence to Student B (who shares the same L1). Student B translates it back into
English. Is Student B's English sentence the same as Student Rs?
• The students discuss different idioms in different languages and cultures.
• We can get our students to use online web translators and ask them to say what, if
anything, is wrong with the translations .

.............................................................................................................................. ..
Teaching ideas: trans\ating a poem
Amanda Wilson asked a multilingual group of students in the UK to translate an •
anti-drug-use poem into their different languages. The activity was a big success •
and very motivating beca use the students:

• wanted to 'parade' their Lls when they read their translations aloud.
• enjoyed hearing each other's languages and comparing them with their own.
• had to think really hard about grammar, lexis, syntax, etc. when translating.
• could recite the original poem in Eng/ish from memory by the end of the lesson. :
felt empowered because they had been able to translate a whole poem from
English into their own language. Amanda's students' poems on display •
....•••.••.•...•.......•••••.••......................................................••...•..............•..•.•••...........•.......•

171
 Continuous professional development
The best (and happiest)
teachers continue to learn and
discover new things all
Teacher through their teaching
careers. Development activity
development is just as important for
teachers as it is for students.
It can make us more
enthusiastic about teaching
(and about our lives) and it
can also help us through
episodes of BURNOUT.

Burnout just around the corner?

Many teachers and trainers worry about the possibility of teacher burnout.

• Burnout happens when teachers los e interest in (and enthusiasm for) teaching. It can
cause (or be caused by) stress.

• Burnout do es not mean the end of a career (though it can do). It is often a ternporary
state of affairs. Most teachers get through it and come out the other side.

• Burnout is caused by such things as teaching too many CONTACT HOURS (hours in the
classroom), having too much HOMEWORK ~ 76 to mark or by other conditions at work,
But it can also be the result of factors such as time spent travelling to and from work,
pressures at home or things going on in teachers' private lives.

• The best route out of teacher burnout is to re-engage with teacher development activiti

Doing it ourselves
There are many things that teachers can do to help themselves continue learning,
thinking and enjoying teaching.

• The best teachers are REFLECTlVE. This means that they reflect on (think about) what
happens in their lessons. Some teachers keep journals to help them do this.

• Teachers can do their own ACTlON RESEARCH. This means a) asking themselves a
question about teaching (for example, Why are some students quiet during groupwork?)
b) trying to answer the question by doing something different in class (for example
giving each student in a group a specific task), c) reflecting on what happened when
they did this (for example, did those different tasks mean that all the students took
part?) and d) deciding what action to take next.

• An effective type of personal reflection takes place when teachers watch themselves
teaching on film. Even if this only means putting a small video camera at the back of
the classroom and Ieaving it there while we teach, we can learn a lot by watching
it afterwards.

172
 Teacher development

• One of the best ways of thinking about our own teaching is to write an artide for a
teachers' magazine, present a seminar or talk at a teachers' meeting or conference.
This makes us think about what we do and why we do it. It may make us feel nervous,
but other teachers are usually very supportive.
• One of the best things we can do for our teaching is to become learners ourselves.
Perhaps we can study for a further teaching qualification or take a postgraduate
course, for example. But it is also extremely invigorating to learn something
(anything) completely new, whether it is a new language (it helps to put ourselves in
our learners' shoes), a new sport, a new musical instrument or any other fresh and
exciting challenge.

Doing it with others

Some of the most effective teacher development takes place when we work and share
with colleagues and other professionals.
• We learn a lot (and develop) when we co-operate with others. For example, if we
have just tried a new activity in class but we don't know what to think about it,
talking about it with a supportive colleague will often help us to darify our ideas.
• The worst thing we can do if we are having problems or suffering from burnout is to
keep it to ourselves. We need to talk to other people about it.
• It is a very good idea to set up regular sessions where two teachers take turns to be
the listenerlunderstander and the speaker. The listenerlunderstander listens non-
judgementally - in other words, they don't say 'that is good' or 'that is bad' -
before asking questions to try to get the speaker to clarify their thinking. Having a
non-judgementallistener gives the speaker confidence. After a set time, the two
teachers change roles.
• Teachers can organise their own teacher development groups which meet at
pre-arranged times. AlI the teachers in the group can vote on what they want to talk
about, and every week a different teacher can lead the session.
• Teachers can write or comment on BLOGS ~87. This can be like a very good
conversation with colleagues.
• Teachers can have discussions (and form groups) using social networks such as
TWITTER. They can take part in WEBINARS or other ONLlNE meetings.

• We can keep our eyes open for seminars which are organised in our locality. If
possible, we can attend some of the many teachers' conferences, either in our region,
our country or abroad.
_-0

• Fellów teachers can plan, discuss and observe each other's lessons. However, such
PEER OBSERVATION will not work if the teacher being observed feels that they are being
judged. The main reasons for peer observation should be a) for the observer to learn
new things and reflect on their own teaching, and b) for the observed teacher to have
a chance to talk about their lesson with an observer they can trust.
• T-Vhen scbools organise peer observation,it is a good idea to have a meeting
afterwards where people talk about the good things they have observed. This means
that everyone gets to hear new ideas.
• Many teachers feel nervous when a director a{ st\l.di.es ({a! ex.?m.~k) c.am.e'O.t.a w?t.c.\-".
If the OBSERVATION is going to be really helpful for the teacher (rather than just an
evaluation), the teacher should be able to negotiate the time and content of the lesson,
the follow up should be a conversation (rather than a report) and the emphasis should
be on future success, not past failure. It is worth remembering that anyone in a senior
academic position has almost certainly been observed many times themselves.
• Teachers can watch VIDEO RECORDINGS of each other teaching and discuss what they see.

173
 Section E: Planning, resources
and assessment
In this section, we discuss a range of issues to do with planning lessons, what resources
we can use and how to test students along the way.
We look at the essential elements of lesson planning and of how to plan a sequence of
lessons. (Note: there is separate lesson planning appendix on pages 250-256.)
We look at a range of materials, both in book form (coursebooks, supplementary
materials, dictionaries, etc.), and also using other forms of technology (whether this is
a class board or a tablet computer or other hand-held mobile device, for examp1e).
In addition, we discuss teaching without any materia1s at a11.
- Finally, we 100k at the basics of assessment and testing. (Note: we a1so discuss testing
for young 1earners in Unit 101 and for CLIL in Unit 110.)

- 79
80
Planning lessons
Planning sequences
81 Using coursebooks
82 Using dictionaries
83 Supplementary materials and activities
84 Teaching without materials
85 Classroom technology 1
86 Classroom technology 2
87 Cfassroom technology 3
88 Assessment and testing
89 Test ítems and how to teach them
90 Marking and grading tests

175
 Planning
lessons
~....••......•...•..•.............•.......

••

Different attitudes to planning

Some teachers spend hours PLANNING what to do in their LESSONS the next day. Others
don't seem to need the same amount of time to think about what they are going to do.
Some schools and institutions expect teachers to provide detailed plans. Some teacher
qualification exams expect teachers to present plans for the lessons they are going to tea -

To plan or not to plan?

• When teachers don't plan - and leave everything to chance - they sometimes have
wonderfullessons, fuIl of creativity and fun. But it's a big risk. Sometimes the lesson
just chao tic and no one learns very mucho If this happens too often, the students ma.
start to think that the teacher is unprofessional and this is bad for teacher-student
RAPPORT -+66.
• When teachers plan too much and then foIlow the plan exactly, without changing a
single thing whatever happens in the lesson, the lesson may be uncreative and borinz
• We need to be ready for MAGIC MOMENTS (when students do or say something reaIly
interesting) and be prepared to change our plan to take advantage of them. We also
need to be ready for UNFORESEEN PROBLEMS (when something happens which we had n :
anticipated) and be prepared to change our plan to deal with them.

What are lessons like?

• We need to have an idea of what we hope the students will achieve in a lesson. We
need to think of the best ways to help them do this. When we start to think what the
AIMS of a lesson are and how we wiIl help the students to achieve those aims, we are
already planning, whether we write the plan down or noto
• Lesson plans are like maps. They teIl us where we are going and help us to take the
best route to get there. But we stiIl have to make decisions as we travel. Should we
take a detour? Do we prefer the motorway or a country road, for example?

176
• When we think of a lesson as a journey, it is just one METAPHOR ~21 we can use. We
might also think of a lesson as a film or a novel or a meal- and use those metaphors to
help us put the pieces together to make, for example, a narrative or a fantastic dining
expenence.
• Lesson ideas can come from many different places. They can be inspired by films we
see or something we read. They can come from the ideas of our coIleagues or from
something we have read about in a teachers' magazine or heard from an online
community. They can come from the SYLLABUS we are foIlowing or the COURSEBOOK we
are using - or they can simply arise because we think our students need some extra
work on something. They may be part of a SEQUENCE OF LESSONS ~80, perhaps
planned around a central TOPIC or THEME ~100.

What goes lnto a plan?

Different schools and institutions (and exam boards) have different plan forms and
formats. But they aIl have several things in common:
• The most important part of the planning process is to decide what our precise
learning aims are. In other words, we need to consider the learning OUTCOMES. We can
think of a learning outcome as the answer to the question What will my students know
or be able to do at the end of a lesson (or lessonstage) that they could not do or didn't know at
the beginning?
• We need to consider TIMETABLE FIT. In other words, we wiIl say what the students have
been learning recently and what they wiIl be doing in the next lesson(s) after this one.
• We need to have (or write) a good CLASS DESCRIPTION. This needs to say who the
students are in as much detail as we can give. We can say what they find easy and
difficult, how weIl they participate in lessons, etc. When we know who our students
are, we can plan especiaIly for them - and plan activities that DIFFERENTIATE between
different students ~42.
• We need to list the LANGUAGEEXPONENTS (GRAMMAR, VOCABULARY or PRONUNCIATION
items) that we are going to teach or the LANGUAGE SKILLS (reading, writing, speaking
and listening) we wiIl focus on.
• We wiIl say what ACTIVITIES we are going to include in our lesson and what TEACHING
AIDS we need to achieve them.

• We wiIl describe the PROCEDURES that wiIl happen in our lesson and what INTERACTIONS
will be taking place - in other words, who is working with whom. For example,
perhaps the teacher is talking to the whole class. Or perhaps the students are working
in PAIRS or GROUPS ~67.
• It helps to estimate the TIMING of each lesson stage. If we include this in our plan,
when we are teaching we wiIl know if we can slow down or if we need to speed up.
• We often include PERSONAL AIMS. In other words, we say what we (the teacher) hope to
achieve. This is different from our aims for the students. We might say something lile
In this lesson I am going to evaluate what it feels like to teach without using any technology at
all. Alllessons are opportunities for TEACHER DEVELOPMENT and ACTION RESEARCH ~ 78
like this.
• It helps to ANTIClPATE PROBLEMS that our students might have with the lesson we are
preparing. If we do this, we can then imagine POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS to these problems.
• We wiIllist ADDITIONAL POSSIBILlTIES so that if the class goes more quickly than we
anticipated (or in a different direction), we have something ready.
We discuss planning for CLlL lessons in ~109.
For examples of LESSON PLANS, see Appendix e on pages 250-256.
 Planning
sequences
j •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

Lesson shapes, stages and sequences

• When we plan lessons, we may use METAPHORS like maps, films, books or meals to
come up with a LESSON SHAPE ~ 79.
• We think about establishing different episodes or LESSON STAGES within a lesson period
(the total time of the lesson). This is because we believe that VARIETY within a lesson
is important.
• When we teach a lesson, we need to make it clear when one stage is over and the
next one begins.
• We need to plan a coberent sequence of stages (and the activities and sequences within
them). Variety is important, in other words, but chaos probably isn't.
• We discuss activities and how to evaluate them in ~83 .

..........................................................•.....................................
·· ESA
Any teaching sequence needs three essential elements:

• We need to ENGAGE the students so that their hearts as well as their minds are involved -
so that they are emotionally connected because they are curious, happy or provoked

• Students need to STUDY something at some stage during every teaching sequence,
whether this is grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation or paragraph/text construction.

• We need to give the students a chance to ACTIVATE any and all the language they know
They do this when they speak freely, but they also do it when they read a text for meaning
and use the language they know to understand it.

Some lesson sequences (such as PPP ~44) follow the pattern E-S-A We engage students
with en enjoyable situation or picture. Then we present the new language and practise it
(study) before we let the students try to activa te (use) it.
· Some lesson sequences follow an E-A-S sequence. For example, we might get the students
engaged in a situation before getting them to activate their language in a ROLEPLAY ~53.
· Afterwards we might do some language repair by studying grammar or vocabulary that they

· had problems with in the roleplay.

• Many sequences are much more like a patchwork, where the ESA elements are jumbled up.
·
..........................................•..•..•.•..•..•..•.•..••..•.............•..•........... .
178

-
-
~ -
-
 Planning sequences

Planning a sequence of lessons

When we plan a sequence of lessons (say for two, three or four weeks or longer), there
are a number of things we will want to considero
• We may decide to base our sequence on TOPICSANDTHEMES -+100. For example,
we could take photography as a topic and then plan lessons which look at a) the
development of photography, b) photographs that have changed the world,
e) snapshots that we take, d) the impact of digital photography on film, e) the way we
use photographs for social networking and f) the photographs we wish we had been
able to take (such as photographs of an event from history).
• We can base our sequence on the language which we want our students to learn,
including GRAMMAR, VOCABULARV, LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS and TEXT AND DISCOURSE features.
Over a two-week period, for example, we might concentrate on narrative, with an
emphasis on tenses (PAST SIMPLE, PAST CONTINUOUS, PAST PERFECT), time LlNKERS (jirst, and
then, later on, after that), LEXICAL PHRASE starters (1 hadn 't intended to, 1 realised that 1 had,
When 1found that ... ) and vocabulary that we have decided is important for our
students to know.
• When we plan a sequence of lessons, we try to ensure a balance between the different
LANGUAGE SKILLS that the students need to work with and the different ACTIVITIES we are
going to ask them to do.
• When we plan a sequence of lessons, we think about short-term and long-term goals.
SHORT-TERM GOALS are the OUTCOMES which we hope the students will achieve by the end
of a lesson or a sequence within a lesson. LONG-TERM GOALS are the ones which we hope
they will have realised at the end of, say, a month or even a semester.
• Students need short-term goals so that they have something to aim for, something
which is not so far away that it is invisible. Short-term goals keep students MOTIVATED
-+43, especially when the long-term goals seem too remote and far away.
• Although we may plan a sequence of lessons in advance, we must be ready to change
and amend our plans as the sequence continues and the lessons in it take place. If things
are going faster than we expected, we may need to add extra activities or material. If
things are taking a longer time, we may need to speed up or cut some activities or
material we had planned to use. If the students are not responding to a topic or theme,
we will have to decide on how to make changes so that they respond better.
• It is probably not a good idea to plan a sequence of lessons just on language, just
around a topic or only based on the range of activities we want the students to take
part in. Instead, we will create a MULTI-SVLLABUS which includes all of these elements
threaded together .

··................................................................................................ ..
; Syllabus, curriculum, course
.¡
·
: Some people use the terms syllabus and curriculum to mean the same thing, but this is :
.
: inaccu rateo :
··
: • A CURRICULUM is the overall plan for a school or a SUBJECT. It expresses the content, the
..:
1 overall goals, the philosophy (ideology) behind the programme, and the way(s) in which ¡
: "evaluations will take place. :
·
: We call a particular number of weeks of teaching at the LOWER-INTERMEDIATE level
.:
• (for example) a COURSE. We can say what course are you studying? :

• Most courses have a SVLLABUS a list of the language or other content that will be taught ··
and the order that it will be taught in. For example, we can talk about a GRAMMAR ··
SVLLABUS (a list of grammar iterns), a TASK SVLLABUS (a list of tasks). a FUNCTIONAL ·
·
·................................................................................................ ·.·
SVLLABUS (a list of language functions), etc.

179
Using
coursebooks

The coursebook issue

AlI over the world people use COURSEBOOKS to help them teach or learn foreign languages.
• Coursebooks are often well planned. Language progression has been carefully
considered and there is adequate RECYClING (REPETITIONOFENCOUNTER ~22) of
vocabulary and grammar.
• Good coursebooks have a wealth of attractive-Iooking material, TOPICS and activities
to engage students and teachers and to support them as they get to grips with the
new language.
• Modern coursebooks are often accompanied by a range of SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
(such as WORKBOOKS, ACTIVITY BOOKS and DVDS) and online provision (such as CYBER
HOMEWORK, which stores and grades homework online).
• Some people don't like coursebooks. They say that no single coursebook is exactly
right for any particular class of students. They argue that most are based on (and have
too much) GRAMMAR, and that the language used in COURSEBOOK DIALOGUES is not
natural. Above all, they claim that over-reliance on a coursebook stops teachers and
learners being creative. We look at MATERIALS-FREE TEACHING in -+84.
• As more education providers offer online and mobile resources, there is a move away
from coursebooks in some educational institutions and regions. However, for now,
paper-based educational materials are still widely used.

Thinking about the next coursebook

When teachers, directors of study and co-ordinators are thinking about choosing a new
coursebook, there are a number of things they need to considero
• It is important to make sure that the course materials are affordable for the
institution and the students - and that all the components that are needed (such as
audio, TEACHER'S GUIDE, etc.) are available.
• We need to think carefully about the layout and design of the materials we are going
to be using. Are the pages attractive? Is the style of illustration pleasing to the eye? Are the
pages toO cluttered? Can the students clearly see what is going on and in what order? Are
the RUBRICS (instructions) written clearly and in a way that the students can understand.
• We need to decide whether the CONTENT of the book is appropriate for our students.
Are the topics interesting, stimulating and culturally appropriate for the age, gender
and social background of the students?
• We need to evaluate the methodology of the course. Does it use a largely PPP
methodology ~44 (many coursebooks do) or is there a variety of activities and
procedures within it? Does the coursebook reftect the wa'f(s) that we like to tea<:h~
• We need to be sure that the coursebook has the right balance of LANGUAGE SKILLS
(reading, writing, listening and speaking) for the goals we want our students to achieve,
• We will want to check the syllabus in the coursebook to see if we are happy with the
selection of grammar and VOCABULARV and the way that it is graded (the sequence of
language areas).
• We willlook at the coursebook to see what LEARNER STVLES it is designed for and
whether it offers any activities for DIFFERENTIATION ~42.
• We will want to look at the supplementary materials that come with the coursebook
(workbook, AUDIO RECORDINGS, DVDs, etc.). Are they appropriate for what we want our
students to achieve?
• A good coursebook has a helpful TEACHER'S GUIDE - either in paper form or as online notes.
• Does the coursebook have a COMPANION WEBSITE ~87 or is there some other ONLlNE
material that can be used with it? We discuss BLENDED LEARNING (using coursebooks
together with INFORMATlON TECHNOLOGV) in ~87.

How to choose a coursebook

• It may help if we talk to colleagues (before we look at any books) and discuss what to
look for in a coursebook. We can come up with our own list of desirable
characteristics, based on the situation we are working in. Many of these may be the
same as those listed above, but we may also have our own special concerns. We can
then use our list to compare the different books we are considering.
• Where possible, we should PILOT coursebooks before we make a definite decision about
whether to use them. Piloting means using the coursebook with a tríal class and comparing
the results and the experiences with older books and/or books we are thinking of using.
• It is a good idea to show the students the coursebooks that we are thinking of
adopting. They may have strong opinions about many of the issues discussed above,
especially topics and layout.

Using coursebooks
Using a coursebook is a teacher skill. But if teachers follow the book word for word,
never varying the way they do it, students may not be ENGAGED ~80 and as a result they
may tose their MOTIVATION ~4).
• We need to engage our students with a coursebook. We can ask them what they think
about the exercises or TEXTS. We can encourage them to give their own opinions on
the topics in the book. We can use the coursebook as a springboard for discussion
about the topics in it.
• We can OMIT COURSEBOOK MATERIAL completely ~84 or REPLACE it with material that we
prefer or which is more appropriate for our class. However, if we do this too much,
the students may resent having to buy the books and bring tbem to lcssaas:
• We can add to what is in the coursebook - by bringing in our own material, or by
finding information online, for example.
• We can REWRITE parts oE the book. For example, we may want to use our own (or the
students') questions with reading and listening material. We discuss simplifying
material for CLIL lessons in ~106.
• We can REPLACE or REORDER activities and lessons to suit our own needs.
 Different kinds of dictionary
Dictionaries are one of the most useful resources for language students, whether in book
form, ONlINE or, as is becoming more and more common, on handheld and MOBILE
DEVICES, such as SMARTPHONES and TABLET COMPUTERS.
Using • BllINGUAL DICTIONARIES have words in two languages. In the first section, language 1 is

dictionaries translated into language 2. In the second section, language 2 is translated into
language 1. BllINGUAL LEARNERS' DICTlONARIES (BLDs) are designed especially for
~.•........•.•••................•..•......
language learners.
• MONOLlNGUAL DICTIONARIES (written in one language) are used by NATIVE SPEAKERS and
other competent speakers of the Ianguage.
• MONOLlNGUAL LEARNERS' DICTIONARIES (MLDs) are written in the TARGET LANGUAGE.
They use a simplified language for their DEFINITIONS and have information which is
especially useful for language learners.
• PRODUCTION DICTIONARIES, such as a THESAURUS, group words in topic areas so that we
can look for new words to use.

