International Journal of Research and Review

Vol.7; Issue: 12; December 2020

Website: www.ijrrjournal.com
Review Article E-ISSN: 2349-9788; P-ISSN: 2454-2237

Ancient History of Hospitals

Dr. (Prof.) Roopam Kumar Guptai , Ratan Lal Guptaii
i
PhD (Management), MD (Anatomy), ACME, MHA, MSc, DIH, MBBS,
Professor (Anatomy) & Medical Superintendent, C. U. Shah Medical College Hospital, Dudhrej Road,
Surendranagar, Gujarat. 363 001
ii
M.A. (Labour & Social Welfare), Research Scholar in Indian History, Retd. Human Resource Executive,
Tata Motors
Corresponding Author: Roopam Kumar Gupta

ABSTRACT dearth of primary sources, unreliable

secondary sources and numerous
The history of medicine and different healing hypotheses. A hospital is a place for
therapies have been extensively studied and receiving medical or surgical care. The
published, but the history of ‘Hospitals’ or the authors aim to review the existing literature
place where these healing activities were
on this topic and present a lucid account,
actually carried out, often escapes attention of
medical historians. In this review article the steering away from unnecessary factual
authors have presented a lucid account of the details, dates and scholarly differences, but
Ancient History of Hospitals from approx. 6500 at the same time trying to bring about the
BC to 650 AD. Beginning with the etymological charisma of the past ‘achievements’ in an
investigation of the word ‘Hospital’, the author innovative style and through a new
describes in detail the Neolithic ‘Cave paradigm.
Hospitals’, Ancient Indian ‘Ayurvedic Medical
Schools’ of Takshila and Kasi, the Buddhist Etymology of the word ‘Hospital’
‘Monastic Hospitals’ in Srilanka, Mesopotamian Etymology is the study of the history
‘House of Life & Healing’, Tibet’s ‘Palace of words. Etymologically, the journey of the
hospitals’, Greek Temple Hospitals
word ‘Hospital’ started as Latin ‘Hospes’
‘Asclepeions’, Roman Military Hospitals
‘Valetudinaria’, Medicity ‘Basilias’, and and was modified to ‘hospitalis’, ‘hospitale’
‘Bimaristans’ of Gondeshapur. This endeavour and finally to ‘hospital’. Latin ‘hospes’,
reviews the ancient history of hospitals to means ‘a stranger, foreigner, or a guest’, and
highlight the charisma of the past the noun form derived from this word is
‘achievements’ in an innovative style and ‘hospitium’ which means ‘hospitality’.
through a new paradigm. ‘Hospes’ is also the root for few English
words like host, hospitality, hospice, hostel
Keywords: History of Hospital, Asclepeions, and hotel. They are related partially by
Valetudinaria, Basilias, Bimaristan function too and there are similarities in the
words used for Hospital in different
INTRODUCTION languages. The German word is 'Spital', the
“Whoever wishes to foresee the French use ‘hôpital’, in Irish it is ‘ospidéal’,
future must consult the past”- Machiavelli. in Hindi and Urdu it is ‘Haspataal’ or
There is a lot of literature available ‘Aspataal’, in Turkish it is ‘Hastane’ and in
on ‘History of Medicine’ and the other Polish language it is ‘szpital’.
‘Healing Therapies’ that is often referred to
by the contemporary physicians and The Prehistoric ‘Cave Hospitals’
surgeons. However the ‘Ancient History of ‘Disease’ must be as old as the
Hospitals’ (approx. 6500 BC to 650 AD) is human race itself. The power of ‘self-
not adequately researched, perhaps due to

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 Roopam Kumar Gupta et. al. Ancient history of hospitals.