What students can find in good learners' dictionaries

Monolingual and bilinguallearners' dictionaries give a wealth of information which can
help learners understand and use words effectively. The numbers in the paragraphs
below refer to the numbers in the illustrations on page 183.
• MLDs list a series of HEADWORDS - and the different meanings for them. (1) For
example, the VERB teach has more than eight different meanings. -
• Good MLDs give information about the FREQUENCY of a word. The top 3,000 words
are often in red in paper dictionaries, and sometimes information is given, such as
sl (the word is one of the top 1,000 words of spoken English) or w3 (the word is one
of the top 3,000 in written English). (2) More than 84% of alllanguage use employs
the most frequent 3,000 words in the language.
• MLDs say what PART OF SPEECH -+1 a word is (NOUN, PHRASAL VERB, TRANSITIVE VERB, etc.).
(3) Sometimes, especially in paper dictionaries, this is abbreviated, e.g. n = noun,
adj = adverb, phr v = phrasal verbo

• MLDs give the PRONUNCIATION of words. In books this is usualIy done in PHONEMIC
SCRIPT -+23. Online and mobile dictionaries have audio recordings of the words
being said. (4)
• In good MLDs word definitions are written in simple language that students can
understand.
• MLDs give examples of the word in the context of sentences and expressions. (5)
• Good MLDs give the COLLOCATIONS -+20 that the headword is part of and they list
typical phrases and IDIOMS -+ 21 that the word occurs in. (6)
• Good MLDs list words with similar meanings and explain the differences between
them. (7) They provide thesaurus entries - groups of words and expressions with
similar meanings.
• MLDs give different spellings and pronunciations for varieties such as British English
and American English (8), and give extra information such as if a word is FORMAL or
INFORMAL -+33 or if it is TABOO (it is a word that should not be used in 'polite society').

• Good MLDs give SYNONYMS and ANTONYMS for words. (9)

• Good BLDs offer the same features as MLDs. The word from Language 1 is grouped
under different meanings in the L2 and clear examples are given in the Ll.

182

------
- ------------- --------
 Using dictionaries

Using dictionaries with students

Students are unlikely to use MLDs or even good BLDs unless we tell them, time and
time again, how incredibly useful they are. But this will not be enough.
• We need to train our students to understand dictionaries and what they contain,
whether they are in paper, online or mobile formo When students first get their new
dictionaries, we will ask them to identify things such as what part of speech a word is,
when a word can be used (so they look for descriptions such as forma!), how frequent
a word is, what words it collocates with, etc.
• It is a good idea to give the students repeated short training experiences in the middle
of lessons, but not try to include everything all at once. If we include little two- or
three-minute training sessions over a number of lessons, our students will become
familiar with the dictionary they are using.
• When the students read a text, we can get them to decide which new words they want
to know (after reaching a CONSENSUS first in pairs, then in groups, then in bigger
groups). We then tell them to look the words up in the dictionary.
• We can start a lesson or week by giving the students a word WORKSHEET or quiz which
asks them to find words they are going to use during the lesson (or week) in their
dictionaries.
• Students can find words and test each other by giving the definitions. The others have
to guess the words.
• We look at researching collocations, etc. in ~46.

today. b) AmE attending a school or university rather than

having a job: Are your boys still in schoo/?
7 rJlD [e] a number 01 people who are considered as a
group beca use 01 their similar s!yle 01 work: the lmpres-
!each past tense ami past participle taught sionist schoo/
teacher someone who teaches as
8 school of Ihoughl an opinion or way 01 thinking about
1 .8,mltl!!lemi!tHjni. [imransitivc and transitivc] to give lessons in
something that is shared by a group 01 people: There are
their job, especially in a school: a
high school teacher
• school, collcge, or university, orto help somcone learn abour two main schools of thought on the subject.
somethíng by gívíng rhem information [•.•learo] 90fjfrom Ihe old school with old-Iashioned values or principal (also headteacher BrE
the teacher who is in charge of a
teach at qualities: a family doctor of the o/d schoo/ school or college: The teacher sent
Neil teaches al the Guildhall School o/ Music in London, ~---h 101Im1 [e] a large group 01 fish, WHAlES, DOlPHINS ete him lo the principal's otttoe.
teach (somebody) Englisblmatbematlcs/hlstory etc that are swimming together: [+01] o schoo/ of wha/es
tutor someone who gives private
He taught geography al the local secondary schoot. ~-----+I .¡lliliii·Jit--GROUP lessons to one student or a small
teaeh somebody (sometbing) abont sometbing ~r~}:~ ~f~:~~'!.:~t~..:~.~!~:~~r~:}
..tutor
We were never taught anything about otñer religions, ~----+l
teaeh sometbtng to somebody go lo school Did you go to schoo/ in Paris?
I'm teaching
English lo ltaíian students. ~---------H start school Children in Britain star! schoo/ when they
teacb sehooVcoUege etc American English (=lCsch in a schooí ctc) are five.
leave school He /eft schoo/ when he was 16.
~:Ul'íii.I§,;a:ftl"j:rnh [transítivcl to show someonc how [O do
50Illerhing
Ieocb somebody (how) to do sometbtng a state school BrE, a publie school AmE (=a school
My fiuher taught me /0 swim.
that gels its money Irom the government)
Universities want to encourage more applicants from
different methods of teaching children how to read
state schoo/s.
Ieocb somebody sometbing
a private school (o/so a public school BrE) (=a
Can you teach me one of your eard trícks? school where students pay to study) He was
-:§SiH4itl§I*lmiiju!¿e.(-.; [transitive] to show or tcll someone educated ot a privote schoo/.
sb's old school (=lhe school someone went to when
""'" lbey should behave or what rhey should think
they were young) He went bock to his o/d schoo/ to someone whose job is
1O:OclJsomebody to do sometbing to teach, especially in
give ata/k to the chi/dren.
When 1 was young, we were taught to treat oíder people with a local school (=a school near where someone lives) a school:
--espeet. They sent their kids lo Ihe /oco/ schoo/. !3D a primary scboot
_ somebody sometbtng a boarding school (=a school where children also 1
. leacher
.Vo one ever taught him the difference between righl and wrong. live and sleep) I a nursery school (=Ior children
_ somebody tbat under 5) I an infant school BrE (=Ior children aged 5
He taught me 11uJ!the easy option isn't always the best one. to 7) I a primary school BrE, an elementary school
AmE (=Ior children up to 11) I a secondary school
~.~,:'·UMíI.i:¡'h'h'''itli''2'':u''H [transitive] if an experience or (a/so a high school BrE) (=Ior children Irom 11 to 16
- ion teaches you somerhing, it helps you to understand sornething or 18) I a high school AmE (=a school lor students
llfe aged 14 to 18) I a comprehensive school BrE (=a
_ somebody to do sometbing secondary school lor all children) I a grammar
Experience has lau¡:ht me lo avoid certain areas of the citv. school BrE (=a secondary school lor children who
have passed an exam when they are 11)
, school + NOUN and COU1IabIeI (AmE) a large
luncountable
school where you can study after
school students (o/so school pupils BrE) Most schoo/ HIGHSCHOOL and get a degree
students have musico/ interests of some kind.
~ •••
"ivefS·tly-/Bfl!if;------I
a school friend She met some o/d schoo/ friends.
a school uniform He was stil/ wearing his schoo/ (±] Some people wro wanl lo go to
uniformo college sUII can't get there.
the school holidays BrE I the school run BrE (=the in college
journey laking children to and lrom school each (±J Fran iusl finished her fre,hm¡m)'.pjI/

183
 Bring Brcugbt Brouglu

Build Buili Built

Buy Bought

Come Came
Cut Cut
Fall Foil

Fly Flcw

Supplementary Go
Huvc

materials and
activities
', .

•
Why use supplementary materials and activities?
Many teachers like to bring SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS and ACTIVITIES into the classroom.
• When we use COURSEBOOKS, we often find that we want to introduce some variety
because the coursebook may sometimes feel all a bit 'the same'.
• Many of us have our own favourite activities and lessons that we like using.
• We often think that our students need extra PRACTICE with a particular language item
or LANGUAGE SKILL or SUB-SKILl.
• We often take particularly ENGAGING activities (or supplementary material) into a
lesson because we think the students need a bit of extra stimulation or a reward, or to
add some variety to the course.
• When we are working in a MIXED-ABILlTY CLASS, we may want to give different materials
(or activities) to different groups of students. We discuss DIFFERENTIATION in -+42.

What supplementary materials can teachers use?

There is a wide range of material s that teachers can use in the classroom.
• Many teachers encourage their students to read GRADED READERS because they believe thar
EXTENSIVE READING is good for language learning. We discuss extensive reading in -+

• Many teachers take in supplementary material to practise language skills. This

provides extra practice for reading, writing, speaking or listening.
• There is a wide selection of TEACHERS' RESOURCE BOOKS on the market. They contain
many different ideas for activities and lessons.
• There are many WEBSITES that offer activities, language practice and LESSON PLANS.

• Students often do activities from LANGUAGE PRACTICE BOOKS or EXAM PRACTICE BOOKS.

• Many teachers like to design their own materials and activities for their students.
Sometimes these might be STORIES they tell in materials-free lessons -+84 or
DIALOGUES they invento Sometimes they might be WORKSHEETS with EXERCISES or CARDS
or STRIPS OF PAPER -+86.
• Some teachers like to copy/photocopy material from books and other sources. There
is nothing wrong with this provided that a) the material is not covered by copyright
and b) the students don't end up with a large collection of random pieces of paper.

'84
1 ~- -- -
--~-- ----~~~
- ~--~

-=~ !'
 Supplementary materials and activities
.........................................................................

Deciding what materials and activities to take into class

Before we decide to use activities and supplementary materials, there are a number of
questions we will want to ask.
• Is it easy to prepare, explain and manage? The best activities and materials, from the
teacher's point of view, are those which don't take a lot of time to prepare and don't
cause problems in terms of classroom management.
• Is the time balance attractive? If an activity takes a long time to set up in the classroom
but finishes very quickly once it starts, then the time balance is wrong. It should be
the other way round. If an activity lasts for a long time but the students don't
achieve or experience very much, then, again, the time balance is wrong.
• Will the students understand uibat to do and how to do id If the material or the activity
confuses the students because they don't understand how it works, then we may
decide not to use it again.
• What will the students achieve or experience? We need to know what the OUTCOME 779
will be for the students. Will they learn something new? Will they consolidate their
knowledge of some piece of language? Will they gain an understanding of how some
language works? Will they increase their CONVERSATIONAL SKILLS or learn more about
READING SKILLS? In other words, we need to decide what the students will get out of the
activity or the materials they use.
• Is the activity appropriate for the students? We need to make sure that what we bring into
the classroom is appropriate for the age, level, interests and cultural background of
the students. This is not always easy, especially since our students have different j;-
LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS 740 and may not all feel the same about content and
activities. However, we will do out best to make sure that what we bring into class is
not too childish, too adult, too serious or too silly for our students - and that it is not
offensive to any of them .

................................................................................................
·· ..
; Deciding on games ~
.
· One way of deciding whether or not to use an activity is to make a list of what a good activity •
.
should be like - and then see if the activity really is like that. We can do this if and when we •
are thinking of using a GAME in the classroom. :

• We might, for example, decide that a good game should have the following
·
characteristics: it should a) be engaging, b) be fun, e) involve all the students, d) have ·
clearly understandable procedures and rules, e) be easy to organise, f) be competitive
·
(although some people think that games should be non-cornpetitive), g) not go on for too
···
long and h) have a pedagogic (Iearning) purpose.
·
• When we have decided on these characteristics, we can use them to evaluate any game
we want to use.
·
• When we have used a game in class, we can use our characteristics as a checklist to see
··
how well it went.
··
• It is worth remembering that some students like games more than others. Some students : ·
are good at puzzles and competitions, but others think more slowly and don't enjoy these :
activities as much as their colleagues do. We should keep a record of who does and •
doesn't enjoy games and decide how often/whether to use them with this information
in mind. •
·................................................................................................ .

185
 Teaching
without
materials
, .

Teaching unplugged
Some people think that learning is more sueeessful when the teaeher doesn't use any - 0-

at least not very many - materials. This is sometimes called TEACHING UNPLUGGED. There
are arguments both in favour of this and against it.

Why teaching without materials is a good idea

• A lot of learning happens when people talk to (and partieipate with) each other,
rather than when they are studying with books. That's why we include PERSONALlSATI
in mueh of our teaehing -+ 39.
• The students' own lives and interests may be just as interesting as the TOPICS and
CONTENT tbat can be found in books.

• AlI teaehers have experieneed MAGIC MOMENTS in lessons -+79 when students suddenl=
beeome ENGAGED in a topie (whieh is often about themselves and their lives) and start
to talk about it enthusiastieally. When students are engaged like this, they often learn
better than when they are noto
• Students learn new language best when they need it and are ready for it. It may be
better to let language EMERGE from the students' brains because they want or need it
rather than trying to teaeh something just because it is in the syllabus.

Why teaching without materials may not be a good idea

• Some students are very good at CONVERSATION. Others are not so comfortable with
tliis style oElearning.
• Some learning is individual. We think things through in our own heads. When we
read a book, listen to a lecture or study we often do this by ourselves.
• Some students' lives are interesting but not all! There may be, and often is, material
(from a COURSEBOOK or some other source) that is just as fascinating.
• Although it is true that language emerges when it is needed, some language may not
emerge by accident like this. In such cases, it is sensible to teach language that we
know that the students need.

186
 - ~ -
- -
-=

- ~- ---=--=-
--:. - - -=

:::~- ------:::
-- --

Teaching without materials

What the teacher needs to do when teaching without materials

If teachers decide to teach without materials, and/or when magic moments happen
(when conversation suddenly takes off in a classroom), they need to be able to take
advantage of the language that the students are using, or trying to use, so that they
learn more.

• We should always be ready for magic moments and be prepared to exploit what the
students want to talk about. This may mean departing from our plan -+79 but it will
often be worth it.

• We should encourage our students' ATTEMPTS -+37 to use language by praising them
and giving them a chance to expand on what they are saying.

• We should REFORMULATE or RE-CAST -+72 what students say to make it correcto

• We should get the students to try to REPEAT what they have said - but correctly this
time. We can get other students to use the same language effectively.

• We should encourage our students to keep a record of the new language that has
emerged in the lesson.

• We should RECYCLE the language that has emerged in subsequent lessons so that the
students get a chance for RETRIEVAL ANO USE -+22 to help them remember it.

• We should REVISE the language that has emerged.

Examples of materials-light teaching

• We can start the lesson by telling the students about things we like and don't like and
why, e.g. Ilike Sundays because 1 can resto1 don't like Mondays because 1 have to get up
especially early, etc. The students then have to talk about what they like or don't like in
the same way.

• We can tell the students five things about ourselves. They have to guess which of
them is falseo For exarnple, we can use five dífferent PHRASAL VERBS -+9 in sentences
such as 1 grew up in West London, I don 't get on well with my sister, Tve recently taken up
playing cricket, etc. They then have to make their own 'Which sentence is false?'
sentences using the same phrasal verbs~.

• We might ask a class of business students to do a WEBQUEST -+87. For example, they
have to investigate the cost of living in different cities around the world (we can
pretend that theyare thínking of opening a new international office). When they
report theír information back to the class, we can reformulate the language they use
and get a11the students to practise it.

• We can ask our students to tell STORIES about (or describe) a wide range of subjects,
such as the last concert 1 went to, my journey to school, my favourite place, a book 1have read,
an injury 1 had, a robbery 1 witnessed (or suffered), etc. As the students tell their stories,
we help them to use the language they need. We get them to retell the story. As other
students tell their similar stories, they use some of the same language.

• We can tell our own stories. For example, we might talk about a time that we had a
discussion with a traffic warden who wanted to give us a parking ticket. The students
have to retell the story from the point of view of the traffic warden or a passerby.
They can also create and act out the discussion itself.

• Students can bring in their own photographs, pictures or objects and tell the class
about them. This 'show and tell' procedure is popular with and for YOUNG LEARNERS,
bvt can be Dseo ;;0.w.2»,v ~:we6"/027~ JJ-b L:-2/? .9)SO .9Sr Mé' S¿'z7dé'RcS cO c¿)r ¿.:70¿Zc wa¿é
they would rescue from their house if it caught fire and why, or the one book they
would want to have with them jf they went to me moon.

187
 "Ieachíng with technology
From that first time when a teacher gave the students a slate to write on, teaching has
involved the use of technology. In the modern world the variety of technological
possibilities - and the speed of technological change - is extraordinary.
Classroom
technology 1 Deciding what technology to use
People are always encouraging teachers to use new things - for example, computers,
online sites and MOBllE DEVICES. How should we respond to such offers?
• Before we spend time and money, we need to ask ourselves if there are better
(sometimes older, more effective and cheaper) ways of achieving the same resulto
• We should never reject something just because it is new, however. Teaching, as much
as any other area of life, depends on innovation. We should always be prepared to trv
new things out for ourselves.
• Before we decide to say 'yes' to the new thing, we want to be sure that there will be
training for using it, and that everyone who needs it has access to it. We also need to
be sure that there is technical support for when things go wrong.

Using boards and other 'showing' technology

Teachers need to show students words, PICTURES and texts. They need to play AUDIO
RECORDINGS and show VIDEOS.

• The most useful and versatile piece of classroom technology is the BOARD -whether
this is a BlACKBOARD (used with chalk), a WHITEBOARD (used with marker pens) or an
INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARD (IWB) - also called a SMARTBOARD.

• Current versions of the interactive whiteboard (IWB) allow teachers and students to
do everything that is possible with a computer and a projector, but also much more.
This is because all the material (whether writing, audio or video) can be
controlled by tapping the board with the fingers, or with specially configured pens.
• Teachers and students can use IWBs to drag things around the screen. They can
highlight phrases using a control which turns the pen or finger into a coloured
marker. They can use a 'curtain' effect to hide some of what is on the board (much as
we do with OHTs). Teachers can tap part of an AUDIOSCRIPT so that the students hear
just that audio extract and they can use similar controls to show video extracts.
• Many teachers who use IWBs like to have an ordinary whiteboard in the classroom as
well since there is less likelihood of any technical malfunction, and they are quick and
easy to use.
• Boards can be used for an enormous range of activities. We can write up new
GRAMMAR and VOCABUlARY. We can show grammatical construction or DEMONSTRATE an
activity by having everyone look to the front.
• We can write up students' errors and draw attention to them so that the students can
think about how to CORRECT them~. We can stick things like pictures and posters
on the board.
• On the board we can draw faces, stick men, vehicles like cars and buses, trees, houses
- anything that will help us contextualise the learning that is taking place. It is not
necessary to be a good artist.
• It is a good idea to organise the board so that the students can clearly understand wha
they are being shown, rather than trying to make sense of a jumble of messy writing
and pictures.
• Students can use the board, too. They can write sentences or fill in blanks. They can
complete WORD MAPS ~. They can play games, such as noughts and crosses. .fJ¡

• FLIPCHARTS are very useful for students when they want to make notes for the rest of
the class to see. If different groups are discussing something, they can sumrnarise their
points on flipcharts (one for each group). The whole class can then move round the
room reading what·each group has written.
• We can tear off the pages of a flipchart and stick them up in different parts of the
classroom or keep them for future reference. Flipcharts are useful for activities like
DICTOGLOSS ~48, where a class try to recreate a story they have heard and one student
writes the story up on the flipchart.
• The OVERHEAD PROJECTOR (OHP) is still used in some classrooms. It is useful for
showing writing and because we can write on OVERHEAD TRANSPARENCIES (OHTs) while
the students are watching. For example, if we ask a student to write something on an
OHT, we can show it to the whole class and then write on it (or have the students
write on it) to make changes. We can cover OHTs and then gradually reveal the
contents. This is good for PREDICTION ~SS.
• We can use a computer (or TABlET COMPUTER ~86) with a DATA PROJECTOR to show
anything that is on the computer, such as presentations using software like PowerPoint,
Keynote (for Apple computers) or Prezi. We can show video clips and films from CDs
or DVDs, or, if we are connected to the internet, we can access anything there and
project it onto the screen.
• Students can use presentation software, too, when they do ORAL PRESENTATIONS.

189
 Classroom
technology 2

Using pictures, cards and strips of paper

PICTURES, CARDS and STRIPS OF PAPER have a variety of uses:
• We can hold up (or project) large pictures for presenting and checking meaning, and
to demonstrate and show information (for example a street scene showing what
people are doing, how many cars are in the street, where the bank is, etc.).
• We can show pictures for a short time and then cover them up and ask the students ii"
they can remember what they saw.
• We can use pictures to help the students predict the content of an audio extract or a
reading TEXT -?55.
• Many teachers use FLASHCARDS to show things - and as the cues in a CUE-RESPONSE DRIL
-?47. Flashcards (like the ones in the photograph on this page) are pictures which are
big enough so that all the students can see them, but small enough for teachers to
hold up in different sequences, changing them from hand to hand.
• We can give the students a selection of pictures of objects, places, people, etc. They
have to choose one from each category and invent a story that connects them.
• We can give individual students different pictures. Each student has to write a story
about (or a 'biography' of) their object, without saying what it is. The rest of the class
then have to guess the object.
• We can get the students to draw pictures in activities like DESCRIBE AND DRAW -?50 or
in team games where they have to try to draw vocabulary items (or film titles, etc.).
The other students have to guess what they are drawing.
• We can use strips of paper to give students roles in ROLEPLAYS -?53. We can cut up
material such as DIALOGUES, TEXTS or POEMS -?63 and ask the students to put them in
the correct order lI!1!lD and 1I!'1!lD.

190

=--- - .
 Classroom technology 2

• Cards (and/or strips of paper) are especially useful when the students have to find
other students whose cards MATCH theirs, perhaps because they have the other half of a
sentence or the answer to a question -+48.
• We can give our students cards where one side has a picture and the other has the word
(for me pícture) wrÍtten on Ít. Tfiey can use me caros for team guessÍng games, etc.
• We can use a range oEpictures, cards and strips oE paper Eor INFORMATION-GAP
ACTIVITIES -+50.

Using realia and other devices

We can use real objects (REALlA) to contextualise and explain language and meaning.
• We can bring in a range of real objects (such as food items) to OEMONSTRATE meaning.
Students can do a range of EXPERIMENTS (such as the famous 'Will it float?' activity for
YOUNG LEARNERS).