awareness’ is endowed to the Homo have been found in Nyero rock paintings of
Sapiens, to take care of themselves and their Eastern Uganda. [5]
loved ones if they were not well. The clear evidences of surgeries
Hospitals would invariably exist in being successfully performed and the
any crude form, if ‘Surgical Procedures’ and coincidence of proximity to mysterious
‘Treatment’ of the diseased took place. The caves in Peru and cave paintings of witch-
oldest surgical procedure known is doctors inside the caves, lends support to the
‘trephination’ and we have archaeological hypothesis that the first hospitals in the
evidence in the form of trephined skulls prehistoric times of ‘cave men’ were indeed
discovered from ‘Neolithic period’. At a the ‘cave hospitals’.
burial site dating to 6500 BCE, in France,
there were forty trephined skulls found Ancient Indian ‘Ayurvedic Medical
together. [1] Many of the skulls showed Schools’
healing signs, indicating that the patients Ayurveda is sacredly considered to
spent their post-operative time somewhere be as old as ‘Brahma’ the Hindu God of
recovering, while the wounds healed and Creation. The practice may have started in
then lived for years after the surgery. [2] pre historic times when people started to
There is evidence of prehistoric trephination become conscious of their health and
being commonly performed in the Cusco became aware that they had to take
region, of Andean highlands. This is the measures to improve and preserve their
same region where mysterious caves called lives. By the time of Indus Valley
‘Naupaiglesia’ have been discovered with Civilization, Ayurveda was the established
interesting geometry, especially flat smooth system of healthcare. Archaeologists have
surfaces, made by high technology found stag-horn and cuttlefish bone
machines.[3] This coincidence leads to the suggesting that vegetables, animals and
question, if these caves were used as minerals were used as sources for drugs. [6]
hospitals for surgeries? Along with Indus Valley people placed great emphasis
neurosurgery, dentistry was also practiced on personal hygiene and used cosmetics like
during this period as archaeologists have collyrium for preventing and curing eye
found Neolithic teeth in Mehgarh, diseases. [7] There are no documented
Baluchistan province, showing clear signs evidences, but the excavations of the
of drilling, using flint-tipped drills and archaeological sites at Harappa and
bowstrings. [4] Mohenjo Daro, show a high degree of town
In prehistoric communities there planning, awareness and practice regarding
were medicine men, witch doctors or public health and sanitation, therefore the
‘shamans’ who were in charge of the tribe’s strong possibility of one of the buildings
health, practiced plant based medicines, being used as a ‘Hospital’, exists.
carried out rudimentary surgeries like The knowledge of Ayurveda is
trephinations and of course, used spells and believed to have been passed on through
charms to ward off evil spirits. In the cave ‘Shruti and Smriti’ from ‘Brahma’ through a
of Lascaux, France, where Neanderthals and chain of great Sages like ‘Atreya’ and
early Homo Sapiens lived 30,000 years ago, ‘Dhanvantri’, eventually to ‘Maharshi
there is a cave painting depicting a ‘Dis- Charak’. There is no consensus on the dates
emboweled bison’ and bird-headed human when Maharshi Charak lived but few
figure, which is interpreted by researchers claim this as 200-100 BC. [8] He
archaeologists as a ‘shaman’, a kind of wrote “Charak Samhita”, which is
priest or healer with powers including the considered as an encyclopaedia of Ayurveda
ability to communicate with spirits of other and he is hailed as the Father of Indian
worlds. Similar paintings of witch doctors medicine. The place where the Sages Atreya
and Maharshi Charak taught and practiced

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 Roopam Kumar Gupta et. al. Ancient history of hospitals.

the art of Ayurveda, was ‘Taxila’ or until 1197. It was devoted to Buddhist
‘TakshShila’ the ancient world’s first studies, but it also trained students in
international university that existed approx. medicine. [12]
400-500 BCE to 550 CE. [9] The University
was undoubtedly the first ‘Teaching Buddhist Sinhalese ‘Monastic Hospitals’
Hospital’ for Ayurvedic medicine and The art of healing was promoted in
surgery that was studied for up to seven Buddhism, with Buddha himself
years. This famous university not only emphasizing that health was among the
attracted medical students from far off most precious goods a person can possess.
places in India and from foreign countries In one iconic story in the ‘Vinaya Pitaka’,
like Babylonia, Egypt, Phoenicia, Syria, the Buddha comes across a monk with
Arabia, China and Greece. ‘Jivaka’, the dysentery who has been abandoned by his
great physician to Gautama Buddha and an fellow monastics. After caring for the monk
expert in pulse reading is also said to have with Ananda’s help, the Buddha admonishes
studied Ayurveda in TakshaShila University the sangha. “Whoever would tend to me,”
for seven years. he says, “should tend to the sick.” Buddha
Maharshi ‘Sushruta’, often referred first taught medicine to his ‘sangha’ and
to as the “Father of Plastic Surgery,” was an then he allowed monks to visit patients and
influential physician in ancient India (circa to carry medicines with them as described in
600 BCE) who is still revered today for the the ‘Dulwa-smangzhi’, in Vinaya Pitaka. He
critical development of Ayurvedic surgical later taught the ‘Gyud-shi’, which are the
procedures and his work ‘Sushruta four medical ‘tantras’ that laid the
Samhita’. [10] It describes ‘shalya tantra’, foundation of the Tibetan medical system.
the practice of surgery and it is the oldest This system focuses on the direct healing of
known document on surgery in the world. the patient’s body and mind with the help of
The book describes more than 300 surgical the appropriate medicines, diet, behaviour
procedures, including plastic reconstruction and therapies in order to pacify the result of
surgery (like Rhinoplasty) and the removal mentally negative passions. The second
of cataracts. It also describes over 120 rock edict of King Asoka states that
surgical instruments including ‘tubular’ monasteries functioned as hospitals in early
instruments (endoscopy) and more than Indian society. King Asoka established
1,120 diseases, injuries, and conditions. [11] hospitals for men and animals (3rd century
However there is no mention of the BC) and the old Buddhist medicine of
‘Hospital’ with the ‘Operation Theaters’ Mahavagga (4th century BC), was
where he performed his great surgeries. We practiced. [14]
may certainly conclude that the ‘Surgical The earliest Monastic hospitals can
Hospital’ was also very developed be traced back as far as the 5th Century BC,
technically to match the brilliance of the to the ancient ‘Sinhalese’ (Sri Lankans).
‘Father of Indian Surgery’. He is known to Excavations have revealed three hospitals
have practiced medicine in northern India situated in Buddhist monasteries in
along the banks of the Ganges River, near Anuradhapura, Madirigivi and Polonnaruva.
Varanasi. It may be inferred that Maharshi According to the ‘Mahavamsa’, written in
Sushruta taught and practiced in the the 4th century B.C., King ‘Pandukabhaya’
university at ‘Benares’ or ‘Kasi’ which was had ‘Sivikasotthi Sala’ or ‘lying in homes’
a famous school of medicine, moulded on as hospitals built in various parts of the
the lines of Taxila by students from Taxila. country. ‘Mihintale’ is a mountain peak near
It flourished from 7th B. C. to 12 AD. Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka. Several
Another ancient medical school was the significant artifacts were discovered in
Nalanda University, founded in 427 AD in ancient hospital site like medicine grinders
northeastern India (Bihar), and it survived of granite, vessels, medical instruments of

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bronze and a medicinal trough of stone this early period included bandaging and
‘Behethoruwa’ (Medicine bath bed). This is making plasters for wounds. The Asus made
carved in the shape of the human body; the house calls and many patients were treated
length is 7 feet and the width is 2 ½ feet. A in their home.
Buddha image was in the middle of the For the Asipu, institutions, referred
hospital complex. The structures include a to as ‘House of Life’ (per ankh) are known
dispensary room, a large patient waiting to have been established in ancient Egypt as
hall, two separate rooms presumably used early as 2200 BC. These institutions could
for examining patients, an inner court with a perform amazing feats with magic and could
Buddha Shrine, with a corridor leading to 32 call upon the power of the gods. Magic was
residential rooms for in-house patients. Each so relevant that healing amulets played an
of these rooms measures 3.96m x 3.96 important role in treatments, especially one
meters. There was also a ‘Jantaghara’ or a called the ‘Eye of Horus’. The symbolic
room where steam and hot water therapy shape ‘Rx’ continues to be used at the
was administered in the hospital building. beginning of all medical prescriptions by
The remains of a separate building, which physicians even today. The hieroglyphic
could be the kitchen of the hospital, are script found under the statue of chief
visible in the northern side beyond the physician ‘Wedjahorresnet’, now in the
hospital. [15,16] Gregorian Egyptian Museum at Vatican,
states that the King Darius commanded him
Mesopotamia and Egypt’s ‘House of Life’ to return to Egypt to establish the bureau of
The ancient Mesopotamians used a the ‘House of Life’ for the exercise of
balance of rational science and magic for healing. [18] Thus we may conclude that the
healing. At around 3500 B.C., there were ‘House of Life’, were the earliest hospitals
two kinds of medicine men in in Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Mesopotamia–the asipu who practiced the The first architect of the great
more ritual or magical side of medicine and pyramids ‘Imhotep’ who lived in Egypt
the asu who practiced therapeutic medicine, during the reign of pharaoh ‘Djoser’ (2667-
composed of surgical and herbal treatments. 2648 BC) was also his ‘vizier’ or chief
Although modern-day scholars refer to the minister. Imhotep is also hailed as founder
asipu as a 'witch doctor' or expert in ‘white of Egyptian medicine and as the author of
magic’ and the asu as a 'medical the scroll ‘Smith papyrus’ which is
practitioner,' the Mesopotamians regarded considered the oldest treatise on trauma.
the two with equal respect. The asu kept Imhotep was considered as the ‘inventor of
cots in their places of business for the healing’ and after his death, he was elevated
treatment and recovery of patients; had to the position of a god of medicine and
surgical and pharmacological equipment; healing. [19] At the temple of Heliopolis, a
and though there were no large facilities that major city of ancient Egypt, they discovered
could be termed as hospitals, these facilities gravestones of the doctors. Engraved on
resembled small clinics. The asu were them are inscriptions as “superintendent of
trained in schools associated with temples of the secrets of health of the house of Thoth”,
the goddess of medicine and healing called “the greatest of doctors”, “eye specialist to
Gula and would remain always associated the palace.” From the hieroglyphics found
with some temple complex. The practices of on the tomb of doctor Iry, we learn that he
asu were later regulated by the famous Code was called “keeper of the king’s rectum.”
of Hammurabi. [17] Asu used medical There was also a “keeper of the king’s right
manoeuvres such as inspection, palpation eye,” and “keeper of the kings left eye.”
and auscultation in order to obtain Ancient Egyptian medicine was later
information from the patient’s body and adopted by the Greeks who purified it from
used the concept of syndromes. Practices in its magic concepts. [20]