• We can bring in clock faces, plastic fruit and telephones and any other objects and use
them like theatrical props for classroom activities.
• We can put objects in a bag. Students feel (but can't see) the object. Can they guess
what it is?
• We can give different students different objects. They have to find similarities and
differences between them. They can write an autobiography for their object and the
other students have to guess what the object is.
• Some teachers use a learning ball. When one student throws it to a classmate, the one
who catches it has to answer a question or ask the next one, etc.
• We can use dice for a range of classroom games. For example, each number (1-6)
represents a different topic. The students throw the dice and have to speak about the
topic for the number which appears -+51.
• We can use CUISENAIRE ROOS (sticks of different colours and lengths) to demonstrate word
order, stress and intonation - and for a range of other demonstrations of meaning.

Mobile learning
MOBllE DEVICES, such as SMARTPHONES and TABlET COMPUTERS, are becoming extremely useful
in education - as in life.
• Some teachers get their students to use their mobile phone cameras to take pictures
which are difficult to interpreto The other students have to try to guess what they are.
• We can have our students arrange to meet each other using TEXT MESSAGING only, Can
they all manage to agree on a time and place?
• Some teachers have their students go to different rooms and phone each other to
complete tasks. However, we need to be sure that the students have enough credit on
their phones (and are prepared to use them).
• Some teachers encourage students to use tablet computers because a) they are easierl
lighter to carry than laptops, b) they switch on and off more quickly than computers,
e) students can carry them around in lessons and share them easily in PAIRWORK tasks,
for example, and d) they can easily be passed from hand to hand.
• Students can use mobile devices to learn with APPS (applications). These are easier to use
than many INTERNET WEBSITES. Because the students only use one app at a time, they are
less likely to go to other internet sites such as Facebook, Orkut, etc. instead of working!
• Many apps have interactivity. Students can communicate with each other. They can
make audio or video recordings and send them straight to internet sites.

191

----- - - ~ --~-- ----- - -=-- - - - ---

---
-
--
-- -
--------=------~
=-= - -
-

---
. - . - - - - -
--

- - ---- --
~_ -
-------

-- -------=--=--==-----=---=-=-=-~--_-:.--------
----- -

---c=--."..- ---
- -
-
 Classroom
technology 3

Software in the classroom

Modern software technology is extreme1y useful for certain learning and teaching
activities.

Researching online (and on mobile devices)

• We can ask our students to research language in DICTlONARIES -+82 and on WEBSITES
such as Wikipedia, online newspapers, SONG LYRIC sites, etc.
• We can design WEBQUESTS in which we select a TOPIC for the students to research.
We can supply them with tasks, websites to look at and evaluation activities to assess
how well they have done.
• Students can use CONCORDANCERS on LANGUAGE CORPUS sites. These give evidence of
how words are used and the COLLOCATIONS -+20 that they appear in.

Making recordings
It is now easier than ever before for students and teachers to make recordings of all
kinds, using smartphones or other RECORDING DEVICES. It is then relatively easy to learn
how to use film and audio editing software such as Audacity (audio) or iMovie and
Windouis motnemaker (video) to cut and paste extracts.
• Using their recording devices, the students can INTERVIEW members of the public, act
out their own plays, create mini films or make ORAL PRESENTATIONS. They can film th --
neighbourhood and give a commentary. They can post the results on sites such as
YouTube or Vimeo, offer them as PODCASTS, or mail the results to friends, colleagues 0-
teachers (for HOMEWORK -+76) or post them on a website.
• Many programs (such as Zimmernoins and Voki - for children) allow students to make
animated cartoon videos using AVATARS or user-created cartoon characters.

Presenting online
• U sing programs like Jing and Camtasia, we can record our voices while the pro gram
records (films) what is happening on our computer screen. In other words, we can
speak while we show a presentation using PowerPoint, Keynote, Prezi, etc.

192
 Classroom technology 3
............................................

• WEBINARS and LlVE STREAMING have become popular ways of letting people attend talks
and presentations even though they cannot physically travel to conferences and
·seminars. Watchers of live streaming see the filmed talk as it happens. In webinars,
people can see the speaker talking to a webcam while he or she also shows PowerPoint
or Keynote slides. Participants can interact with each other by writing in CHATBOXES or
with microphones. They can use icons for things like applause and laughter.

Using internet programs for learning and social interaction

The ONLlNE world is now a great environment for people to share with each other across
geographical boundaries and time zones.
• Some teachers use SOCIAL NETWORKING programs such as TWITTER, Google+ and Facebook
to get their students talking to each other, sending messages, writing group stories or
sharing photographs and descriptions, for example.
• Teachers and students can share information, PICTURES and VIDEOS on sites such as
Wallwisher and Eduglogster. These sites are really useful because all the information
from the different students (wherever they are) is in one place.
• We can encourage our students to write BLOGS where they talk about their lives. We
can get them to co-create WIKIS (like small versions of Wikipedia) where they share
information or create stories together. Blogs and wikis work best when we ensure that
the students interact with each other (though commenting and co-constructing); most
students lose interest if we leave them alone to do it themselves.

Using virtuallearning environments and learning platforms

A lot of teaching and learning now takes place using a variety of VIRTUAL LEARNING

ENVIRONMENTS (VLEs) and ONLlNE LEARNING PLATFORMS.

• Course designers use software such as BLACKBOARD, MOODLE or Fronter to ron lessons
and courses. Users often need a password to enter. Students and teachers can post
material in the form of texts, exercises and video and audio elips. Everyone in the
group (but only in the group) can access it. Discussions happen on DISCUSSION BOARDS,
and assignments can be submitted, commented on and graded online.
• Some educators invite students to SECOND LlFE where users create their own AVATAR
(a 3D computer identity) and can then move around in a computer-generated 3D
environment. In the same ways that computer gaming provokes participation, so
Second Life participants can speak, t:ype, move and interact. Because there are no
physicallimitations (and 'environments' can be designed), the learning experience
can be extremely varied and interesting. Learners can take part in tasks and challenges
rather like gamers - a kind of virtual TASK-BASED LEARNING -+36.

Blended learning

• Many teachers organise BLENDED LEARNING in which the students get some of the input
from material such as a COURSEBOOK -+81, and then expand on it with material and
websites on the internet. For example, if the students read a text about water
shortages around the world, they can go to the internet and see what they can find in
the way of extra information or video elips.
• If their coursebook has a COMPANION WEBSITE, the students can go there and find a
range of extra texts, exercises, references and activities. As with VLEs, they can do
CYBER HOMEWORK, submitting HOMEWORK tasks -+ 76 which the teacher can grade
online. The software will then allow the teachers to keep automatically generated
GRADE sheets and records of participation.

193
 -- -- - -- --~= --
-
- -.=- - - .
-

------
-==---~
-,+.....,.,.,.~ ----
--=-----.- -=--
- -

Assessment
and testing
~ .

Assessing students
Students are often assessed and tested to see how well they have done, how well they are
doing or how well they perform in standard (often national) exams.

Types of assessment
• Assessment can be either FORMATlVE or SUMMATIVE. Formative assessment happens
when we test students so that we can help them to do better next time. We might sa.
that a lot of CORRECTION -+73-75 is a kind of mini formative assessment. Summative
assessment happens when we want to see how well students have done - testing their
knowledge at the end of something (a semester or ayear) or in some PUBLlC EXAM.
• Teachers conduct INFORMAL ASSESSMENT all the time. We are constantly evaluating our
students' progress and abilities so that we can decide what to do next in a lesson - or
when we are PlANNING future lessons -+79.
• We give students more formal DIAGNOSTIC TESTS when we want to know how much
they know so that we can decide what to do next -like a doctor diagnosing a patienrs
symptoms. We can give diagnostic tests at any stage during a course to help us plan
future lessons.
• A particular kind of diagnostic test is a PlACEMENT TEST. We give students placement
tests when they first arrive at a language-teaching institution so that we know what
level they should study at and which class they should be in.
• We give PROGRESS TESTS to see how students are getting on. Progress tests often
happen at the end of a week, a month or when a unit of work (perhaps in a
coursebook) is finished.
• We give students ACHIEVEMENT TESTS at the end of something, such as a semester or a
year. We want to know what they have learnt in the past few months - what they have
achieved.

194
 Assessmen

• PROFICIENCY TESTS measure a student's language ability at a particular point in time.

Most public exams are like this. We spend a lot of teaching time preparing students
for these tests.
• PORTFOLlO ASSESSMENT is based on work that the students have done during a course.
They keep examples of their work and this forms the basis of our assessment.
• Portfolio assessment is one example of CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT - where we keep a
record of students' work, giving marks for each piece of homework or mini-test, and
we use this to decide a final grade. This is the exact opposite of a proficiency test.
Some teachers prefer continuous assessment because students can feel very
uncomfortable in proficiency tests and may not do as well as they should. For this
reason, a combination of both can be much fairer.

Designing and making tests

Although as teachers we sometimes feel that we don't have a lot of influence on the
design of public exams, we often find ourselves writing progress and achievement tests.
• When we design tests ourselves, we have to decide on our ASSESSMENT CRITERIA.
We need to know what it is we are testing. For example, a question such as Describe
the hydrologic cycle in no more than 250 toords might be an appropriate task for ClIL
ASSESSMENT ~110, but if we onfy want to test the students' use of fanguage, then it is
unfair to test SUBJECT-SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE -+103 because some students may not know
(or may have forgotten) about water evaporation and rainfálJ.

• Tests need to have VALlDITY. This means that if we tell the students that we are going
to assess their writing, we shouldn't make it dependent on a lot of reading because
they were not expecting a reading test. When we make achievement tests, we need to
test things that the students have been learning (grammar, vocabulary, etc.), and we
have to be sure that we use the same kinds of test items and tasks as the ones they
have been using in their lessons.
• Before we start writing a test, we need to list exactly what it is we want to measure
and how to do it. For example, we can use SENTENCE REORDERING items if we want to
test SYNTAX (the order that words go in) -+1 or we can get the students to put pictures
in order to test comprehension of a story. However, putting pictures in order doesn't
test syntax, and sentence reordering doesn't test comprehension!
• We have to decide on the balance of items in a test. Do we want all the questions to
be 'discrete point' items (that is only testing one thing - such as a verb tense - at a
time) or should we include more INTEGRATIVE items, where students have to read and
write, for example, or use a variety of language items? What balance do we want to
have between grammar and vocabulary or between the four skills?
• We have to be extremely careful to write RUBRICS (instructions) that are easy for the
students/candidates to understand. If possible, every question should have an example
so that the students have no doubt about what they are expected to do. For example:

Rewrite each sentence using the word given so that it has exactly the sarne meaning.
Example:
Mary went to bed late and as a result she overslept. (because)
rTlan..¡ovey-slep+ bec.ause she uJen+ +0 bed lafe.

• When wewrite tests, it is a very good idea to give them to colleagues (or students
who are not going to do the tests later) to try out (PILOT) first. This will help us to
identify questions that don't work so that we can make changes before we use the
test for real.

195
 Types of test item

Test items and questions can be either direct or indirecto A DIRECTTESTITEMasks the
candidate to perform the skill that is being tested (for example, make an ORAL
Test items PRESENTATION)oAn INDIRECT TESTITEM,on the other hand, examines the candidate's
and howto knowledge of individual items of language,

teach them
~...•.•..•.....•.......................... Direct test items

Direct test items come in many forms as the fo11owingexamples show:

• In tests of speaking, students can be asked to do such things as give an oral presentati
~53, do an INFORMATION-GAP ACTIVITY ~50 with one or more co11eaguesor take pai":
in an INTERVIEWo
• In tests of writing, students can be asked to do such things as write a letter or a repor;
or compose a newspaper report or a BlOGentry,
• In tests of reading, students can be asked to transfer information from a written T~
some kind of VISUAL ORGANISER ~105 (a pie chart, a graph, etc.) or match texts with
pictures and headlines.
• In tests of listening, students can be asked to transfer the information they hear to
some visual organiser (a pie chart, graph, etc.) or they can put pictures (or events) in
the right sequence, or choose between different written summaries of what they hear
We discuss GRADING
tests like this in ~90o

Indirect test items

There are many different kinds of indirect test items,
• For GAPFlllS,students have to write a word or words in BlANKSo
For example:

Complete the following sentences with one word for each blank.
She had a quick shower, but she didn't __ any time to put on her makeup.

• In ClOZEtexts, every sixth (or seventh, eight, etc.) word is a blank. The students have
to understand the whole text in order to fi11in the blanks, For example:

At school none ofher (1) __ seemed to have rernernbered that (2) __ was her
birthday either and (3) __ made her miserable, but at (4) __ the children in her
second (5) __ class were in a happy (6) __ oIt cheered her up and (7) __ time
one ofthem 000

• In MUlTIPlE-CHOICEitems, the students have to choose the correct (or perhaps the best
from three or four alternatives, For example:

Choose the correct answer.

There were __ people outside.
a any b a lot of e much d none

• In TRUEjFAlSE items, the students have to say whether a statement about a reading ten
is true or falseo For example:

Circle the correct answer.

Brittany went to bed at nine o'clock in the evening. true / false

We can also add a third option, such as 'no information given in the text',

196
 ,~" --
- - ~---=
-=--- - ~
--- ~~
~ ~
- - M""

Test items and how o -

• For JUMBLED SENTENCES tasks ~1, the students have to put sentences in the correct
order to make a coherent text, and in SENTENCE-REORDERING tasks they have to put
words in order to make correct sentences. For example:

Put the words in order to make correct sentences.

call! finished ! for !left ! no ! she ! sleeping ! the ! there ! time! was ! When

• SENTENCE TRANSFORMATlON exercises ask students to rewrite sentences in a slightly

different formo For example:

Rewrite the sentence using the word given.

When she got home, Brittany was still tired so she lay down to have a bit of resto
(because)

• PROOFREADING exercises ask students to identify the mistakes in certain sentences.

For example:

Underline the mistake in the following sentence.

Luckily, she doesn't wearing much makeup.

• Candidates can also be asked to do MATCHING tasks ~48 and we can give them
DICTATlONS ~48 which test a range of competencies, such as listening, spelling,
grammar, collocations, etc.

How to prepare students for tests

Students are often highly MOTlVATED ~43 in exam classes because they have a clear goal
to aim foroWe can use their enthusiasm to help them prepare for ACHIEVEMENT and
PROFICIENCY TESTS ~88.

• We will give the students experience with the indirect test items that they are likely to
meet. We will also give them strategies for dealing with MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS.
For example, they should find the most obvious DISTRACTORS (the choices that are
wrong), eliminate them and then focus on the possibilities that remain and try to work
out what is being tested.
• We will discuss with our students general exam skills, such as how to prepare, how to
use PROCESS WRITING ~57 techniques when writing and how to get exam timing right.
• We willlet the students do MOCK EXAMS in real time. In other words, we willlet them
take a complete exam (not the real one, of course) so that they get used to timing, etc.
• We have to be carefuJ oI exam WASHBACK (where teschers only: tesch me kind oI things
that are in the test). Preparing students for an exam does not mean that we have to
teach for the exam a11the time. If we do this, we may damage the motivation that our
students bring to their lessons.
• Students can do direct tasks which are similar to ones they will meet in the test, but
we can also get them involved in any other activities and materials that will help them
to improve their English.
• We can get the students to ROLEPLAY ~53 oral interviews (one student plays the
examiner).
• Students can try to write their own exam items and give them to their classmates.
This will give them a good idea of what is involved.
• Students can give each other sections of tests to do or they can work in PAIRS and
GROUPS ~67 to discuss how to do them.

797
 - - ------ ._ ... -----~--- .. - _._----- ... - ... --=- -~-=- _--:-
- -
,- ~~=~

After the test

Writing and giving tests is the first part of a complex process. When we receive students'
papers, we have to mark and grade them.

Marking and
The trouble with marking and how to deal with it
grading tests
~ .•.•.....••.•............................ A good test has scorer RELlABILlTY - in other words, whoever grades the test, the student
should get the same resulto But this is not easy to achieve.

• It is easy to be SUBJECTIVE when we grade tests and exams, because that's what we do
in reallife. Two people can go to a film and have totally different reactions to it.
Two people grading the same student's composition can also react differently.

• It will be much better if the marking is OBJECTIVE - that is, if a candidate gets the same
grade whoever is marking the test. When this happens, we call the test RELlABLE, and
we can be confident that (provided we have designed it well) the test gives a clear
picture of a candidate's real ability and achievement.

• Many INDIRECT TEST ITEMS -+89 can be objectively graded. F or example, when
candidates answer well-designed MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS -+89 only one answer is
correcto If the test is graded on a computer or by someone using an OVERLAY (which
can be put over a student's answer sheet and which only shows correct answers),
then we can have confidence that the grading will be accurate.

• If we want to include DIRECT TEST ITEMS -+89, such as speaking tests and longer
pieces of writing, we will have to find other non-mechanical ways of trying to achieve
the same kinds of scorer reliability. ASSESSMENT SCALES like the examples below and 0-
page 199 can help to achieve this.

• Whatever kind of marking we are using, the grading will always be more reliable if
more than one person is involved. For example, two scorers can check each other's
grades, or two scorers can mark the same paper to see if the same work gets the
same grade.

• Where marking is subjective, we can stiIl make grading more reliable if we organi e
scorer training so that everyone is clear about what an 'N. grade is, or what a 'fail'
looks like, for example.

Using assessment scales

When we have thought about our ASSESSMENT CRITERIA (exactly what skiIls and sub-skill;
we want to assess), we can design an assessment scale (or scales).
Example 1: a basic five-Ievel assessment scale for writing

1 Very difficult to understand, with poor spelling and many vocabulary and
grammar mistakes.
2 Quite a lot of grammar and vocabulary mistakes, but the meaning is mostly clear
3 The meaning is clear although there are some grammar and vocabulary mistakes
4 The meaning is clear and there are few mistakes of grammar and vocabulary.
5 The meaning is clear and the writing is almost mistake-free.

We can make more complex assessment scales which allowus to assess a wider range
abilities in direct test items.

198
 Marking and grading tests
•••..•....••..•..•........•...•.......•..••..•.•.

ple 2: an assessment scale for giving oral presentations (with a total of 25 possible marks)

5 4 3 2 1
Content Interesting, Enough Quite interesting Occasionally Listeners will
informative, clear interesting at times interesting, but find it difficult to
I information to
engage listeners
unlikelyto
engage listeners
find anything
interesting here
Organisation Excellent Mostly clear and Easy to follow, Rather poorly Extremely
structure with easy to follow though a little organised and difficult to follow
good introduction chao tic incoherent because of
and conclusion extremely poor
organisation
Pronunciation Almost faultless Verygood Clearly Quite a few Verypoor
with no problems pronunciation intelligible but pronunciation pronunciation
for the listener with only some problems problems make and very difficult
occasional make listening a this speaker to understand
difficulties for littl e c1ifficult difficult to
the lis tener understand
Grammar Use of varied Use of varied Good grarnmar Often good Many and varied
grammar with no grarnmar with a use with some grammar use but grarnmar
mistakes fewerrors rnistakes quite a few mistakes
mistakes
ocabulary A wide use of A wide use of Good vocabulary Alot of Somany
appropriate vocabulary with use with some vocabulary vocabulary
vocabulary with occasional problems problems make mistakes that it is
no problems problems it difficult to very difficult to
understand understand

Involving the students

Students can be involved in marking and grading in a number of ways.
• We often use a grading system that has been decided at some stage in the past -
whether by the school, the subject co-ordinator or by ourselves. However, we can also
ask the students what grading system they would like us to use. Would they like A, E,
C, D grades or would they prefer a simple pass, fail, distinction marking system?
When we encourage our students to write JOURNAlS ~59, we ask them how much
comment they would like from usoWe can do the same with tests.
• Students can mark their own tests if we give them clear criteria for doing so.
• Students can use CAN-DO STATEMENTS ~41, such as 1 can write a simple email to arrange a
meeting or 1 can make a tuio-minute oral presentation about a scientific topic to assess their
own abilities. Can-do statements can be included at the end of a week or month's
work, for example, or at the end of a COURSEBOOK ~81 unit so that the students can
evaluate their own progress and ability levels.
• We can ask our students to take part in PEER EVALUATION (peer assessment) so that they
grade each other's tests.

199
 Section F: Teaching young learners---~-,
The units in this section discuss some of the characteristics of young learners, before
going on to look at ways of teaching them and the activities we can use for this.
We use the term young learners to describe children up to about ten or eleven years old
and in this section we look at how children develop, and what this means for us as
(language) teachers.
We look at many activities for children - including songs, chants, games and stories -
and we discuss how these activities can be used to improve young learner listening,
speaking, reading and writing.
Finally we talk about a 'topics and themes' approach to lesson planning, before looking
at how we can assess young learners.

91 Deseribing young learners

92 In the language dassroom
93 Movernent, games and speeial friends
94 Chants, rhymes and songs
95 Language teaehing with young learners
96 Young learner listening
97 Young learner speaking
98 Young learner reading
99 Young learner writing
100 Topies and themes
101 Assessing young learners
 Theories of learning and child development
Many theorists have influenced the way we think about caun OEVElOPMENT.

• Jean Piaget (1896-1980) said that children move from egocentriS7n (thinking only -
themselves) to sociocentrism (themselves and others) and that this maturation proc
Describing young involves four basic stages from the sensorimotor stage (when children experience
learners everything through touch, sound, smell, etc.) through to the FORMAL OPERATIONAl _
when they can think in an abstract way and consider the practical and hypothetica.
consequences of their actions. His strong belief was that children construct perso -
meaning through action: playing, moving, making things, etc.

• Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) suggested that children gradually develop understandine

of abstract meaning through play - that action is eventually replaced, through play; .
imagination. Through play, children learn social rules. Language becomes a tool
organising their thoughts (through inner speech) and for interacting with the work
(external speech). Children learn best in the ZONE OF PROXIMAl OEVElOPMENT (ZPD)
~38 when, with the help of someone more knowing than they are, they can
understand and do new things.

• Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) suggested that there is a hierarchy of needs that

learners have. F eelings of safety, being loved, belonging and SElF-ESTEEM are essenria,
for learning to take place.
• Jerome Bruner (1915-) has said that we should realise that any learn"er (even at a
young age) is capable oflearning almost anything, provided that the instruction is
organised properly. He developed the idea of instructional scaffolding as the way in
which we can best help children to learn. In some ways this is similar to Vygotsky's
idea of help and support to learners in the ZPD .

........................................................•.....•.•..•..•........................
· Instructional scaffolding
· When parents (or teachers) use instructional scaffolding ~6S, they:
• make the children interested in the task;
• break a big task down into smaller steps;
• keep the children focused and on task by reminding them what the goal of the task is;
· • point out what the important parts of the task or steps are;
• show the children other ways of doing the task.
.·...................•.................•.........................................................

• Based on these theories, we can say that children need safety and support if learning is
to take place. They will (at first) learn best from doing things through play and action
in a warm and ENGAGING environment where they feel safe. The job of teachers is to
identify what developmental stage individual children have reached so that they can
guide and help them to achieve appropriate learning objectives.

How young are young learners?

We generally call students between the ages of two and eleven young learners. Some
people talk about children aged O to four as VERY YOUNG lEARNERS. But young learners are
not all the same.

• There are many differences between a five-year-old child and an eleven-year-old child.
and between six year olds and nine year olds, for example. We need to understand
these differences if we want to know how to teach children at different ages.

• Although it is possible to suggest that in general eight-year-old children have certain

characteristics which are different from those of ten year olds, this will always depend

202
 Describing

on the individual maturity of the child and what stage they, personally, have reached.
In other words, although we can make generalisations about children at certain ages,
it is important to remember that these will never be exact and may not be true for
individual children who are developing at different speeds and in different ways.

........................•....•.....•..................•.••.••••.••.•.........•.........................•...............•.•........ :
Children aged five to seven
If we consider children between the ages of five and seven we can say that in general, they:
are enthusiastic about learning (if it happens in the right way);
learn best through play and other enjoyable activities;
use everything in the physical world (what they see, do, hear and touch, etc.) for learning
and understanding things;
use language skills without analysing (or being able to analyse) why or how they use them;
like to do well and enjoy being PRAISED ~66; ·
• have exciting imaginations;
can't, sometimes, tell the difference between fact and fiction;
···
have a short attention span and can't concentrate on the same thing for a long time;
• will talk (and participate) a lot if they are engaged: they can tell you what they are doing

•
and what they have done;
often don't understand the adult world - but they don't say '1don't understand', they just
···
go along with it; ·
•
are very good at imitating people, so they pick up the teacher's INTONATION
can't decide what to learn by themselves (or how to do it):
~27, etc.
··
•
•
are self-centred and like playing by themselves;
are comfortable with the idea that there are rules and routines for things.
·
.......•.......................................................................•..........................................•...•.. ·
:•.........................•.......................•............................................ :
. Children aged ten and above ·
:
• By the time children reach the age of about ten, they are quite mature and they:
·
•
understand basic concepts of the world around them; they are making sense of the adult •
: world around them, :
: • can te" the difference between fact and fiction;
: have (sometimes strong) views about what they like and don't like;
: • ask (a lot of) questions;
• • can work with the spoken word only (they don't always need the physical world to help);
• can make some decisions about their own learning;
: '. can understand abstract concepts and symbols and can generalise;
: • have a strong sense of what is right and fair. •
·
..........................•..•.....•......•...................•.......•......................... .
:

203
 Creating the right conditions for language learning

We can help our students to feel safe, happy and eager in a young learner language
classroom. This will make their learning more successful.
• We will organise activities so that each child has a chance of doing well. This will
In the language involve DIFFERENTlATION (doing our best to teach individual students in ways that
their lEARNING STYlES -+40) so that every individual does work that can be prais
classroom
• We will emphasise meaning rather than focusing on the ACCURACY of the languagc -
the students are producing - although we will, of course, try to make sure that th
things properly.
• We will use routines (activities and procedures that happen often) in lessons so thz;
the children feel secure and know what to expect when they happen again.
• Where possible, we will speak in the TARGET lANGUAGE to give instructions, explain
or organise PAIRWORK and GROUPWORK -+67, for example. We need to take special
i i to use ROUGHlY-1UNED language -+68 so that our students can understand what w
saying. We will accompany our words with gestures, facial expressions and visual
demonstrations to help them understand. We discuss GIVING INSTRUCTlONS in -+69.
• We can teach young learners some classroom phrases in English. This will help
to become comfortable when using the language, and it will help to create an Eng
environment in the classroom .

.............................................................................................
· Some examples of useful classroom English
/'m sorry.
1don't understand.
What do you want us to do, miss?
Good mommq/aitemoon.
Can 1read a booc/use the compute¡jgo to the toilet, pleose?
What's this in English, oiease?
15 it my tum? / Now it's your tum
Pass the .../ Can 1have the ..., please?
Can you help me with this, please?
·· What is your paintingjstory about?
Ilike your painting/story.
·.............................................................................................
• In young learner classrooms it is also very helpful if the children and their teacher
can talk to each other using the children's HOME lANGUAGE (11). However, some
people believe that teachers shouId only use the target language in a foreign Ianguage
classroom. We discuss this view in -+77.
• We will use stories that the children enjoy (and which are useful for them) more than
once so that they get to know them and feel comfortable and ENGAGED with them each
time they appear. Many children enjoy hearing the same stories many times. We
discuss reading in -+54-56.
• If we spend too much time CORRECTING mistakes -+73-74, rather than listening to
what the students want to say and encouraging them through praise and showing
interest, we may damage their emerging confidence and self-esteem.

The classroom as a learning environment

It is important to arrange young Iearner classrooms (if we can) in a way that contributes
to the learning experience.
• A young learner classroom should, where possible, be light and spacious. It should be
coIourful and comfortable. The furniture should be child-sized and child-appropriate
(so that the children can reach shelves or are comfortable sitting, for example).
• We can divide the classroom into designated are as so that there is, for example, a
reading corner, a computer corner, a play area, a 'wet area' (where there is a sink and
bowls for activities with water and other liquids), and clearly marked containers for
things like pens, paints, glue, plasticine, etc. This makes it much easier for the
students to move from one activity and area to another.
• We can put pictures, charts and objects around the classroom. It is especially impor-
tant to display the children's own work on wall charts and posters, etc. We can en-
courage the children to bring things to the class so that they can 'show and tell'.
• We must decide how we want our students to sit -+67. If they are all in straight lines,
they will all be facing forward when we want to explain something or act as a
CONTROllER -+65, and the students can still do pairwork -+67 if the row in the front
turns back to the row behind it. But at other times, the view of everyone who is not in
the front row will be the back of another student's head!
• One of the best arrangements is to have the students seated in groups of, say, four at
small tabIes. This helps them get used to working with others and makes groupwork
and pairwork much easier to organise. It also helps if we want to use differentiation by
giving different tasks to different groups.
• If we want to have our students work in different pairs or groups, we can hand out
cards with pictures of animal families (ducks, cows, cats, etc.). The students then have
to find the other members of their group by making the noise of their animal.
• We can vary the arrangement of tabIes (or where the students sit) depending on what
the students are doing. For example, if we are reading a story to younger learners
(5-7 year oIds), we can have them sitting on the floor in a serni-circle around the
teacher's chair. If they are playing a team game, they may sit in lines on the floor and
send RUNNERS (individual group representatives) up to the front.
• It is important to let the students move around during Iessons. Physical movement
helps learning, especially for KINAESTHETIC learners -+40. If the children have spent a
lot of time sitting down, then we should let them get up and move, at least for a
short period, to allow them to release some energy and get them in the mood for the
next activity.
We discuss issues of classroom management and DISCIPLINE in -+70 and -+71.

205
 Movement

Young learners should not be made to sit still all day. They need to move and to
move around.
Movement,
• We can ask our students to do movements with CHANTS, RHYMES and SONGS ~94.
gamesand
• When students are learning to tell the time, we can get them to be 'living docks'.
special friends They have to use their arms as the hands of a dock (this is not as easy as it soundsl).
• We can ask pairs of students to mirror each other's movements and then say what
they are doing.
• From time to time, we should let the children stand up and jump or wave their arms
or run around (if there is a place where they can do this).
• If we want our students to work in pairs or groups, we can tell them to stand up and
make a line along one wall of the classroom in order of birthdays, heights, etc. so tha;
we can group them two by two or four by four, for example. We discuss PAIRWORK anc
GROUPWORK in general in ~67.

Special friends

We can bring other 'characters' into the lesson. Children will enjoy engaging with thern
and irnitating them.
• Many teachers like to use PUPPETS (1) when teaching young learners. We can use
commercially-produced glove puppets or we can draw and cut out cardboard
characters. We can use sock puppets or even just use paper bags which we draw faces
• The children can talk to the puppets and the puppets (the teacher) can answer. The
children can take turns to talk to the puppet, be the puppet and talk like the puppet. :::

206
• We can describe the puppet's life or tell stories about what it has done.
• We can give the students a number of characters who have special personalities, for
example nice Nick, horrible Harvey, cleuer Carol, happy Harriet, sad Sadie and silly
Sylvester (3). Every time the children meet these people, they are always horrible, sad
or clever, etc. so they know what to expect and they enjoy their different character .
Children can also pretend to be the characters - and this gives them a chance to play
at being horrible, sad, happy, etc. It makes speaking in the foreign language enjoyable
and not frightening.
• It is important to consider the age of young learners when we use special friends.
Ten year olds may not want to engage with puppets. They will usually respond better
to more realistic characters or to the kind of AVATARSthey can use with computer
programs such as Voki, for example ~87.

Games
When students play GAMES, they don't realise they are learning language. And if the game
has built-in repetition, they will be practising words and phrases without even realising
it!
• In the game Please, Mr Crocodile, one student is the crocodile and the other students
are trying to cross the river. They say Please, Mr/Mrs Crocodile may we cross the river?
The crocodile replies You may cross the riuer if you have a blue T-shil'1:/glasses,white
trainers, etc. Children with the right clothes can walk across safely. The rest then try
to cross and the crocodile tries to catch them. The crocodile can, of course, choose
any category, for example You can cross the riuer ifyou have a brotber, etc.
• We can give our students CAROS with PICTURES of objects. The teacher says a word.
Which child can pick up the right picture card first? This can be very noisy!
• The learners use the word teapot instead ofVERBSin sentences. For example, they say
Yesterday 1 teapot to the skating rinl: with my family and the other students have to guess
that teapot = went.
• We can write the names of famous characters (real or fictional) that the students know.
They have to stick the names on their foreheads without looking at them (or someone
sticks them on their backs). They have to askyes/no questions ~3 (Am 1 a boy? Am 1 in
a fairy story?) until they find out who they are.
• The children can play Snap with two identical sets of picture cards. The first child to
say the right word when they both put down the same card from their different packs
keeps the two cards. Who wins?
• We can play chain memory games with students in a circle. The first student (Iack)
says 1went to the market and 1 bought an apple. The next child (Annie) says Jack uient to
the market and he bought an apple. 1 uient to tbe market and 1 bought an orange. The third
child has to remember what jack and Annie bought and then add his or her own
purchase, and so on.
• We can use dice. For example, each number represents a different animal. If the dice
lands on a six (= tiger, for example) the child has to saya correct sentence, such as
1 have four legs or 1 baoe a tail.
• We can use board games. The children throw a dice. When they land on a square they
have to say the word (if it has a picture) or answer the question there.
• We divide the BOARD into two colurnns, one for each team. The children line up in
teams and take turns to write a word for each letter of the alphabet, Which team can
write 26 words first?
Many speaking ~51-53, listening ~60-62, writing~57-59 and reading ~54-56
activities for young learners have game-like characteristics.
 Chants and rhymes
CHANTS and RHYMES with a clear rhythm help the students to get used to the stress and
sounds of the language. They are easy to learn and they are fun. Because we can use
them more than once, they help the students to memorise words and phrases.
Chants, rhymes • Children can do ACTIONS while they chant rhymes such as:
and songs Put your hands in the air.
'.- .
Now scratch your nose.
Put your hands on your hips.
Now touch your toes.

• Or they can do movements to accompany their rhymes:

I'm a cunning little fox (hands on head for ears, looking around)
And I live in the wood. (hands waving for trees)
My favourite food is chicken. (jlapping wings)
Wow! It tastes so good. (rubbing their stomachs)

• We can put rhythm behind almost any questions and answers such as:

What's your name? My name is Sam.

Where do you live? I live in a house.
Do you have a brother? Yes I have three.

• We can use counting rhymes such as:

Five little elephants sitting in a boato

But elephants are heavy and the boat won't float.
So onejumps out andswims to sbore.
Now there aren't five elephants, there are only four.
(So onejumps out and swims to a tree: three)
(So onejumps out and runs to the zoo: two)
(So onejumps out to have some fun
Now there aren't five elephants, there's only one.)

They can count on their fingers, or they can have picture cards of a boat and five elephanx,
They take one away each time and put it in the right place (in a zoo, on the shore, erc..

Songs and singing

Many young learners (like people of all ages) like SONGS. They appeal directly to our
emotions and, as a result, make the words (lyrics) more memorable. When young
learners sing together, it can reinforce a sense of belonging, and when they perform th
songs, they can feel a sense of pride and achievement.
• Students can sing songs -+64 and do the actions to go with them. In the following two
songs (used by teachers all over the world) they have to do a range of movements.

A If you're happy and you know it, clapyour hands. lID

If you're happy and you know it, clapyour hands.
If you're happy and you know it, your face will surely show it.
If you're happy and you know it, clapyour hands.

For the second, third and fourth verses, we can replace clapyour hands with stamp your ft
shout hurray, turn around - or any other action the teacher or the children want to

208
 Chants, rhymes and songs

B This is the way we wash our face, wash our face, wash our face,
This is the way we wash our face so early in the morning.

For the verses that follow, the teacher can substitute actions such as brusb OUT teeth,
put on our clothes, brush OUT hair, etc.
• Students can sing a round: a song where the same lines are started at different times
by different singers. Two popular ones are:

e London's burning, London's burning

Fetch the engines, fetch the engines
Fire, fire! Fire, fire!
Pour on water! Pour on water!

D Life is butter, life is butter ..,.

Melancholy flower, melancholy flower
Life is but a melon, life is but a melon
Cauliflower, cauliflower

• We can teach each child a word or phrase from a song (perhaps a pop song that they
like) or give it to them on a STRIP OF PAPER. Every time they hear that word or phrase,
they have to stand up or hold the word up.
• If the song has a STORY, we can give the students pictures of the main characters
(or display them on the board/screen). The learners have to put the pictures in order
and/or point to them when they come up in the songo
• We can give the students the words of a songo The students sing along with an audio
recording. We fade out the audio and the children keep singing. When we increase
the volume of the audio again, are the children in the right place (or have they sung
too fast or too slowly)?
• We can conduct students while they are singing. We can make them sing softly or
loudly, faster or slower. A student can then be a conductor.
• We can build up a song using different groups of students to sing different lines.
For example, they can sing 'The lion sleeps tonight' in three parts. The first part has
the words:
In thejungle, the mighty jungle, the lion sleeps tonight
The bass line is:
A-wimoweh, A-wimoweh, A-wimoweh, A-wimoweh
and the middle line can be sung as We-ee-ee, etc.
We discuss music in detail in ~64.
 Teaching language to children
As children approach puberty (from about ten onwards), they start being able to analyse
abstract language concepts such as SYNTAX and GRAMMAR. They are reaching the FOR
Language OPERATIONAl stage of their development ~91. Before that, however, we need to think a
teaching with teaching language to children differently from the way we teach it to TEENAGERS and AD _

young learners • Young learners absorb language through ACTION, GAMES, SONGS and RHYMES ~94,
STORIES and the senses. This is far more effective than trying to explain its rules or
construction.
• We can, however, make young learners aware of some language features and differen -
For example, we can show them the word horses (with the s in a different colour frorz
the rest of the word) and say Is that one horse or more than one borse? We can say thinzs
like Is that a yesterday question or a today question? to make them aware of past and -
present tenses.
• We wi11give explanations when the children ask for them (rather than when we wanz
to give them). We will try to find explanations which are appropriate for the stage rie
child is ato

Some examples of language teaching sequences

It is impossible to list a11the many ways of teaching language to young learners, but d:=
following examples give an idea of how children can learn and practise language.
• We can build up a conversation with two PUPPETS (or with their SPECIAl FRIENDS ~9
such as:

Croc: What sha11we do this evening, Mr Ted?

MrTed: Let's watch television.
Croc: But I don't like teleuisioni
MrTed: AlI right then, let's playa game.
Croc: Yes, let's.

The children practise the dialogue in CHORUS ~47. We can then give the puppets
pair of students and they have to try to perform the conversation. They can change
the words and phrases in italics in the dialogue.
• We can MIME actions (representing language that we want our students to learn an .
practise) and the students have to guess what we are doing. We can mime a story az.;
the students have to te11us what is happening. Students can then mime their own stor;
• If we want our students to hear (and produce) two of the different sounds of the .
plural, we can ask them whether the words are snake words (cats, cups, socks) or bee
words (apples, bananas, dogs).
• We can tell our students about the class puppet or another character and they have ::
say whether their lives are the same or different. For example, we can say Mr Ted ha:
brotber. A student has to say Same! 1have a brotber; too or Different! 1don't have a
brotber. 1baue two sisters.
• We get the students to think of a11the things that you can find in people's bedrooms
We can draw or write up words (or show PICTURES). We then ask them to think of .
things they have in their bedroom. They write them down or draw pictures of therz,
without the other students seeing. The class now asks each student Do you have a
television in yozw room? Do you have a picture in your room?
• We can get the students to be telepathic with words' One student thinks of a day OZ
the week (or a word from another category such as an animal, a sport or a hobby).
Can another student (or other students) receive that telepathic message and gues
day of the week?
210
 language teac.hing with young learners

• We can ask our students to write words showing where the STRESS is - the stressed
syllable must be larger than the unstressed syllables (1).
• When we teach children who have started to read, we can use disappearing words or
DISAPPEARING DIALOGUES as a way to he1p them remember words and phrases. We show
a dialogue on the board (or the screen). The students practise saying it. Then we take
words or phrases away, one at a time. Each time we do this, the students have to try to
say the original dialogue until, finally, they can say the whole dialogue from memory.
• We can show the students 'spaghetti' or 'ball of string' pictures (2). They have to
follow the lines from a person to a place so that they can say things like John lives in a
house, Justin lives in a fiat, Peter lives in a caravan, etc. We can use pictures like this for
almost any language we want to practise.
• Students can look for the words in a wordsnake showing, for example, the months of
the year (3), or do a wordsearch (4) puzzle. Who can find the most words?
• We can playa version of the GAME ~93 Battleships. Each student has two charts, one
for themselves and one for their partner. They don't look at their partner's chart. In
the charts, the horizontal top line shows pictures representing under the chair, on the
table, in the basket, on the chair, behind the soJa. Pairs of students put different animals in
different places in their own charts (but they don't tell their partner) (5). For example
in N.schart, Danny the dog is behind the sofa and Carrie the cat is under the chair,
etc. Student A asks 'Is Danny under the chair?' and if the answer is yes (because Danny
is under the chair in B's chart), Student A can put a cross on that square in their
second chart (the one about their partner). The first student to put crosses on all the
squares of their partner's chart is the winner.

fiffEEN flfty tD Musical Styles

o R A H o U S E B
R o Z E e G G A R
o ( L A S S I ( A
A K e v u o J A Z
R ( E Y E U o R J
p o U M B L U E S
U B L E L e L G I
N A P T o R E G E
K o R A P o J A Z
E F o L K G L E M

®
Danny
the dog r:
Carrie
the eat X
Miekey
the mouse X
~ Simon
the snake )<
 Young learner
listening
., .

The importance of listening

If we want young learners to use the foreign language they are learning, they have to
listen to it first. There are a number of activities we can use for this.

Listen and do
• We can use RHYMES and CHANTS ~94. The children have to do the actions in the
rhyme, as in the following example:

Sway from side to side like a tree in the breeze.

Smell the beautiful flowers - but be careful, don't sneeze.
Turn your face to the sun - but don't stay too long.
Now here comes the rain with its pitter patter songo

• We can ask our students to do things with a range of instructions, such as Bring me
something green. Each group of students sends a RUNNER (a representative from the
group) to the front of the class with the appropriate object.
• We can tell the children things like Put the lion in the cage or Clare is in the sitting r.
The children have to move pictures or drag them on the INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARD so
that the animal goes in the right place in a picture of a zoo or the girl is put in the
right room in a picture of a house.
• We can tell students to do things like Stand on one leg and count to ten or Go to the
window and open it. With TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE activities like this ~4, 45 the
students themselves can then give instructions to each other.
• Students choose words that we give them (one word for each student). They stand :
We read a TEXT with their words in it. When they hear their word they have to sit
down (we can do this with adults, too m!mr).
• We can describe a picture. The students have to draw the picture. This is similar to
DESCRIBE AND DRAW ~50.
• When we are teaching colours, we can tell the students to do things such as COlOUT-
clown s nose red, Make the clown s right leg purple, etc.

212
Listen for information
• We can give the students a picture of a town. We tell them they have to discover
where we (or a PUPPET or a SPECIAl FRIENO) went yesterday. They hear things like:

1walked out of my house and turned right. iwalked past the cinema. 1 crossed the street
and walked past the swimming pool. 1 turned left and walked past the baker's. Then
1 walked across the zebra crossing and it was right in front of me next to the ... , etc.

• The students see PICTURES of four different children. We describe one. They have to
say which one we are describing. For example, we say:

1 am quite talloI have red hair and freckles. I have glasses and a stripy shirt. I am
wearing blue trousers. Who am I?