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Chinese Healer Monks on ‘House Calls’ and Bila Gaje attained immortality and still
In China there were Buddhist exist in a forest of sandalwood. It is
‘healer-monks’ who worked as therefore inferred that the palace of the King
missionaries, translators, and advisers across ‘Yumbu Lakhar’ must have housed the first
medieval Asia and there was a huge inter- ‘Buddhist Hospital’ of Tibet. [22]
regional trade in medicinal substances such
as herbs, animal products, gemstones, relics, Greek Temple Hospitals ‘Asclepeions’.
and other magical materials. Buddhist In Homer's Iliad, Asclepius was the
healing became popular in the early physician healing the soldiers wounded on
medieval period (3rd to 8th century C.E.) the battlefield at Troy. He was considered
among both the common people and the the son of Apollo, the patron God of
elite. A network of monastic dispensaries, Medicine. Asclepius was so an expert in the
hospices, and asylums were established art of surgery, that he was known to have
across the empire. The concept of ‘Medicine the ability to return the living from the dead.
Buddha (Bhaishajyaguru)’ became an He was later elevated to the status of the
important part of the medieval Chinese Gods. In ancient Greece, around 350 BCE,
healing practice. The Medicine Buddha temples known as ‘Asclepieia’ were
mantra is held to be extremely powerful for dedicated to him as the healer-god
healing of physical illnesses and purification ‘Asclepius’, and they functioned as centres
of negative karma. Chinese medicine of medical advice, prognosis, and healing,
includes Acupuncture, Tai Chi and Herbal where patients and pilgrims would flock to
medicines. Physicians during this time did seek spiritual and physical healing. Over
not have offices or one exact area where 300 asclepieia have been discovered
they treated patients. So, these individuals throughout ancient Greece, the famous ones
travelled to the patient’s houses, and treated at Trikka, Epidaurus, island of Kos, Athens,
them at home on ‘house calls’. This is very Corinth and Pergamon. It was peculiar to
different from today’s society where doctors have presence of dogs and non-venomous
have their own offices in hospitals or snakes, known as ‘Aesculapian snake’ at
medical facilities. [21] these temples. The treatment practised was
of two stages- Katharsis & Incubation. The
Tibetan ‘Palaces’ as Buddhist Hospital initial step of ‘Katharsis’, or purification,
It has been mentioned in a Bon text consisted of a series of cleansing baths and
titled “Jam-ma tsa-drel” (200 B.C.), that purgation, accompanied by a cleansing diet,
there lived twelve scholars of Bon tradition which lasted several days. The next step of
including a medical scholar, who treated ‘Incubation’ or ‘Dream Therapy’ was
diseases through medication and therapy. performed at an “Abaton” or
This indicates that there were Tibetan “Enkoimeterion,” which was a dormitory
physicians even prior to the advent of located in the asclepeion. Patients would be
Buddhism in Tibet. The introduction of induced into a dream-like state of sleep
Buddhist medicine happened when in 245- known as ‘enkoimesis’, and this practice
364 A.D., two monks Biji Gaje and Bila was known as ‘incubatio’, or ‘Temple
Gaje, went to Taxilla and studied medicine Sleep’. Asclepius or his daughters, Hygea
under the great Physician Atreya and then and Panacea, would come in their dreams
visited Magadha to study under Kumara and tell them how to cure their ailment. The
Jivaka. The Tibetian King Lha Thotho-Ri- patients would interpret the dream with the
Nyantsen, invited both to his Palace in help of the priests and perform the ritual that
Tibet. He requested them to remain there to was mostly to visit the baths or a
teach and practice medicine, and he gave his gymnasium.
daughter YidkyiRolcha as a bride to Biji In the Asclepieion of Epidaurus,
Gaje. It is believed in Tibet that Biji Gaje there are three large marble boards dating