Or, for animals, we can say something like:

lt has four legs, two ears, two eyes, sharp teeth and a long tail. It has spots and it
can run very fastoWhat is it?

and the students have to find the picture of a leopardo

• We can describe a picture or tell a story (see below) and make a mistake such as
Cinderella's sisters were very beautiful. The children have to find the mistake. We can
give them information and they have to say whether it is true or falseo

Stories
Children love stories. Stories teach them about the world. They can be funny, serious,
happy, sad and uplifting. Children like it when stories are told and retold.
• When we read to children (as all parents know), we need to be animated and dramatic.
We need to make the story come alive. When the wolf says All the better to eat you
with! he should sound like a horrible wolf.
• When we want to tell stories (rather than read them) we need to think about what
order the events should be in and then practise the different stages of a story. As with
reading, we need to tell stories dramatically and interestingly.
• We can have a special story time, especially for younger learners (5-7). For example,
it is often a good idea to end the day with a REAOING CIRClE to settle the children
(quieten them down and relax them). They can sit on the floor so that they listen and
relax. We can show them all the illustrations in the book or on the screen (if we are
using a data projector or an interactive whiteboard).
• We can show the learners the cover of a book (and the pictures in it). The children
have to guess (or tell us) what the story is before we read it.
• With older children, we can read longer stories or books one chapter each time so
that the children willlook forward to the next week's instalment.
• When we read to younger children, we can invite them to join in with the story.
We can say things like So what did the princess do tben? or get them to speak the
repeated lines with uso
• We can tell a story and the students have to MIME the actions.
• We can tell the students to close their eyes and try to imagine that they are in the
story we are telling them. When we finish, we can ask them what they saw, how they
felt, what smells they smelt, etc.
We discuss listening in general in ~60-62.

213
 Young learner
speaking

Creating confident speakers

We want our students to become confiderit speakers in the foreign language. For some
young learners this can be hard, but there a number of ways we can help them to
overcome their difficulties.

Speaking activities

When we want our students to practise speaking, we can use a number of activities and
techniques.
• The students sit in a circle. They pass or throw a soft ball around the circle. When .
child receives the ball, they have to say something in English.
• The students can interview PUPPETS or their SPECIAL FRIENOS ~93 and ask them
questions about what they like, what time they get up in the morning, where they ar-
going on holiday, etc. We can answer for the puppet at first, but later we can give the
puppet to one of the children and they can make up the answer.
• When we ask our students to practise any language (for example 1 likeldon't like
bananas or On Sunday 1 watched television) they can speak in the voice of one of the
special friends (such as sad Sadie or happy Harriet ~93). The other students have
guess who they are.
• "VVecan get our students to complete questionnaires. They write the names of other
students along the top of a chart and then the names of some foods on the left. The:--
have to ask the other students Do you like chocolate? Do you like snails? etc. If young
learners are not writing yet, they can draw (or put) smiling/frowning faces to show
the correct answers.
• We can have a collection of CAROS (or PICTURES on the board) of places such as a libr.'-
a swimming pool, a sweet shop and a skating rink, and some objects such as a book. _
swimsuit, some money, some gloves, etc. One child chooses one of the places and ::
others have to ask What doyou have in your bag? When the child answers, for examp -
1 have some money, the others askAre you going to the sweet shop? The child who asks
the correct question chooses the next cardo

214

~-
=-- -=:---
;=---- - ---~~
-- -
 Young learner speaking
....................................

Storytelling

We need to help younger learners be come good storytellers in English.

• We can SCAFFOLD ~6S, 91 STORIES with our students, gradually helping them to
include the elements that they need. For example, we can ask them things such as
Who is in the story? When did they go? What happened next? etc.

• We can get the students to tell stories to their puppet or mascot, saying things like
Tell Teddy what you did yesterday or Teddy wants to know what you saw when you went to
the zoo.

• We can get younger students to retell the stories that they have been enjoying in a
READING CIRClE (where the teacher reads a story to the students) ~96. We will point
out how the story begins and ends with typical phrases such as once upon a time and
they alllived happily euer after.

• As young learners get older, we can get them to retell stories they have heard in class.
We can have different GROUPS ~67 hear or read different stories. They then have to
tell the stories to the other groups so that everyone has heard all the stories.
• Older children can read or hear a story with several different characters. They then
have to retell the story from the point of view of one of the characters in the story.
• Sometimes the simplest things can provoke good stories. For example, we can ask the
students to tell the story of a day in the life of pebble on the beach, a five-pound note
or a set of keys.
• We can tell older students two stories about our lives (or the lives of a person/
celebrity the students know) and they have to decide which story is true and which
is falseo

Using drama and playacting

Young learners are usually happy to become involved in PlAYACTING and DRAMA.

• We can get our students to act out situations using language they have been learning.
For example, if they have been learning words to describe foods, we can set up a food
store, and they can go to the store to buy different items, saying things like Have you
got any apples?

• Students can ROlEPlAY ~53 a visit to a restaurant and order meals.

• We can reconstruct a familiar story as a drama, and the children can help to create the
scenes. They can decide who says what. For example, if they have been reading (or
listening to) the story of Cinderella, they can decide what Cinderella's sisters say to
her when they are getting ready for the ball, e.g. Cinderella: 1 want to go to the ball, too.
Sisters: Well, you can't! You haven't got anything to uiear! We can give different scenes to
different groups so that the final version of the whole 'play' has been written by
everybody in the class. We can help them with words and phrases from the original
stories. We will rehearse our play for a few minutes every day in the weeks before the
final performance.
• If the students have been reading comic-strip stories (for example in their
COURSEBOOKS ~81), they can rehearse the scenes and act them out. We will spend
time helping the students to say their lines with correct pronunciation, using
appropriate stress and intonation so that their scenes are dramatic and enjoyable.
• We can turn stories into the news. For example, the children can retell the episodes in
a story as if they were doing a news broadcast. We can set up a table as if it was in a
TV studio and have presenters 'read the news'.
We discuss more speaking activities in ~51-53.

215
 Encouraging reading
When young learners first start reading, they need to be able to recognise word shapes
and sentences. But we also have to encourage them to love reading, and we can do this
by demonstrating our own enthusiasm for reading, especially during READING CIRCLE
Young learner sessions, for example, where the teacher reads to the students.

reading
.......................................... Learning sounds, learning words
In the first stages of reading, we want our students to recognise letters, whole words
and sentences.

• When we read to our students using big books in a typical reading circle (where the
students sit in a circle and the teacher reads to them), they can point to the words as
we read them. If they have their own books (or if they are reading on screens), they
can follow the words with their finger or a cursor.

• We can show the students word shapes (1). They have to match them with the words.
The examples shown in the margin have to be matched with the words elephant and
dolphin from a list of animal names given to the students. This helps them to get used
to what words look like.
• We can give the students word CAROS. They have to MATCH them with PICTURES.

• We can give the students word and MORPHEME cards (for example, S cards for plurals). Tle
words can be in different colours for verbs, articles, etc. The students have to say whz;
the words are. For example, It's a 'doing' word, It's a 'person' word, etc. They can choo ;:
words to make their own sentences. They can put cards in order to make sentences ~

• We can get our students to give us sentences about themselves such as 1 live with my mur:
and dad or 1 have a cat called Timmy. We write the sentence(s) on a piece of paper or car;
and give it to the students so that they can read it to themselves. Then they have to rea;
their card back to uso Later they have to select one of their many cards and read it ore,

• When we build up a DIALOGUE with the class ~45, we can write it on the board.
We can then give the students phrases from the dialogue cut up and written on cards..
The students have to match the cards to put the phrases back together again. They
can look at the dialogue on the board to help them do this.

A few things that young learners can do with reading

• We can give the students a STORY, together with pictures which come from it. The
students have to put the pictures in order.

• Students read a story. They then retell it.

• We can give the students a story with pictures of the characters (but without names).
The students have to identify them.

• We can give the students pictures from a book or story they are going to read. The
students have to guess (and get prepared for) the story.

• We can give young learners a story to read and ask them to draw pictures about it.

Reading aloud
In many classrooms, teachers ask students to read from books in front of the whole class,
student by student, line by line. This isn't usually very successful. Students often find it
difficult to read well, and the other students get bored. However, reading aloud can be
fun, and it helps us to know how well our students are getting on with their reading.

216
 • lf we want our students to read aloud, we must give them time to think about how to
read the textoThey can hear us reading the text first (or listen to an audio recording).
They can then practise reading it aloud in pairs or groups (or just mumbling to
themselves) before we ask them to read to uso
• Students can read (on a one-to-one basis) to the teacher (or parent or classroom
assistant). This allows them to show us how well they are doing, and we can help them
with any words they are finding difficult. We will only ask students to read aloud in
front of the whole class if we are confident that they will not stumble over the words
and feel foolish.
• Students can read sentences in CHORUS -+47. This is good fun and focuses their
attention on the sentence in the book or on the board. We can point to words as they
read them.
• We can ask our students to choose their favourite sentence in a story. They can
practise reading it by mumbling to themselves. When we ask them to read it aloud,
they have to say It says bere ... and then read their sentence aloud as dramaticallyas
possible -+29,69.

Let students read!

• We should encourage our students to read for pleasure (we discuss EXTENSIVE READING
in general in -+54). They can go to the reading comer in their classrooms -+92 and
sit there reading while other student groups do different things.
• We can make mini-books (short stories on cards with accompanying pictures) so that
the students can read complete stories quickly.
• It is important that students should be allowed to choose the books that they want to
read, even if this means that they are reading the same books again and again.
• We can include DEAR (drop everything and read) moments in lessons -+54. This
encourages the students to become comfortable with reading books, tablet computers,
online sites, etc.
• We can get our students to comment on what they have read. At the beginning,
they can put srniley or frowny faces on a feedback sheet (2), but later they can
complete sentences such as My favourite person in the story is ... and The part Ilike best is
when ... (3).
We discuss reading in general in -+54-56.

Title: The Snow Prince 3) Title: The Mysterious Castle

lvana
©©©© Name: Mehnan
My favourite person in the story is

Sergeí
©©© Tin~ the Gidnt
Natalia
00 The part Ilike best ís when

Sasha
©©©©© Tin~ kills the
ndst~ king
Veronika
©
Zl7
 The value of writing
When students start to write, they find another way to express themselves. Because the
WRITING PROCESS -+57 is generally less spontaneous than, for example, speaking, studen
have a chance to think about language, and this helps their linguistic development.
Young learner • Some students find it far easier to express themselves in writing than in speaking.
writing • When students write things down, it helps to consolidate their knowledge of the
language they have been learning.
• When students write in their books, on posters or on the computer, they get to see
what they have done, and we can celebrate their work -+66 by displaying it around
the classroom or online.

Copying activities
Students need to copy words so that they get used to writing. They should have a
COPYBOOK in which they can record new words and sentences that they have meto
• Children need help in forming letters and putting letters into words. We can give
them speciallined paper to help them to do this, and show them what strokes are
necessary to make different letters -+57.
• Students can practise writing letters in the air. They can write letters with a finger o
another child's back and the child has to guess which letter it is. They can make lett
from plasticine or draw them on large pieces of paper.
• Students can have fun with words. For example, if they write big, they have to write 2
really big word. The word small has to be smaller and the word tiny has to be smaller
still. Students can do this with words which describe size (tall, short) and shapes
(trianEfUlar, circular, square, etc.).

• We can get our students to tell us any food words that they know. We then write thezz
on the BOARD -+85 and drawa chart with columns for meat,jish, vegetable,fruit and
cereal. The students copy the chart and then they write the words in the correct
colurnns, making sure they spell them correctly.
• We can get the students to copy down the words for parts of the body on sticky Iabels
They then have to stick the labels on one of their friends or on a picture.
• We can show the srudents words, sentences or very short paragraphs. They have to
look at them for a short periodo We then take the sentences away or cover them up
and the students have to try to write them from memory.
• We can get the class to help us write a textoWe write up the sentences they suggest
usoWhen we have finished, they have to copy the text into their copybook and we caz
check it. We discuss writing together in more detail in -+58.

218
 Young Iprl''nf'i'''':?IiI ••

Dictation
We can DICTATE short sentences, especially if they are connected to topics or language
which the students are working on.
• To begin with, the students put their pencils down. We then saya sentence and the
students have to listen. When we finish, they try to write the sentence from memory.
With very short paragraphs we can use the DICTOGLOSS technique ~48.
• We hold up picture cards (with the word for the picture on the back). The students
write down the words for the pictures. We turn the cards over and they check whether
they have written the right word correctly.
• We can hold up CARDS with words (accompanied by pictures), such as empty, big, hot,
etc. and the students have to write their opposites (foll, small, cold, etc.).
• We can dictate half a sentence, such as The best book 1have ever read is ... and the
students have to complete it.
• Students can do a RUNNING DICTATION ~48 with a poem or other short texto

Portfolio writing (and other writing tasks)

When teachers get young learners write POEMS, STORIES or descriptions (often with
pictures and drawings attached), they can keep them in a folder (or PORTFOLlO ~59).
Later they can look at this collection in order to EVALUATE the learner's progress over
time ~88. The portfolios can be given to the parents at the end of the term or year.
• We can give our learners clear models to follow. For example, we can show them a
text (with an attached photograph or drawing) such as the following GI01'¡ais my best
friendo She ~ clever and funny. She likes chocolateand hambu1'gers, and she likes ballet and
TV She lives in Cambridge, in England. She speaks English and Spanish. Now they have to
write about their best friend (including a photograph or a drawing), saying what their
friend is like, what they like, where they live and what languages they speak.
• We can ask our students to write POETRY ~63 using models we give them.
• We can give the students cartoon strips with the words in the speech bubbles missing.
They have to write words for the speech bubbles. They then compare their versions
with the original.
• The students can watch a cartoon sequence without sound. They have to write the
dialogue and then check with the original.
• Students bring in their favourite photographs (or post them on an ONLlNE LEARNING
PLATFORM). They write a paragraph explaining who or what is in the photograph.
We can display these photographs and paragraphs on the classroom walls.
• We can ask our learners to keep a JOURNAL ~59 in which they write about such
things as what they have been doing and what they would like to do, or write an
imaginary entry from a space diary.
We discuss writing in general in ~57-59.
 Topics and
themes
.- .

Planning around a subject

Many teachers organise their teaching by
grouping language lessons around topics
and themes. In other words, instead of
PLANNING one lesson after another based
on language or activities alone, they base
a series of lessons around a SUBJECT.
We discuss lesson planning in general
in -+79.
Topic-based teaching is a form of 'soft' CLlL (CONTENT ANO LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEARNING)
-+102 where language and topic are taught alongside each other.

Thinking about topies and themes

One of the best ways of planning a sequence of lessons for young learners is to organise
our classes around a TOPIC or a THEME.
• When we use a topic or a theme to build our lessons, we can decide how long (five
lessons, ten lessons, 15 lessons) we want our topic or theme to carry on foro
• We don't do the same thing lesson after lesson just because we have organised
everything around a theme.
• When we organise lessons around a topic or theme, we still need to think about wha:
activities, language skills and language learning we want the students to practise. We
need to see how we can fit all these different elements into and around the topic or
theme we have chosen.
• When we choose a topic, we need to think about how to make it personal for our
young learners. We will choose topic-related activities which are interesting and
relevant to their lives. However, we will also use our topic to introduce the children
to the wider world, including giving them some INTERCULTURAL UNOERSTANOING where
this is appropriate.

220
 Topies and themes

Themes, topics and activities

Almost any topic can be used for a large variety of activities and lesson types. A lot will
depend on the age of the children, and what DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE they are at -+91.
For our example in this unit, we will take the theme of bananas as our organising topic
and show a range of CROSS-CURRICULAR activities based on this topic that could help our
students learn English.
• We can get the students to researchllook at different types of banana and
categorise them.
• The students can learn about the life cycle of a banana. They can research the
growing and harvesting of bananas.
• They can learn about where bananas are grown and make VISUAL ORGANISERS (such as
graphs or maps) -+105 showing which countries are the biggest producers.
• They can complete a class survey, asking each other about which fruits they like
most, or how many bananas they eat in a week, a month, etc. They can transfer this
information to a visual organiser of some kind.
• Students can hear or read about the daily life of a banana grower.
• The students can enjoy learning and singing Day-o (The Banana Boat Song), a
traditional SONG about dockworkers loading the banana boats in Jamaica and waiting
for their work to be counted when daylight comes so that they can go home.
• Students can think about other work songs which have call-and-response verses to
help people enjoy their work. We can introduce simple sea shanties, for example.
• The students can learn about how bananas are weighed and soldoThey can act out a
visit to the greengrocer's where they go to buy bananas and other fruits and vegetables.
• Students can make banana puppets and use them to create conversations.
• They can discuss different banana recipes. They can make a banana smoothie or other
simple banana-based dish.
• They can read information about why bananas are good for you. They can discuss
healthy eating in general and make lists about healthy and unhealthy eating options.
They can design a healthy eating programme or leaflet,
• Students can write an 1 like/I don 't like poem about bananas -+63.
We can summarise (some of) the different activities in a TOPIC WEB. We can use the topic
web as the basis for planning a SEQUENCE OF LESSONS -+80.

_ .:= cycle of bananas Health benefits Where bananas are grown Life of a banana grower

Geography/cross-cultural

BANANAS
Expressive arts

- g Favourite dishes

Puppet dialogue Class survey: Where/how

how many children eat bananas many bananas are
and when grown

221
 Assessing
young learners
,' .

Why we test young learners

When we think about assessing (or testing) young learners, we have to decide what we
are testing for and how we want to do it. There are a number of reasons for testing
young learners.
• Sometimes we test students because we want to see what they have achieved or how
proficient they are (e.g. what they know). We call this kind of assessment
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT.

• Sometimes, however, we assess students because we want to see how well they sre
doing, in order to help them do better. We call this kind of assessment FORMATIVE
ASSESSMENT; we use the results of the assessment to show our students how to impro -

• Some learners have to sit 'sudden death' tests at the end of a semester or year. Some
students do very well in tests like this - it suits their learning style - but others done
because this type of testing isn't right for them.
• A lot of young learner assessment is based on CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, (including
PORTFOLlO ASSESSMENT -+88) where we are continually evaluating the students' work
and helping them to improve over the semester or year.
We discuss assessment and testing in more detail in -+88-90. We talk about testing f -
CLlL in -+110.

Continuous assessment
Because children develop at different speeds and are constantly changing, we need to
gather information about them as often as possible.
• We can look at our students' work as evidence (imagining that we are detectives).
We can then see what the evidence tells us so that we can take action to help our
students improve.
222
 • When we look at a student's work, we can make a list of the strengths it has and then
say what the student can do to improve and build on those strengths. For example, we
might say She knows when to use the PRESENT SIMPLE ~6 tense (strength.) and S'6e needs 6efp
to understand tbat we add an :r' to the third person singular, or He knows how to tell a story
(strength) but He needs help to organise the events oJa story into a coherent order -+34.
• We can make a LEARNER LANGUAGE PROFILE (LLP) for each student. The profile rnight
consist of a number of CAN-DO STATEMENTS -+41 such as, for example, (in reading)
He/she can read and understand al! oJ tbe words in word list A or (for listening) He/she can
understand simple instructions.
• Most teachers don't have time to fi11in learner language profiles a11the time, so it is
helpful to divide the class up into GROUPS -+67 and plan activities so that while
Group A is doing some colouring, Group B is in the reading corner and Group e is
watching a video, we can listen to Group D and fi11in the LLP for the students in it.
In the next lesson we can switch the groups around.

Students assess themselves

We can encourage older children to assess themselves.
• At the end of a SEQUENCE OF LESSONS (for example two weeks' work or a unit in a
coursebook), we can ask them to say yes or no to statements such as ] can give my
opinion about fhings with the expression '] think that ... ' or ] can use more than two
adjectives (in the right order) to describe objects and people. If they say no, they can go back
to the lessons they have studied and look again at that particular language point.
• At the end of a sequence of lessons, students can do tasks similar to the ones they have
been doing. When they have done these tasks, they themselves say if they have been
successful or noto For example, they have to listen to three descriptions of objects and
write down what the objects are. If they can do this, they can tick (vi) a statement
which says ] can understand descriptions oJ objects. The statement is written in English
and/or in their home language (Ll ). We might ask them do an exercise using the
GOING TO FUTURE -+5. If they are successful, they themselves can tick a statement (in
English or in their Ll ) which says] can say what people are/are not planning to do.

Types of test items

When we design tests for young learners - or when young learners do PROFICIENCY TESTS
-+88 - we wi11write test items which are similar to things which the students have been
doing in their lessons.
• In listening tests for young learners who don't yet write well, we can ask the students
to point to the objects which we name or describe. We can also use pictures and
picture cards so that we can ask them to do things, such as Put the dog bebind the soJa.
• In speaking tests for older children (perhaps eight years old or more), we can ask them
to FINO THE OIFFERENCES -+50 between two similar pictures when talking to an examiner
- or two children can do the activity and an examiner can listen and grade their
speaking to each other. They can do a range of INFORMATION-GAP ACTlVITIES -+50 or tell
a story based on pictures that we give them.
• In reading and writing tests for younger children who have just started to read, we can
ask them to put ticks and crosses (or yes or no) to say if statements are true (for example
This is a crocodile) or unscramble letters te-e-d-e-i-l-o-o-r¡ to make a word (crocodile).
• In reading and writing tests for older chiJdren (perhaps eight years or more), we can
ask them to do FILL-IN tasks by choosing words from a box which have accompanying
illustrations. We can ask them if statements about a picture (for example, There are
three monkeys on top oJ the car) are true or falseoWe can ask them to complete a
dialogue using lines we give them.
223
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 Section G: Content and Language
Integrated Lea rn i ng
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is the name given to a kind of teaching
(and learning) where the students study a subject such as biology, maths or citizenship
and, at the same time, learn the language they need to understand and talk about the
subject in a second language.
In this section we look at many aspects of teaching CLIL. After an introductory unit
which explains what it is, we discuss the kind of language that CLIL lessons delivered in
English focus on, and we show how genre is extremely important for CLIL lessons.
We look at the many visual organisers (diagrammatic ways of showing information) that
CLIL learners need to be able to use, and we discuss the different kinds of material and
activities that CLIL teachers can exploit. We also look at what the teacher's roles are for
CLIL teaching.
Finally, we look at the issues that teachers need to consider when they plan CLIL lessons
- and how they can assess their students' knowledge (and language).

102 Introducing CLlL

103 The language of CLlL
104 Genre in CLlL
105 Using visual organisers
106 Materials and resources for CLlL
107 Teaching CLlL
108 CLlL adivities
109 Planning CLlL
110 Assessing CLlL
 What is CUL?
CLlLstands for CONTENT ANO LANGUAGE INTEGRATED lEARNING. In other words, the students
study content (geography, physics, music, maths, etc.) through and with a second
language, and they study language through and with the contento
Introducing CLIL • People who like and use CLIL say that students (especially at primary and secondary
levels) have more success as language learners when they are taught using CLIL.
They also do well in their knowledge of the contento
• CLIL can be taught using a second language, an AOOITIONAL LANGUAGE (in other words
a third, fourth, fifth language, etc.) or a mixture of languages - for example, the
CLIL language together with the students' first language. This is sometimes called
TRANSLANGUAGE CLIL.

• CLIL can, of course, be delivered in languages other than English (LOTE), but in this
section we will concentrate on CLIL using English.
• Although both language and content are important in CLIL, we organise lessons on
the basis of contento However, CLIL is successful when the content and the language
are closely connected. For example, if the students are learning about the life-cycle 0-
a butterfly, they will focus on the language we use to describe a process, such as the
PRESENT SIMPLE -+6; TIME AOVERBIALS -+11 (first, after that, etc.) and the specific
vocabulary they need (leaf, egg, larvae, caterpillar, pupa, chrysalis, etc.).

• The language in CLIL may not be the usuallist of grammar items that we expect to
see in language learning COURSEBOOKS and materials. Instead, we only teach what the
students need for the content of the lesson - and this may be PHRASES and words rath
than complete grammar patterns.
• CLIL is different from general English teaching because students use language to
learn rather than learning language to use later.
• CLIL focuses on four special areas: CONTENT (the subject itself), COMMUNICATION
(using language effectively), COGNITION (thinking skills - how we learn), and CULTURE
(understanding our own culture and its relationship to other cultures). We discuss
these 4cs for planning in -+109.

CLlL methodology
There isn't a lot of difference between good generallanguage teaching and the teaching
techniques which are necessary for successful CLIL lessons.
• CLIL experts say that teachers should stress social interaction in the classroom:
between teacher and students, and between students and students.

226
 ~~ -
--=-
-------------~~~~-
-- ",.,."..=.- - - - ~-==----==---- -= - - -

lntroducine Cí.ñ,

• In CLIL lessons, the students should COllABORATE with each other, often working in
PAIR5 and GROUP5 ~67 to solve problems, do research or report back on what they
have found out.
• CLIL teachers try to support their students by 5CAFFOlDING their learning - in other
words, getting the students to experience things in stages to help them understand.
We discuss scaffolding in ~6S and -+91.
• In CLIL lessons, the students are asked to use METACOGNITIVE 5KIll5 - in other words,
to think about how they learn.
• In CLIL lessons, the students are asked to think creatively.
We look at some CLIL activities in ~108.

How is CUL offered around the world (and who teaches it)?
Many schools and education organisations say that they use CLIL. However, because
CLIL is used in many different contexts, they may be talking about very different
situations.
• Many people talk about 50FT ClIl and HARD CUlo Soft CLIL happens when some
language learning (but not all) is organised with strong 5UBJECT content (such as
geography, environmental science, etc.). However, when teachers deliver whole areas
of the curriculum (science, history, etc.) in a second or additionallanguage (and when
language and content are both taught at the same time), this is hard CLIL.
• Some schools and teachers offer short (say, 15-hour) CLIL courses. Others have
CLIL courses running through a whole semester or year.
• Some CLIL courses are taught by a subject teacher (a geography or physics teacher,
for example) who speaks English well enough to do this, or by an English teacher who
can manage the CLIL contento
• In some situations, the students study the content first in their Ll and then again with
a language teacher who can focus on the CLIL language.
• In many situations, subject teachers and English teachers work together so that
language lessons back up the subject lesson language.

How to make CUL successful

CLIL is not a worldwide phenomenon yet. It is becoming more popular, but it is difficult
to say if it will be the way that everyone teaches English and content in a few years.
Perhaps some countries and teachers will say no to CLIL because (they believe) students
learn better in their own language, and there are not enough language and subject
teachers to make it work - or enough money!
• Teachers who are using the CLIL language need to have a good enough level of that
language so that they can model the sentences and phrases that the students need.
• When language and subject teachers work together, they need time to prepare and
liaise with each other. We look at PlANNING CUl in ~109.
• When teachers are using CLIL for the first time, they need proper training and
support. This is especially true if they have been non-CLIL language teachers before.
• A5SESSMENT and TESTING of CLIL have to support CLIL teaching. We look at general
assessment in ~88-90 and at CLIL assessment in ~110.

- - ~---=--=--- ..~-------- ---~

--=---= --
. -
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 Thelanguage
of CLIL

Types of language
Students need various different kinds of language to study a CLIL subject. Teachers n -
to be able to identify what these language types (and items) are when they are PlANNI -
ClIl activities and lessons ~109.

• The language that students need for CLIL is sometimes more varied than the
language they would need for general English.
• Many CLIL theorists make a difference between BICS (BASIC INTERPERSONAl
COMMUNICATION sxius) and CAlP (COGNITIVE ACADEMIC lANGUAGE PROFICIENCV). Wherea
BICS are the kind of language and skills that are frequently taught in standard
language learning classes, CALP relates to the kind of language that students need
study a curriculum subject, such as maths, science, geography, etc.
• When students are learning in the CLIL language, they will need CONTENT-OBlIGATOF
lANGUAGE. This consists of words, structures and FUNCTIONS ~30 which are essentia,
for the particular topic they are studying. In general English language learning we
often decide to teach more frequent vocabulary items first, but in a CLIL lesson the
topic will help us to decide what words to teach (and what COllOCATIONS ~20 to
include) even if they are not very frequent for other situations. For example, if
students are learning about elephants, they will need specific vocabulary, such as
African elephant, Asian elephant, poacher, ivory, trunk, tusk, etc.

• CLIL students will also need CONTENT-COMPATIBlE lANGUAGE - in other words, the
everyday kind of language which is useful both for the study of a specific topic and
also for generallanguage use. When the students are learning about orchestral
instruments and procedures, for example, they will use verbs such as blow, hit, play,
start, stop, sit, etc., all of which are also used in everyday situations.

• In TRANSlANGUAGE ClASSROOMS ~102 teachers and students will sometimes use the
students Ll ~77 for some explanation and discussion before reverting to the CLIL
language for the main study.

228
 The language of
............................. _.
e

Grammar and CLlL

Students need to be able to use appropriate grammar structures in the CLIL language -
and these will depend on the topic being studied and what they are expected to do and
say about it, as the following examples show:
• Students can use the PRESENT CONTINUOUS ~6 to talk about something happening now
(or a changing situation), e.g. 1am exposing the pbospborus to the air (chemistry) or The
water is getting warmer (physics).
• The PRESENT SIMPLE ~6 can be used to talk about processes and general truths in
sentences such as A viola hasfour strings (music) and Orangutangs live in the tropical
rainforests of Sumatra and Borneo (geography).
• We use PASSIVE constructions ~1 to talk about processes and events when we want to
stress the action and the result rather than the person who does it, e.g. Atahualpa was
executed by the Spanish conquistadores in 1S33 (history) or The cocoabeans are dried in the
sun (science).
• PAST TENSES can be used to talk about historical events in sentences like Benito ]uarez
lioed from 1806 until1872 (history) or to describe what happened in the classroom,
e.g. While Hiromi was preparing the experiment, Keiko was reporting on ber actions (science).

• MODAL AUXllIARY VERBS ~8 are used to express concepts such as certainty, possibility,
obligation, etc. in sentences like Conditions below decks on the ship 'La Amistad' must have
been terrible (history) or The potatoes can be boiled 01' roasted (domestic science).
• CONDITIONAL SENTENCES ~2 are used for expressing a general rule, prediction or
hypotheticalityin sentences like If you multiply [our by seven, you get twenty-eight
(mathematics) or lf Archduke Ferdinand had not been assassinated in Sarajevo in 1914,
Europe might not have gone to war (history).
• Students will often have to report ~10 what people say in their CLIL language in
sentences such as The conductor told us to play more quietly (music) or He asked me to
calculate the time it would take (science).

Language for a purpose

In order to achieve the purpose for their communication in CLIL lessons students will
need to be able to use various LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS ~30, appropriate PUNCTUATION ~31
and other conventions for writing, as the following examples show:

• Students may need to be able to give opinions if they are discussing a work of art or a
piece of music, using language such as 1think ... and In my opinion ....

• They may need to describe processes, using language such as First, the wood is chipped
and tben it isfed into steam-beated containers.

• When primary students are discussing whether something will float in water, they
may need to agree and disagree using language such as 1don't agree. 1think it will sink
or Yes, 1agree. 1think Paula is right because ....

• Students will need to use language items and written conventions if they want to
give examples, including such as and for example, and punctuation features such as
BRACKETS (), SEMICOLONS (;), DASHES (-), etc. ~31

• Students will need to be able to define things using language such as kind/type of
(a sturgeon is a kind of coldfreshwater predator) and RELATIVE CLAUSES ~ 2 (capillaries are
small blood vessels which connect arterioles and venules).
• Students may need to make generalisations (general statements) using Ianguage such
as tend (most people tend to eat tbeir evening meai at around eigbt o'cloÍ:k),in tbe majority of
cases,in general, etc.

229
 Language functions and tasks
Students will have to perform different LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS ~30 and tasks in CLIL
lessons. The specific tasks will depend on the particular curricular subject they are
studying, as in the fo11owingexamples.
Genre in CLIL • If students are studying music, we will expect them to do things in the CLIL
language such as explain, demonstrate, identify and describe instruments, notes
and styles.
• When students study science subjects, they will have to do things such as HYPOTHESISE
about what will happen, describe EXPERIMENTS and processes and write up records of
what they have found.
• When students study history, they will have to do such things as write biographical
texts and draw TIMELlNES.
• Geography students may have to interpret map features, write descriptions and
use various graphics and VISUAL ORGANISERS ~10S to explain facts, features
and events.
• When students study mathematics, they will probably need to explain
mathematical concepts, describe how they solved problems and draw and label
geometric figures.

Genre and CUL

A GEN RE ~32 is a particular type of art, music, text, etc., whether spoken or written.
The specific examples in a genre share some features; for example, most letters start
with a greeting. It is important for a11students (whether in CLIL lessons or GENERAL
ENGLlSH ~41 classes) to understand and to be able to use the features in various genres.

• CLIL genres are things like encyclopaedia entries, letters, poems, reports, scientific
descriptions, oral presentations, newspaper articles, discursive essays, etc.
• A text within a genre is written in a particular REGISTER ~33. The language may
be FORMAL or it may be INFORMAL and it will have SUBJECT-SPECIFIC LANGUAGE.
For example, a biology text will have biological words and terms.
• Texts in a genre (or oral presentations/discussions, etc.) have certain layouts.
For example, in formalletters there is a special place for the address of the letter
writer and the address of the person or organisation they are writing to. In oral
presentations (with visual support) there is a special place for the title of the talk, etc.
• Texts or presentations within a genre need to be COHERENT ~34. In other words,
information must be presented in a logical sequence. For example, when describing a
science experiment, we might organise our report by saying 1) what we wanted to
find out, 2) how we decided to try to find it out, 3) what we did, 4) what happened,
(5) what we found out and (6) what we are going to do next.

• Various sections in a genre tend to be constructed in similar ways. For example,

newspaper headlines are often written in the PRESENT SIMPLE ~6 and they omit
sma11words such as ARTlCLES ~13, PREPOSITIONS ~1 and MODAL AUXILlARIES ~8,
e.g. Police arrest man after high-speed chase.
• Texts in certain genres are often accompanied by a variety of visual organisers ~105.

230
 Genre in CLlL

Helping students to understand and produce genre features

We must give our students guidance if we want them to write or speak in a specific
genre. They should do GENRE ANALYSIS -+59 by looking at a text, studying its construction
and language features, and then using it as a model. For example, the students read the
following text and answer questions, such as:

What is the purpose of the text?

Where does it come from?
How is the subjectlname of the entry presented?
How are the subject's dates given (and where)?
What information is given in the first paragraph?
What order are the events in the entry presented in?
What time adverbials are used?
How and why are brackets used in the second paragraph?

ustafa Kemal Atatürk

ustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881-1938) was a Turkish army officer, revolutionary

atesman and writer. He founded the Republic of Turkey and was the first Turkish
resident.

er the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in WWI, Atatürk led the Turkish national
.ovement in the Turkish War of Independence. He set up a provisional government
Ankara, and then he defeated the allied forces (soldiers from the United Kingdom,
=:rance, Russia, Belgium, Serbia, Greece, Japan and Romania) who had invaded
- rkey. His military campaigns gained Turkey independence. After Turkish
ependence, Atatürk started to introduce political, economic and cultural reforms.
-9 wanted to make Turkey a modern and secular country. He was president of
-~rkey from 1923 until his death in 1938.

• The students now research another historicalleader so that they will be able to write
their own encyclopaedia entry.
• With the teacher's help, the students will use their genre analysis and their research
to produce a text which follows the same model as the one they have been studying.
We will guide them so that the subject's name is written in bold with the dates in
brackets immediately after it. They will stick to the model closely: they will describe
the subject briefly in the first paragraph before describing their life in chronological
order. We will expect them to use time adverbials such as after, then, from, until, etc.
and SUBJECT-SPECIFIC VOCABULARY such as gouernment, revolution, independence,
president, etc.

• At various stages during the procedure we will ask the students to look at more
examples of the genre and compare them to the first one they have seen.
We discuss genre for general English writing in -+59.

231
 Presenting information in a visual way
When students read or hear information - and then have to present what they have
learnt - they will use a number of presentation devices and visual organisers.

Using visual
.
orgarusers
Why visual organisers matter
• The information that students see, read, watch or listen to is often presented as text,
either in books or ONUNE, as material on BOARDS or INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARDS ~85,
with the use of video or AUDIO DEVICES, or via PRESENTATION SOFTWARE ~87 such as
PotieiPoint, Keynote and Prezi.
• We often use VISUAL ORGANISERS (such as WORD MAPS ~22, TABlES, VENN DIAGRAMS or
PIE CHARTS) so that the information is clearer. This is especially useful for more
VISUALLEARNERS ~40.
• When students present their OWIl work, they must be able to use visual
organisers, too.
• Visual organisers are useful devices for teaching. For example, we can ask our studenrs
to transfer information from a written text to a graph or table. They are also useful in
assessment. For example, we can give the students information in the form of a visual
organiser. They then have to transform it into written texto

Types of visual organiser

There are many types of visual organiser.
• A BAR CHART (1) uses rectangles of different heights to show frequency or quantity.

• A CYCLE (2) shows a typical sequence of events.

• A WORD MAP ~22 shows how things and categories (types) of things relate to each
other~.
• A UNE GRAPH (3) shows how things are developing (or have developed).
• A PIE CHART (4) shows relative proportions by means of the size of different 'slices' of
the same 'pie'.
• STORYBOARDS ~62 are drawings or plans of a sequence of events. We some times
include speech bubbles or thought bubbles.
• VEN N DIAGRAMS (5) show similarities and differences between different groups.
• TREE DIAGRAMS show hierarchical relationships, such as (in a company) the relative
importance of the chief executive, managing director, directors of departments,
assistants to the director, etc. There is an example of a tree diagram showing
SUPERORDINATES and HYPONYMS in ~18.
• A QUADRANT (6) shows how things can be identified in two ways.

• A T-CHART (7) divides things into two categories.

• CARROLL DIAGRAMS (8) (named after Lewis Carroll the author of Atice in Wonderland)
are used for grouping things in a kind of yes/no way.
• A TABlE can be used to put things in different categories and summarise information.
• CAUSE AND EFFECT diagrams (9) (PROCESS DIAGRAMS) show how certain effects happen
- what leads up to them.
• FLOW DIAGRAMS (10) show processes and the order in which they happen.

• A BINARY KEY (11) divides information into a series of yes/no questions.

232
 Using visual organisers
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233
Materials
and resources
for CLIL

Differences between materials for CUL and general English

There are many differences between materials written for GENERAL ENGLlSH lessons, and
those which are designed especially for subject-specific purposes such as CLIL or
ENGLlSH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES (ESP).

• General English materials are often organised on the basis of a grammatical syllabus:
Unit 1 = the verb to be, Unit 2 = the present simple, Unit 3 = the present continuous.
etc. CLIL materials are often organised by subject or content area, such as
Environmental sciences 1: Water and where it comes from, Environmental sciences :.
Water and what it is used for, Environmental Sciences 3: How and why we use
water in the home, etc.
• General English materials are often tightly graded so that the students only see the
language which fits with the GRAMMAR and VOCABULARY SYLLABUSES. Material for CLIL
and ESP lessons will often have a greater variety of language, however, because more
complicated ideas and processes need to be explained.
• General English materials often deal with general themes, such as families, sport,
great inventions of history or living in cities. CLIL and ESP materials usually focus
on more specific topics, such as how city transport systems work, the life cycle of the
emperor penguin, nutrition, etc.
• Whereas CLIL teaches content and language, ESP lessons frequently focus on the
language about the content, which the students already know.

Adapting materials for CUL

We can get material for CLIL courses from a variety of sources, such as the INTERNET,
or from COURSEBOOKS written for general English. .
• We can reorder or rewrite the RUBRICS (the instructions telling students what to do)
that they are easier to understand.
• We can add our own CLIL-based tasks. For example, in a general English text about
different animals, we can ask questions such as What do al! the animals have in common.
or Can you S077 the animals into groups, according to what they eat and uibere tbey live?
 Materials and resources for CLlL

• We can rewrite the texts we are using and provide helpful illustrations or VISUAL
ORGANISER backup ~105. We can remove unriecessary detail or paraphrase the text
(say the same thing in an easier way), using words that the students are likely to know.
Compare the first text (the original) with the simplified version below it:

Violinists can alter the sounding pitch of their strings in two ways. They can use
the tuning pegs on the pegbox to tighten or loosen the tension of the strings, or
they can press down OR a string anywhere on the fingerboard. When a violinist
presses a string to the fingerboard, he or she is shortening its effective length,
which causes the string to vibrate more rapidly. Violinists can a1sorapidly change
the sounding pitch of a string by pressing a string against the fingerboard and
subtly pushing and pulling the string, which makes the sounding pitch oscillate
above and below the central pitch. This technique is called vibrato.

-
A violin player can make a string sound higher or lower in two ways. They can turn
the tuning pegs (1) so that the string (2) is tenser (tighter) or less tense (looser).
When the player puts their finger on a string (and presses it down onto the
fingerboard (3» they make the string shorter. This makes it vibrate (move) more
quickly and so the note is higher. When they take their finger away, the string is
longer and it vibrates more slowly and so the note is lower. If the player moves
their finger backwards and forwards very quickly the note goes up and down. This
gives a p1easant effect which is called vibrato.

Notice that CONTENT-OBLlGATORY LANGUAGE, such as tuning peg, string,jingerboard, vibrato,

etc. are still there, but other terms (and some grammatical constructions) have been
simplified to make it easier for students. Also, the simplífied text will be accompanied
by an illustration with numbers identifying the different parts of the violín.

CUL resources
We will bring a wide range of resources to the classroom - and we will expect our
students to use a wide range of resources themselves.
• We can use a variety of book-based material. This can be from encyclopaedias,
DICTIONARIES, coursebooks (including general English coursebooks - though we will
have to adapt these), stories and content-specific books which discuss such things as
history, scientific processes or mathematical calculations.
• We will use a variety of materials, such as paper, cardboard, pens, glue and scissors
(for example) when we want to make (or ask the students to make) models, large
charts or displays of material. We will bring in REALlA (real objects) to help the
students understand concepts and processes.
• We will present information using text, illustrations, visual organisers, AUDIO and
video and any other appropriate resources.
• A CLIL classroom will often have a range of educational technology, such as BOARDS
of various kinds (including the INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARD or smartboards, etc.). Many
CLIL teachers use laptops and DATA PROJECTORS to show and explain a variety of
concepts and processes or to show films and video clips ~85-87.
• Successful CLIL teachers use a wide variety of media to explain concepts. For example,
we can show paper charts to explain the life cycle of the emperor penguin, project
photos of the penguins' habitat, give the students short texts to read, project video
clíps or use PowerPoint or other PRESENTATION SOFTWARE (such as Keynote and Prezii.
• Srudenzs can sccess materials fram the (NTERNET or vra APPS (APPUCATfONS) or on eD!
DVD, etc. They can do RESEARCH ~46 using online or handheld dictionaries,
encyclopaedias, etc. They can download a range of material onto their laptops or
TABLET COMPUTERS (if they have them).
 Teaching CLIL

The teacher's responsibilities

CLIL classes should foster co-operation rather than competition in an atmosphere of
mutual respecto We can create a CODEOFCONDUCT ~71 to ensure this.
• When students are working on difficult content areas, our job is to reduce their
anxiety so that they have a good chance of success. We will encourage collaboration
through PAIRWORK and GROUPWORK ~67.
• We will SCAFFOLD student learning experiences by breaking learning tasks down into
small, achievable, logical steps ~65, 91.
• We will monitor learning and give positive and encouraging support and FEEDBACK
~ 72 during and after tasks.
• We will activate the students' prior knowledge (SCHEMATA ~61) and do our best to
ENGAGE their interest when we start a new lesson sequence ~80.

• We will summarise what the students have learnt, often in a PLENARY session at the en;
of the lesson.
• CLIL teachers use the students' Ll when it is necessary for the understanding of
content or for classroom management ~ 77.
• We will remember that students need thinking time (WAIT TIME) when they are
working on a complex task, so we will not expect instant answers!

How teachers can help students with language

One of the main teacher roles in the CLIL classroom is to help the students learn the
language that applies to the content they are learning.
• We need to highlight and model SUBJECT-SPECIFIC VOCABULARY. For example, if our
physics lesson is about energy, we may want the students to know or be able to say
words like matter, mass,jorce and energy, and COLLOCATIONS ~20 such as thermal
energy, electromagnetic energy, transfer energy, etc.