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 Roopam Kumar Gupta et. al. Ancient history of hospitals.

back to 350 BC having the names, case kitchen, staff quarters, and washing and
histories, complaints, and cures of about 70 latrine facilities. [24]
patients who had been successfully treated Marcus Terentius Varro (116BC–
there. It includes realistic details of surgical 27BC) a Roman scholar who was patronized
cures, such as the draining an abdominal by Augustus, knew the importance of
abscess or the removal of traumatic foreign micro-organisms in the pathogenesis of
body, perhaps under the influence of disease long before Louis Pasteur
‘enkoimesis’ which could have been opium. formalised the germ theory of disease and
These asclepeion was also the first Greek his guidance was used for the designing of
Medical School. The ‘Father of Medicine’ the valetudinarian. “When building a
Hippocrates (470-360 BCE) is said to have hospital special care should be taken to
received his medical training at an place it at the foot of a wooded hill where it
asclepeion on the isle of Kos. Claudius is exposed to health-giving winds. Care
Galenus or Galen (129-210 AD), one of the should be taken where there are swamps in
most accomplished of all medical the neighbourhood, because certain tiny
researchers of ancient times, treated and creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes
studied at the famed asclepeion at breed there. These float through the air and
Pergamon. [23] enter the body by the mouth and nose and
cause serious disease.” [25] The Roman
Roman Military Hospitals valetudinarian, set pioneering standards in
‘Valetudinaria’ Hospital Infection Control Practices.
The Romans established hospitals
‘valetudinaria’ for the treatment of their sick Roman Medi-cities ‘Basilias’
slaves and injured soldiers; their care was Around A.D. 325, with Christianity
important because it was upon the integrity becoming an accepted religion in the Roman
of the legions that the power of ancient Empire, the construction of a hospital in
Rome was based. Latin term valetudinarian every cathedral town was begun. The first
is derived from ‘valetudo’, or "good health". Christian hospital in the eastern Byzantine
They were built in the time of Emperor Empire (Asia Minor- modern day Turkey)
Augustus, as military hospitals within each was built by Basil of Caesarea, or Saint
legion. The concept was to isolate the Basil the Great, the bishop of Caesarea in
diseased from the community till he was Cappadocia. Therefore these hospitals were
normal again. Initially the valetudinaria called as Basiliad, Basileias or Basileiados.
were ‘field hospitals’ or ‘flying military They resembled a town that included
camps’ and began as a small cluster of tents housing for doctors and nurses, separate
and fortresses dedicated to wounded buildings for various types of patients and
soldiers. Over time, the temporary forts separate section for lepers. There were few
developed into permanent facilities. The basilias with libraries and training activities
original hospitals were built along major where doctors compiled their medical and
roads, and soon became part of Roman fort pharmacological studies into manuscripts.
architecture. They were usually placed near The hospital staff included the Chief
the outer wall in a quiet part of the Physician (archiatroi), professional nurses
fortification. A standard valetudinarium was (hypourgoi) and the orderlies (hyperetai).
a rectangular building consisting of four John Chrysostom, the bishop of
wings, connected by an entrance hall that Constantinople, in 398-404 AD developed a
could be used as a triage centre. Each Basilia in Constantinople, and many basilias
legion's hospital was constructed to arose in other cities, some run by monks,
accommodate 6% to 10% of the legion's some supported by wealthy citizens and
5,000 men. The building also included a they also received privileged tax treatment
large hall, reception ward, dispensary, from the government. Between 420 and 650