• We need to highlight (and MODEL) SUBJECT-SPECIFIC SENTENCES, such as (for a lesson on

musical instruments) The strings of a viola are tuned to A, D, G and e or (for a brass
instrument) We change the notes by pressing different combinations of valves.
• We can model the language that the students need to know by saying it clearly and
isolating the elements that they need to concentrate on (e.g. are tuned ... listen ... ar.
tuned ... the strings of a viola are tuned ... etc.).

236
 Tea .-

• We can write sentences on the board which the students then have to complete.
For example, we might write the following on the board: The strings of the viola __
__ to A, D, G and e and We change the notes by __ different combinations of __ .
We give the students the words are, pressing, tuned and ualues, and with our support
they have to use them to do the task. .

How teachers can help students with cognitive skills

We need to teach our students to use their THINKING SKILLS to help them understand the
content and to help them understand the process oflearning.
• We need to help the students to develop their CONCRETE THINKING SKILLS so that they
can classify and organise information with the help of visual organisers such as TABLES,
WORD MAPS and VENN DIAGRAMS. Such LOWER-ORDER THINKING SKILLS (LOTS) can be
encouraged by asking VES/NO QUESTIONS -+3, such as 1s a trumpet a brass instrument?
and what questions, such as What do we call a cat'sfeet?
• As children start to develop towards the OPERATlONAL STAGE -+91, we will help them
develop ABSTRACT THINKING SKILLS, such as reasoning and hypothesising. We can
encourage such HIGHER-ORDER THINKING SKILLS (HOTS) by asking why and how questions,
such as How doyou know that the people in the picture don't have much money? vVby do
riuers run in one direction? and OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS -+3 with what, such as What do
you think will happen if we expose this phosphorus to tbe open air?
• We can encourage our students to think carefully about their answers. We can prompt
them to think in more detailldepth with more how/why/what questions, such as What
is it that makes you think that? Why baue you colouredyour elephant green? etc.
• We should encourage the students to ask questions themselves. We can say things like
What questions would you like to ask the people in the picture? Or Think of the questions you
would like to ask for your classSU1'IJey,etc.
• We will encourage our students to analyse GENRES -+32 (whether they are reading a
text, listening to a song, watching a video or accessing information on a computer).
They can decide what kind of a text (or song, etc.) it is, and say who it has been
designed for and what makes it successful.
• We can put individual students (or PAIRS) in the HOTsEAT-+51. They have to answer
all the questions that the other students ask them.

How CLlL teachers encourage good learning

We need to get our students to think about how to learn so that they willlearn
more effectively.
• We can get the students to compare the work they are doing with work they have
done before. We will get them to see how and why they have made improvements.
• We can give the students different strategies for doing a task and ask them how
effective they are. For example, we can show them four different ways of taking notes.
They have to think about which one they prefer and why.
• We can discuss the best way of remembering words and encourage the students to
keep VOCABULARV BOOKS in which they write down words and phrases that they need
to remember.
• At the end of a lesson or unit of work, we can get the students to think about what was
difficult and what was easy - and why. We can get them to thinkltake notes about how
they will use what they have learnt and how they will follow it up.
 Balancing activities
CLIL teachers use many of the same activities that teachers of GENERAL ENGLlSH use -+
However, in CLIL lessons, we balance the 4CS -+109 in ways that give real CLIL
activities a special 'feel'.
CLIL activities
Cats and dogs
., ..••.............•......•...............
We can talk about cats and dogs with YOUNG LEARNERS aged between five and eight.
• The students can do a class SURVEY about who has cats or dogs as pets. They can ther
count the number of cats and the number of dogs and find out which are more pop
• We can introduce the children to a cat and a dog (we can use photographs, drawings.
computer animations or PUPPETS -+93). They can decide on names for them and can
imagine their lives, and tell or write a daily diary for them.
• We can find stories about dogs and cats to use in our READING CIRCLE -+96.
• We can make a VENN DIAGRAM -+105 about the similarities and differences between
cats and dogs. This will mean that we have to teach some CONTENT-OBLlGATORY
language -+103, such as bark, purr, claws, whiskers, tail, paw, etc.
• The children can find out what cats and dogs like and need to eat and drink and the
amounts that are necessary for them, and they can compare that with humans.
• They can talk about cat and dog 'families' and separate them into wolf and cat families

Rivers
Slightly older children (7-12) can do work about how rivers are formed and how
they function.
• We can ask them to tell us about any rivers or streams they know or have visited.
• Students can research the water cycle and label the stages of evaporation, convection,
condensation, wind shift and rainfall. While they do this they will need to learn the
specialist vocabulary for describing the process.
• Students can learn about the basic principles of how rivers work - flowing downhill
- and how erosion (of river banks, etc.), transportation (how the rocks and materials
that are picked up by a flowing river are carried along by its energy) and deposition
(when the materials fall to the bottom because there is not enough energy to carry
them along) change the shape of rivers over time.
• Students can do experiments to see what angle is needed for water to flow, what happ
when the water stops falling downwards (it meanders) and why flowing happens.
• We can ask them to find out about the length, breadth and depth of some of the worlds
largest rivers. They can make visual organisers, such as bar charts, to compare them.
• Students can learn about some of the capital cities of the world that are built on and besi -
big rivers. They can discuss the languages, cultures, religions and activities of those citi -
• Students can learn about what humans use rivers for (transportation, irrigation,
hydroelectric power, fishing, pleasure, etc.).

Music, anyone?
• We can introduce our students to four different instruments and teach the difference
between blowing, bowing, plucking and hitting.
 eL! actn"~sI

• We can play students recordings of different instruments. They have to say whether they
are plucked, hit, bowed or hit. They can then do research in books or on the computIT
so that they can label a world chart showing where the different instruments are played.
• They can practise passive constructions, such as Violins are made of wood. They are
played with a bow. They are used in classicalmusic and folk music, etc.
• Students can make a WORD MAP -+22 to describe different categories of instrument.
For example, we can divide 'blown' instruments into woodwind and brass. We can
divide woodwind instruments into single reed and double reed instruments, etc.
• We can play the students music from different countries. They have to say whether
the music is sad, happy, good to dance to, etc.
• Students can learn to play percussion instruments. We can build up a class piece,
where they learn about counting, rhythm, speed, etc.
• We can use music as a stirnulus for writing words and POEMS -+63.

Life on the edge

In the following exarnple, for older children, we show how a photograph can be the
source for COGNITION and COMMUNICATION SKILLS and how these can be SCAFFOLDED -+65.
Students can learn to empathise, and learn about different cultures before relating what
they are learning to their own lives.

• We show the students the photograph and we ask them some lower-order thinking skills
(LOTS) questions -+107, such as Wbere is the boy? What does he have in his bands? What is
bebind him? before rnoving on to higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) questions -+107
such as Why is the boy tbere, doyou tbink? What are your reasonsfor your ansuiers? We can
ask them to speculate about how the boy feels and how they know this.
• We can teach language such as 1 think the boy is ... because he looks very ...
• We can ask the students if they would like to be in the picture and to give reasons for
their answers.
• We can introduce the concept of recycling and show how the people in the
photograph earn small amounts of money by rescuing rubbish that can be re-used.
• We can estimate how much household rubbish a family produces and discuss how
much of it can be/should be recycled, etc.
• We can discuss how the life of the boy in the photograph could be/should be improved,
 -
~=-=~~ -- --
--
~-
---=
-

- ~---'--'"'-

Planning CLIL

f········································
.

Planning CLlL lessons

We discuss planning in general in -+79-80. However, there are some extra things that
we need to think about when planning CLIL lessons.

Outcomes and demands

• As with alllesson planning, we need to consider the learning OUTCOMES -+79 of any
lesson we are going to teach. We want to know what our students will know or be able te
do better at the end of the lesson than they knew or were able to do at the beginning.
• We should always be aware, however, that things don't always turn out as we plan
them to. Good CLIL teachers respond to events in a lesson as they happen and, as a
result, they may have to adapt their plan because of UNFORESEEN PROBLEMS or MAGIC
MOMENTS (where we decide to follow our students' unplanned creativity) -+79.

• When we plan CLIL lessons, we need to balance the demands of the 4CS: CONTENT,
COMMUNICATION, COGNITION and CULTURE. For example, if the leve! of cognition (the amour;:
of thinking that the students have to do) is high, we may want to make sure that we don:
ask too much of them in terms of their communication skills - because we do not w -
to make things too difficult for them. If our lesson has a lot of new content for the
students to absorb, then we try not to make them work too hard on the other three Cs,

Lesson shapes
We discuss METAPHORS for lesson planning (such as 'a lesson is like a book, a playa film'.
etc.) in -+79. Although there is no one perfect shape/metaphor to fit all circumstances,
CLIL lessons probably have certain characteristics in common.
• In a successful CLIL lesson, the students should be encouraged to think about the
content they are learning - and about learning in general.

240
 Planning CUL
...................

• A CLIL lesson will ask the students to engage with things that they have learnt
previously as well as with the new content and language for the dass.
• CLIL lessons often start by activating the students' prior knowledge, often with a
WARMER or ICEBREAKER -+70.

• We often end CLIL lessons with some kind of PLENARY feedback (where the students
are in a WHOlE-ClASS setting -+67) in which we sum up what has been learnt and
studied. We can ask the srudents to think about things such as what they have learnt,
wn?t. w?s 'C?sy?ne. e.lfuollt., ',me.wn?t. they sti\\ neeó or want to óo or hnd out.

What goes into a CLlL lesson plan

DiHerent teacners write diHerent kinds of plan, depending on factors such as their
students, tiieir own personal style, how long they have been teaching, whether they are
being observed or whether their school expects detailed plans. However detailed (or not)
the actual plan is:
• We need to decide what the CONTENT of Out lesson is. Content means things such as
geometric shapes (mathematics), different kinds of musical instruments (music), a
historical event (history), the cultivation of maize (geography) or what objects are
magnetic (science).
• We need to decide on Out learning AIMS for the students - or the learning outcomes
that the lesson will end with. What will the students have achieved when Out lesson is
over? We may want to divide Out learning outcomes into three sections: what the
students will know at the end of the lesson, what they will be able to do at the end of
the lesson, and what they will be aware of at the end of the lesson.
• We need to be able to say how we will know if Out aims have been met - in other
words, how we will ASSESS their effectiveness.
• We will want to plan what VOCABULARY, GRAMMAR structures or LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS,
etc. the students will need to use in the lesson. We will think of what they know, what
we want them to recyde, and what language will be new. We will think of the
LANGUAGE EXPONENTS that the students will want to use.

• We will want to be aware of the COGNITIVE SKlllS that the srudents are expected to
display. What thinking processes are we expecting them to be able to cope with
during the lesson?
• We have to decide what CULTURAL ELEMENTS we will indude in the lesson. We might
refer to other cultures and worlds, or to the students' own world. We might want to
deal with issues of CITIZENSHIP or CULTURAL IDENTlTY, for example.
• We need to think of what CLASSROOM RESOURCES Out lesson needs. For example, we
might need paints, large sheets of paper and tape if Out lesson is art-based. On the
other hand, we will need computers and internet access if the students are going to be
using a LEARNING PLATFORM.
• We need to plan Out lesson procedures and their TIMINGS (how long each lesson stage
will take). How will the lesson start? What happens next? How wiIl it end? etc.
• We wiIl want to say whether the students will be working as INDIVIDUAlS or in PAIRS or
GROUPS -+67.
• We need to plan for DIFFERENTIATION -+42. We should think of how we can meet the
demands of students at different levels and with different learning styles.
• When we plan, we will think of what the students already know and what they will do
after the lesson. What links to other parts of the CURRICULUM can we build into Out
lesson? Where can we send them to find out more about our topic?
We show examples of different lESSON PlANS in Appendix Con pages 250-256.

241
 --,~~-~-- ---= --~~:;:;=~-"::-~_::-=--

Types of assessment
As with all assessment, we can talk about SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT (where we find out
what students know or have learnt) and FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT (where we discover or
diagnose how the students are getting on so that we can help them do even better in
Assessing CLIL the future) -+88.

~...•........•.•.......................... What is special about assessing CLlL?

We discuss issues of assessment and TESTING in general in -+88-90, and we look at
assessing young learners in -+101. However, CLIL is different in some respects.
• When assessing CLIL learners we need to be clear about whether we are testing the
students' knowledge of the language or the contento For example, if we ask them to
label the bones in a skeleton, are we going to take marks off for spelling if they can
identify where the cervical vertebrae are but cannot spell them correctly?
• In CLIL evaluation, we may decide that if the students can explain (or demonstrate -
understanding of) the content adequately, then we will not assess the accuracy of th
language. On the other hand, we might decide that knowledge of content-obligator-
language (or particular CONTENT-COMPATIBLE language such as LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS
-+30, etc.) is crucial and, as a result, give priority to that.
• We can use ASSESSMENT SCALES -+90 to make the goal of our assessment clear.
For example, if we are assessing an oral presentation in a CLIL class (rather than a
general English class) we might have columns for content, organisation and languag=
But we might also assess the students in terms of the use of presentation software 0-
the use of visuals and diagrams to back up the presentation.
• The most important thing (especially with formative assessment) is that the studenrs
should know exactly how and why they will be assessed. This will tell them what
the point of the teaching and learning is, and help them to achieve their learning
outcomes successfully.

Supporting students in CLlL assessment

If we want our students to get the most out offormative assessment, we can use a
variety of SUPPORT STRATEGIES.
• We can simplify instructions, or re-phrase them, so that the students know exactly
what to do. We can read the instructions aloud, using gestures to make them more
comprehensible.
• We will give examples -+89 so that the students understand the task.
• We can add visual support (picture, diagrams, drawings, etc.) to help the students
perform the assessment task. We can make some of our tests OPEN-BOOK EXAMS so tha:
they can consult notes, etc. rather than doing everything from memory.
• We can sometimes allow the students to work in PAIRS to help each other complete
assessment tasks.
• We can help the students to REVIEW and EDIT their work -+57 before keeping it in a
folder (or on a LEARNING PLATFORM -+76) for use in PORTFOLlO ASSESSMENT -+88.
Support strategies like this are usually not appropriate for summatiue assessment.

242
So me CLlL test types
CLIL test item types should have VALlDITY ~88: they should reflect the kinds of tasks
that the students have done in their lessons. Although the number of possible test types
for CLIL is almost limitless, here are a few examples:
• We can get the students to transfer written information into VISUAL ORGANISERS ~105,
such as graphs, tables, etc.
• We can get the students to label diagrams or name the stages in a life cycle, for
example.
• We can ask the students to do MATCHING ~48 exercises which test their
understanding (but not their production) of language.
• We can ask the students to complete a summarising FILL IN about something that
they have read or seen. We can give them words to choose from when they fill in
the blanks.
• We can show the students pictures of animals and ask them to classify them according
to whether they are vertebrates or invertebrates. Younger learners can do this by
putting pictures on a chart, or by teUing us which kind an animal is.
• We can keep a LEARNER LANGUAGE PROFILE (LLP) in which we record what individual
students can do in various content and learning areas, for example, ... can explain
things to his/her peers (COMMUNICATlON SKILLS), ... can calculate percentages from raw data

about food consumption (COGNITIVE SKILLS) or ... can take notes in a way that is appropriate
for him/her (ATTITUDES TO LEARNING).

Students assessing themselves and each other

• We can give our students checklists which they can use to evaluate their own
performance, or the performance of others. For example (writing up a domestic
science procedure):
Tick the stages that you (or your colleague) completed.
1 listed the ingredients that were needed and the amounts that were needed.
1 listed the equipment that was necessary to complete the task.
1 explained what 1 did stage by stage.
1wrote a conclusion in which 1 said what the result was. 1 included what
went well and what the problems were (if any).
1 said what improvements 1would make in the future.

• Young learners who don't yet write well can tick pictures which show what they have
been doing and put smileylfrowny faces on the picture to say whether they have done
well or noto
• Older children can use self-evaluation sheets in which they complete sentences/
prompts such as 1 am good at ... , Today we learnt ... , 1found ... easy/difficult, 1 am best at
... , 1 need to get better at .... They can fill in charts which say things like Good at ... ,
Not very good at ... , What 1 am going to do to get better ....
• Students can complete their own CAN-DO STATEMENTS ~41 in which they say yes, no or
not sure to statements such as 1 can describe the human digestive system or 1 can make
simple multiplication and division calculations.
 Appendix A: Going further
As we said in Unit 78 (Teacherdevelopment), teachers can (re-)engage with their own
development in a number of ways:

Journals

If you want to keep up to date with what is happening (and what people are saying) in
world of English language teaching, you may want to read one of the following journa.s
• English Teaching Professional. This magazine offers very readable short, practical arti
on all aspects of English language teaching. It has a special section on teaching yo -
learners. www.etprofessional.com
• Modern English Teacher.This magazine offers articles on many aspects of language
teaching and contains 'about language' and 'practical ideas' sections.
www.onlinemet.com
• ELT Journal. This journal contains a variety of mostly theoretical articles based on
contributors' teaching experiences around the world. eltj.oxfordjournals.org
• TESOL Quarter/y. This is a largely theoretical journal with a strong emphasis on
US-based teaching. www.tesol.org
• AlI these journals have a reviews section which look at the latest publications.

Going online

Teachers can learn and interact with colleagues on many online sites:
• Teachers can go to the ETK website (www.pearsonELT.com/ETK) for activities, updates
and information. We also list some of the many individual teacher blogs and sites.
• The ETK website also has news of webinars and other online meetings and
discussion groups.
• Teachers can go to www.eltcommunity.com for discussions with other professionals
from around the world about any topic that interests them.
• Many teachers use social networking sites such as Twitter, Facebook, Google-, etc. to stav
in touch with their PLN (personallearning network).

Face-to-face networking
The best (and most enjoyable) way of going further is to attend workshops, meetings,
seminars and conferences with other colleagues and teachers.
Many countries and regions have teachers' associations. When teachers join these,
they get newsletters, journals, etc. - and they can attend regional and national
conferences. There is a list of teachers' associations and conferences on the ETK website
(www.pearsonELT.com/ETK).

244
Recommended reading
There are many, many books about teaching available from different publishers aroun
the world. The following lists give a small taste (only) of what is available.

The How to series

The How to Teach ... series, published by Pearson ELT, offers clear practical guidance
with appropriate background theory:
How to Teach English by J eremy Harmer
How to Teach English with Technology by Gavin Dudeney and Nicky Hockly
How to Teachfor Exams by Sally Burgess and Katie Head
How to Teach Grammar by Scott Thornbury
How to Teach Listening by JJ Wilson
How to Teach Pronunciation by Gerard Kelly
How to Teach Speaking by Scott Thornbury
How to Teach Vocabulary by Scott Thornbury
How to Teach Writing by Jeremy Harmer

General methodology
There are a number of books which provide guides to many aspects of language teachin u
- including, for example, background theories of language learning, language system and
skill teaching, classroom management, assessment and testing, etc.
The Practice ofEnglish Language Teaching by Jeremy Harmer (pearson ELT 2007).
This book takes a comprehensive look at the field of English language teaching.
Learning Teaching by Jim Scrivener (Macmillan 2010). A good practical guide to success
in the classroom
AnA-Z ofELTby ScottThornbury (Macmillan 2006). A bit like an encyclopaedia, this
book lists many important English language teaching topics in alphabetical order.
The TKT Course Modules 1, 2 and 3 by Mary Spratt, Alan Pulverness and Melanie
Williams (Cambridge University Press 2011). This is the official TKT handbook which
is entirely - and only - focused on the exam itself.
Dealing with Difficulties by Luke Prodromou and Lindsay Clandfield (DELTA
Publishing 2007). Ideas for large classes, classes with discipline problems, mixed-ability
classes, etc.
Teaching Unplugged by Luke Meddings and ScottThornbury (DELTA Publishing 2010).
This book gives ideas about teaching without materials (coursebooks, etc.).

CUL
Teaching Other Subjects Through English by Sheelagh Deller and Christine Price (Oxford
University Press 2007). This has a great range of activities for teaching core subjects
together with English.
Content and Language Integrated Learning by Do Coyle, Philip Hood and David Marsh
(Cambridge University Press 2010). This book explains much of the thinking (and
practice) on which CLIL is based.
The TKT course: CLIL Module by Kay Bentley (Cambridge University Press 2011).
This is part of the official TKT handbook which is entirely focused on the exam itself.
 - ~-==-c:c==_=- >-=~~- _. ~.- ---._ ":_

Young learners
The Primary English Teacher's Guide by J ean Brewster and Gail Ellis with Denis Girard
(Penguin 2002). This book has sound practical advice for most aspects of primary
teaching.
Teaching English in the Primar)' Classroom by Susan Halliwell (Pearson ELT 1992).
Although published many years ago, this book has many practical examples, and insights
into how to manage young learner classrooms.
500 Activities for the Primary Classroom by Carol Read (Macmillan 2007). As its name
suggests, this book contains a range of activities for primary school English, divided intc
sections such as storytelling and drama, ICT, grammar, listening, etc.
Children Learning English by Jayne Moon (Macmillan 2005). This book looks at issues to
do with teaching young learners.
Teaching Languages to Young Learners by Lynne Cameron (Cambridge University Press
2001). A slightly more theoreticallook at young learner teaching.
Teaching English to Cbildren by Wendy A Scott and Lisbeth H Ytreberg (Pearson ELT
1990). A book which is still widely read today.

~~~- - - -=
=-:..-_~- ~~~=---i~-_- _~--~--~ _~_ --:=:; ~~_~~~_- =-~-~-=--=-=~:-=--~~_
-- ---~ - ------ --==- --~ - ~ --~---
------- ---- --

.. - --
- -

-----------=-:--:-- -- ---
-

-= -- ~
--
Appendix B: Language for managing classrooms
These pages indude some of the language which teachers often use to manage the
students in lessons. Where a name or other word is in italics, this means that other words
can be substituted. For example, in the question 'Does anyone know where Reza is?' we
could substitute another name for Reza.

Greeting and starting

General greetings
• Good morning everyone.
• How are you all today?
• Did you have a good weekend?

Taking the register/calling the roll

• OK, I'm going to take the registerlcall the rollo
• Please say 'present' or 'here' when I call your name.
• Does anyone know where Reza is?

Remembering the last lesson

• Who can remember what we were doing/did last week?
• Let's go over it again.

Talking about today's lesson

• This is the plan for today's lesson .
• By the end of the lesson you will .
• There are three things we can do in this lesson. Which one shall we start with?

Dealing with latecomers

• You're late.
• Can you explain why you are late?
• That's the third time this week.
• That's not a very good excuse.
• Try to get here on time in future, OK?
• OK, well never mind. You can sit next to Mario. Mario, will you explain/tell Emilia
what we are doing?

Stages of the lesson

Finishing a lesson stage
• Can I have your attention, please?
• OK, I'd like you to stop what you are doing (and pay attention to me).
• OK, could you finish off what you are doing now, please?
• What we are going to do next is ...
• The next thing we are going to do is ...
• ow we're going to do something different.

Deciding what to do next (with the students' help)

• Let's do something different.
• We can either do a dialogue or some more work on pronunciation; which would you prefer?
• Hands up if you would like to read the texto Hands up if you would like to listen to a
conversation.

247
 Homework
Setting homework
• For homework l' d like you to ...
• Before next lesson (that's on Thursday) 1'd like you to ...
• l' d like you a11to do some homework, please.
• You need to hand it in by next Wednesday.

Collecting homework in
• Have you done your homework?
• Could 1 have your homework, please?
• When will you be able to give me your homework?

Instructing students to do things

Books
• Open your books.
• Close your books.
• Look at the text on page 36.
• Who can give me the answer to question 3?
• Have you forgotten your book? Can you share with Chen?
• I'd like you to put away/close your books now. We're going to do something different.

Test instructions
• You need a pen and some paper, but you can leave your books behind.
• You have five minutes to finish what you are doing.
• You have one minute more.
• I'd like you a11to stop writing.
• Could you a11pass your papers to the front, please?

Putting students into groups/re-arranging the classroom

Groups and teams

• Could you a11stand up (and come into the middle of the room)?
• I'd like you to form two groups.
• Gloria, wi11you join Group A, and Miguel, could you join Group B, please?
• OK, let's have three teams. You people here, you are Team A. You (yes that includes
you Carmen) are Team B, and the rest of you are in Team C.
• I'd like you to arrange the chairs in groups of five.
• Could you a11pick up your chairs before you move them, please?
• Could you a11go back to your seats, please?
• Can 1 have one person from Group A, one person from Group B, one person from
Group C? Come here, please.
• I'd like you a11to make a line in the order of your birthdays.

Organising pairs
• OK, so you are going tolI'd like you to work in pairs.
• That's you and you, and you and you, and you and you ...
• Yumileo, could you come here, please and work with Keiko?
• Can the people in row 1 turn back to face the people in row two? That's right. Now
the people in row 3 túrn back to the people in row 4, and the people in row 5 turn
back to the people in row six, and so on.

248
 Language

Controlling the class

Stopping things
• Will you stop what you are doing and pay attention?
• Could you please stop talking?
• Please will you stop doingthat?
• Could you please be quíet?
• Stop that right now.

Quietening students down

• I'm going to wait until there is complete silence.
• I'm goíng to count backwards from ten. When 1 have finished 1want complete quieto
• Let's see how long it takes to be quieto
• Stop what you are doing and listen.

Suggesting consequences for actions

• If you don't stop what you are doing, 1 am going to ...
• Listen carefully. If you do that again, you will have to see the head teacher /
1 will have to talk to your parents.

Follow up
• Could you come here, please?
• Could you see me at the end of the lesson?
• Could you stay here for a moment, please?
• You and 1 need a talk, so I'd like you to stay back at the end of the lesson.

Asking students to help

• Could you turn off/on the lights?
• Could someone please/open the window/close the window?
• Would someone (like to) clean the board?
• Could you collect everyone's homework, please?
• Could you pass the worksheets/books around, please?

Finishing and saying goodbye

Summingup
• Before we finish, I'd just like to sum up what we have been doing.
• What were the most important things you learnt today?
• Who can tell me ten new words that they learnt today?

Putting things back/taking things away

• Would you put all the books back in the cupboards, please?
• Before you leave, could you make sure that you have all your belongings?
• Before you leave, could you put all the tables and chairs back to where they were?
• Make sure you take everything with you. Don't leave anything behind.
Appendix C: Lesson planning
Many thanks for their lesson plans to Magdalena Custodio Espinar - Spain (CLIL young learner lesson), Cecilia Lemos
- Brazil (Teenagers) and Kathy Simpson Davies - UK (Adults).

Checklist questions
When we start to plan lessons, there are a number of questions we need to ask ourselves: a kind of planning checklist.
The following list of questions is in no significant order.

Questions Planning area

• Who are my students? What do they know? What do they need? CLASSROOM DESCRIPTION
• How can 1 plan a lesson which is appropriate for the different individuals in DIFFERENTIATION
the class?
• What should the whole lesson looklfeellike? LESSON SHAPE
• What is the best way to start the lesson? LESSON 'FEEL'
• What is the most effective way of ending the lesson?
• What topics/themes do 1 want to take into the classroom? CONTENT
• What topics and themes would be most appropriate for my students (based on
their age, level, cultural background, etc.)?
• How does the lesson 1 am going to teach fit in with the overall syIlabus? LESSON SEQUENCES
• What have we been doing in recent lessons - and how can that help me to
decide what to do next?
• What links can 1 make between the various topics and themes in past and TIMETABLE FIT
future lessons and the topics and themes 1 am thinking of using in this one?
• When the lesson (or stage of the lesson) is finished, what will my students AlMS
have achieved if everything goes according to plan? OB]ECTIVES
• How will 1 know if the students have achieved the aims that 1 set for them? OUTCOMES
• What activities would be most appropriate for my students? ACTIVITIES
• What materials, classroom technology, etc. (if any) do 1 need for the activities MATERIALS
1 am thinking of?
• Exactly how can 1 make the activities work best? What procedure will 1 use? PATTERNS OF INTERACTION
• What is the best sequence for the activities 1 want to use? PROCEDURES
• Who is going to be talking to/working with whom in the activities 1 TIMINGS
have chosen?
• Which is the best type of student grouping (pairwork, groupwork, individual,
etc.) for the activity?
• How long do 1 expect the activity to last (it will probably be longer than 1
think at first)?
• Based on my experience (and who my students are), what are they likely to find ANTICIPATED PROBLEMS
most difficultlcomplicated in the lesson 1 am planning?
• How can 1 avoid the kinds of difficulties/problems that 1 am predicting? DIFFERENTIATION
• What will 1 do if these problems arise?
• What extra activitieslideas can 1 take into the lesson in case we run out of things ADDITIONAL POSSIBILITIES
to do?
• What extra ideas/activities can 1 take into the lesson in case what 1 have
planned fails to engage the students?
• What alternative ways of using my plan can 1 think of?
• What will 1 achieve with the lesson 1 am planning? PERSONAL AlMS
• What new things might 1 try outlexperiment with in the lesson 1 am planning?
 Lesson planning

lesson plan: SOUND ENGINEERS

Teacher:
1l Subject:
Magdalena Custodio Espinar
Conocimiento del Medio Natural, Social y Cultural
level: Second level of primary (7-8 year olds)
Timing: Three sessions of 45 minutes
Aims: To introduce the concept of theunit and to show how to use Audacity (freeware)

CONTENT

Teaching objectives learning outcomes

· To introduce the concept of sound.

· The pupils will understand what sound is and the

· To use ICT (computer and recording devices) as a difference between pitch and tone.
means of learning about sound: tone, pitch, and
loudness.
· They will be able to change the pitch, tone and loudness
of their voices using Audacity.

· To practise the structure of an interview.

· They will play roles in an interview.

· To model how to record the voice using

software.
Audacity · They will record their interviews and save them in MP3
format on the computer.

· To publish the interviews in a blog. · They willlisten to their interviews on a blog.

COGNITION

Teaching objectives learning outcomes

· To provide the pupils with opportunities for:

· The pupils will infer the concept of sound from practice.
- relating the voice with a graph;
- comparing changes in sound waves;
· They will understand the new vocabulary and concepts.

- defining the concept of sound; · They will extract the relevant information about the
content.
- using freeware to apply knowledge for operating a
recording device (play, pause, stop, rewind, · They will apply technological routines and skills.
fast forward);
· They will relate the use of Audacity with the content.
- recognising the structure of an interview.
· They will predict the type of wave a sound will have
depending on the tone or pitch of the voice.

· They will memorise an interview and roleplay it for

recording.

CULTURE

Teaching objectives learning outcomes

· To raise awareness about the importance of using

friendly language at the beginning and end of a formal
· The pupils willlearn to emphasise the intonation of
questions and exclamations in order to be polite.
meeting.

· To model intonation.
 COMMUNICATION

Language of learning Language for learning Language through learning

• Key words and concepts: sound, • Language to compare: The wave is • Language from manipulating the
pitch, tone, loudness. wider when ... and narrower when . freeware.
• ICT words: record, save, play, stop, • Language to ask and answer • Language through peer interaction
cause, rewind, fast forward. questions: What ... ? during the recordings.
• Greetings: • Language to give an order: • Language through memorising the
- He/!o' How are you? Say ... , Repeat ... , Play it again. interview.
- Nice to meet you. • Language to ask for information: • Language through activities and
- Thank you. What can you te/! me about ... ? questions during the session.
- You are welcome.
• Language to ask for attention:
- It was a pleasure.
Look at this' Look'
- Goodbye.
• Language to show surprise:
Wow! That is fantastic!
• Language to give an opinion
Ithink ...
• Classroom language.

Contribution to BASIC COMPETENCES

Learning strategies (basic competences)

• making use of prior knowledge • collaborative learning
• following instructions • reflecting on learning and self-assessment
• recording new words • using ICT resources to research, obtain, process and
• critical thinking: observing and describing communicate information
• critical thinking: comparing and contrasting • individual autonomous learning

Activities:
1 The pupils play with Audacity and discover, discuss and explain facts about sound while using these technological resources.
2 The pupils work on their booklets about sound (written activities for classifying, matching, drawing and word cornpletion).
3 Pupils are given an interview worksheet to memorise.
4 One group practises with Audacity while the other rehearses the interview; then they swap round.
5 The 'journalists' visit the laboratory of the 'scientists' to conduct the interview and record it in pairs.
6 We publish our interviews in our blogl
7 We listen to the interviews from the blog to assess the results.

Resources:
• Computer with Audacity (freeware) and microphones
• Interview worksheets
• Sound booklets

Evaluation:
• Of language: • Of content:
- Teacher's orallanguage modelling on the spot. - Teacher checks written activities.
- Peer language modelling through feedback. - Pupils answer oral and written questions about sound.
- Group language assessment and individual - Pupils record and save sounds using Audacity.
assessment through listening to the interviews from - Group correction of written activities.
the blog.

252

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 Lesson plan ing
......................

Lesson plan: DREAMS

Name: Class: Level: Length:

Cecilia Lemos Teen3 Elementary 60 minutes

Class description
There are 18 students in this group, 5 boys and 13 girls, all between 13 and 15 years old. They have Englísh classes twice
a week, for 1 hour and 15 minutes each time. Most of them have been studying Englísh for about three years, It's an early
group and they usually come to class still sleepy, so an active warm up, where they have to move, is always a good start.

Main aim(s)
By the end of the lesson the students will be able to use will to make predictions, based on the dreams they read about.

Subsidiary aim(s)
1 Review the use of the past progressive for describing an event in the past (in this case, a dream)
2 Introduce the topic (dreams) through the students' own writing

Personal aims
I willlet the students work out for themselves that we use will for predictions - and see if this works better than giving
them the information myself. I want to see how I feel about this.

Timetable fit
In the last three lessons, the students have reviewed the past tenses - simple and progressive - while talking about
vacations and describing photos, saying what was happening when they were taken. In the next lesson we are going to
study other uses oí will (promises and offers).

Materials
1 Board and board markers
2 Big pieces of white paper with 'Dream' prompts on top ,

3 Sticky notes - enough to give each student a few

Anticipated problems
1 Some students may be left out during the forming of the groups.
2 Some groups may get stuck and may not be very creative.
Possible solutions
1 Teacher collects those students and puts them together in a group.
2 Teacher goes around asking questions that may spark an idea.

PROCEDURES

Stage/stage aim Description Interaction Tímíng

Warm up / Have the 1 Tell the students they have to guess what we'll talk about in T-SS 5mins
students discover class today - ít's a word.
the theme of the 2 Explain I will write on the board words related to the word
class (dreams) they're supposed to discover, one at a time, and each of them
has one chance at guessing it.
3 Have the students stand in a semi-circle in the middle of the
room. Tell them if they think they know the word they should
run and touch the board. Only after I say his/her name should
they say what they think the word is. r-
4 Write (pausing between words) the following words on the
board: bed, night, remember, nightmare, sleep. If the
students still can't guess the word, I'll draw it. When a
student guesses it, write the word DREAMS, in large letters on
the board.
 Stage/stage aim Description Interaction TIming

Lead in I Get the Ask the students if they usually remember what they dream T-SS 5mins
students talking about, what they think dreams are, if they usually have good or
about dreams crazy dreams.

Writing I Rave the 1 Tell the students they will now create crazy dreams, writing SS-SS 20 mins
students use the what happens in the dream, starting from a prompt. They will
past progressive to have 15 minutes to do it.
create a dream 2 Stick the six big white sheets of paper around the class. Each
sheet of paper has the first sentence of the dream written on
top (e.g. Last night 1 dreamt 1wasfiying over the city and
then 1 saw ... I Last night 1 dreamt 1 was watching a Lady
Gaga concert and in the middle 01 thefirst song ... )
3 Ask the students to form trios. Give each trio a marker pen to
write on the paper with. Ask the student who guessed the word
duríng the warm up to stand up and get the sheet of paperl
prompt that hislher trio has chosen. That student should
choose someone fram one of the other trios to do the same,
and so on, until each group has a piece of paper with a prompt.
4 Remind them that it's a good idea to brainstorm and think
about the dream/what they are going to write before they start
writing.
5 Give them 15 minutes to write their dreams. After they have
finished, collect the papers and display them around the
classroom. Go around the classraom, checkíng the students'
work, helpíng when necessary and suggestíng corrections.

Reading 1 Ask the students if they have ever heard about people who say T-SS 25 mins
comprehension I they can predict the future based on other people's dreams. Individual
Have the students 2 Tell the students that they will be those fortune tellers today.
read what other They will say what will happen to each of the dreamers. Write:
students have What will happen to them? on the board.
written and predict 3 Read one of the texts aloud to the whole class and ask them to
what will happen to predict (sayíng out loud) what will happen to the dreamer.
the person who had Recast if necessary, to suggest the use of the structure He
each dream will / She will.
4 Give each student a few sticky notes and tell them to go
around the class, reading the dreams and predicting the future.
Go around checking their work.
5 After 10-15 minutes, ask them if anybody wants to share a
dream they read, together with what they predicted. Elicit the
use of the structure. Use the board.

Hornework I Have Tell the students that they have to write ten thíngs they believe 5mins
the students will happen in the next year. It can be about them or anything
continue using will else ea sports team, a celebrity, etc.).
for predictions

Additional possibilities
• 1can adapt this activity and have them write mystery stories without including the endíng - have others predícting
the end of each story.
• Get the students to record their dreams and have their classmates predict their future from these.
• Ask the students to predict what will happen in their favourite TV drama.

254
Lesson plan: LlFE EXPERIENCES

Name: Katy Simpson Davies

Class: B1 General English
Level: Lower-intermediate
Time: 120 minutes

Class description
A multilingual class of ten students from a variety of countries (Saudi Arabia, South Korea, Spain, Switzerland, Colombia).
A mix of ages from early 20s to late 40s. The students are studying in the UK for different amounts of time, so some are new
to the school and so me have been here for months. There is a spread of levels, from those who have just moved up from
pre-intermediate, to those who are nearly ready for upper-intermediate. Overall, this is an enthusiastic and chatty class, and
they love games! They are generally confident, but not always very accurate. The lesson is aimed at improving their accuracy.

Main aim(s)
1 By the end of the lesson, the students will feel more confident using the present perfect to ask questions and to talk about
their own life experiences.
2 By the end of the first stage of the lesson, the students will be able to use phrases to talk about life experiences in the
past simple.
3 By the end of the second stage of the lesson, the students will have a better understanding of when they should use the
past simple and when they should use the present perfect, and why.
4 By the end of the fourth stage of the lesson, the students will be able to use the past simple and present perfect to talk
about their own experiences and the experiences of other people.

Subsidiary aim(s)
1 To revise collocations to do with life events (e.g. although the students know the word married, they often forget that the
verb is to get married).
2 To revise time phrases.
3 To practise pronunciation.

Personal aims
I will use the board to give the students a useful model. I will check that my writing is big enough and olear enough by going
to the back of the classroom to look at it, and I will use different colours to highlight words.

Timetable fit
In the last three lessons, the students have studied conditionals, so this is a new topic - although they will have covered the
past simple and present perfect previously at other levels. In the next lesson, we are going to tal k about the present perfect
continuous for recent events (e.g. /'ve just ... ), and eventually move on to the present perfect continuous.

Materials
1 Photos from my life. Vocabulary cards to describe the pictures and cards with the years on.
2 A handout with the pictures matched to the correct vocabulary.
3 Six true or false sentences about myself, using both present perfect and past simple.
4 Pictures of my country and/or local area.
5 Small squares of paper to draw on.

Anticipated problems Possible solutions

1 The students might think that the present perfect is only 1 I will make sure there are a variety of pictures for the mili
used with been because of the frequency of Have you drill which require the use of different verbs (e.g. eaten,
ever been to ... ? tried, drunk, p/ayed, watched).
2 If some students don't come to the lesson, there will be an 2 I will take part in the 'wheel' if necessary.
odd number for the 'wheel'. 3 For the higher-Ievel students I will monitor pronunciation
3 Students might feel that it's too easy, as they have almost carefully and encourage them to use contractions. I can
certainly covered the present perfect and past simple also ask them whether they really feel confident using
before. these forms, even though they've studied them before.
The chances are that they 'know' the present perfect, but
don't produce it very often. 1'11 try to keep the pace up, as
a lot of this is not totally new (the vocabulary will be familiar
to them, as well as the grammar), I might have to push
them to keep them going, otherwise it could start to drag.

25S
 Procedures

Stage/stage aim Description Interaction Timing

Lead-in: Tell the students there are pictures of me at different ages around T-SSS 5 mins
the room.
Demonstrate example Write on the board the question Can you guess what year it was?
Hold up one picture as an example, and write up the answer: Katy was
born in ___ ? Ask the students to guess the year. Check T-SSS-T
pronunciation of years.
Speaking to activate In pairs, the students go around the room, talking about the pictures. SS-SS 8 mins
vocabulary about life Monitor for use of vocabulary - do they know collocations such as
events get married?
Feedback to give the The students sit down. Hand out smaller versions of the same photos T-SSS 2 mins
correct answers to each pair. Hand out cards with years on them. The students match
the pictures to the years.
Feedback to find a winner Check answers, and ask which pair guessed the most correct years. T-SSS 2 mins

Vocabulary focus: Hand out cards with vocabulary written on them (e.g. to be born, S-S 5 mins
to graduate from university, to become a teacher). In pairs they match
vocabulary to the pictures and years.
To give the students the When they have finished, give them a handout with the pictures matched T-SSS 3 mins
phrases they need to tal k to the correct vocabulary, and tell them to check their answers.
about life experiences,
and focus on accuracy
To practise using the Elicit an example (e.g. Katy was born in 1983). Tell the students to stand T-SSS 5 mins
vocabulary up again. They go round the room looking at the pictures and say the S,S, S
sentences. Monitor and check that they are using the full phrase
(e.g. graduated from university).
More practice The students sit down. Hand out six cards with three true/three false SS,SS 5 mins
sentences about me, with a mix or present perfect and past simple
(e.g. l've visited South Korea - false / l've visited Thailand - true).
Feedback Check the correct answers. Is there a winner? T-SSS 2 mins
Focus on difference in Write on the board one present perfect sentence and one past simple T-SSS 10 mins
meaning and form sentence. Ask the students to discuss the difference in pairs. Monitor. SS,SS
between past simple Get whole-class feedback. Highlight the difference in form on the board.
and present perfect: Write up useful expressions the students use to describe the difference
in meaning. Draw timelines for i've been to Thellend and t went to T-SSS
Thailand in 2000. The students decide which timeline fits which sentence.
Discuss difference Write on the board the sentences I got married in 2008 and I've been SS,SS
between present married for three years. The students discuss differences in meaning and
perfect and past simple form and draw their own timelines. Monitor and ask those with good
timelines to draw them on the board, and explain their timelines to the class.

Writing stage: The students write six sentences about themselves - three true and S,S,S 5 mins
three false - using a mixture of past simple and present perfect.

Speaking stage: They bring chairs and papers into the middle in a wheel (two concentric SS, SS, SS, 5 mins
circles). They tell their sentences to the person sitting opposite them who SS,SS
guesses if they are true or false. They get a point for each correct guess. The
inner circle then moves round so the students work with different partners.
Feedback Ask students who got the most points? What was the most surprising T-SSS 2 mins
piece of information?

Additional possibiliites
Homework: hand out squares of paper (preferably coloured paper). Tell the students to draw a picture of one thing from their country.
Demonstrate an example on the board (e.g. stick fiqures.playinq football). Stress that it doesn't need to be a professional drawing.
Repeat the mili drill in class, but this time they use their own picture for the question, not the picture being shown to them. Then
they exchange pictures and ask the new question to another persono
Ask the students to bring in photos of themselves to talk about their life experiences in the next lesson.

256

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