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AD, the hospitals became more numerous of Medicine into the literary language of the
and larger, like the ones found in Ephesus, Sasanian Empire - ‘Pahlavi’. He also sent
Edessa, and Jerusalem (of 200 beds). The the famous physician ‘Borzouye’ to invite
famous basilia of Sampson Xenon, was built Indian and Chinese scholars to
by physician Saint Sampson, in the late Gundeshapur. These visitors helped
fourth century in Constantinople. It was a translate Indian texts on medicine and
complex of elaborate buildings where Chinese texts on herbal medicine to be
patients were treated in wards by specialized taught at Gundeshapur. Interestingly the
physicians. It may be noted that the Greek teaching hospital was known as
word ‘Hospital’ signifies the etymological ‘bimaristan’, which is a compound of
link between ‘Hotel, Hospitality and “bimar” (sick or ill) and “stan” (place). The
Hospital’ as these structures catered to the most notable Indian doctor who contributed
‘travellers’, strangers, orphans, sick and to the development of the medical school at
poor. In fact the ‘basiliad’ was a social Gundeshapur, was Mankah. Thus
welfare endeavour. The Roman ‘basilias’ Gundeshapur developed into a uniquely
were indeed the earliest professionally tolerant and peaceful meeting point for the
administrated hospitals. study of the philosophical and medical
traditions of Persians, Greeks, Indians,
The ‘Bimaristan’ of Gondeshapur Zoroastrians, Jews and Nestorians. In fact
The Persian mythology ascribes the Harith bin Kalada, the Prophet Mohammed's
introduction of medicine to Persia to physician, was also trained at Gundeshapur.
[26]
‘Jamshid’ who was the fourth king of Iran. Elgood writes that ‘to a very large
‘Gundeshapur’ was one of the major cities extent, the credit for the whole hospital
in Khuzestan province of the Persian system must be given to Persia’. [27]
empire. The Sasanian King Shāpur I, The history continues with
founded the city as a garrison town after tremendous intellectual activity, culminating
defeating a roman army and later made it his in the ‘Golden era of Islamic Medicine’ but
capital. ‘Gund-dēz-i Shāpūr’, means as the period of Ancient History by
"military fortress of Shapur”. Shāpur I 's consensus extends till the coming of Islam
wife, was the daughter of ‘Aurelian’ the (650 AD), the scope of this article concludes
Roman Emperor, who lived in the capital here.
with him. She had brought with her two
Greek physicians, who settled in the city CONCLUSION
and taught Hippocratic medicine. Thus the journey of rediscovering
Gundeshapur soon had a teaching hospital the ‘Ancient History of hospitals’ comes to
with a library. It provided systemized an end. It began with hypothesis that
medical treatment to patients and the hospitals existed as ‘Cave Hospitals’ in
scholars of the academy imparted formal prehistoric times as early as the Neolithic
medical education of the highest standards era, where surgeries like trephination were
where medical students were required to performed and witch doctors healed the
work in the hospital under the supervision sick. The discussion followed to the Ancient
of the medical faculty. The Arabic text, the Indian ‘Ayurvedic Medical Schools’ during
‘Tārīkh al-ḥukamā’ records that medical 7th century BC of Takshila and Kasi where
students had to pass exams in order to Charaka and Sushruta taught medicine and
practice as accredited Gondeshapur surgery. Then Buddhist ‘Monastic
physicians. The emperor Khusraw I, (A.D. Hospitals’ in Srilanka of 3rd Century BC,
531-579) gave refuge to various Greek especially the oldest ruins of Mihintale
philosophers fleeing religious persecution Hospital was described. The ancient
by the Byzantine empire and ordered these Mesopotamian ‘House of Life & Healing’
refugees to translate Greek and Syriac texts that used magic charms in temple hospitals,

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Chinese ‘House Call’ system and Tibet’s https://www.historyofayurveda.org/library/a

Palace hospitals in 2nd century BC was ncient-university-takshashila
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‘Bimaristans’ of Gondeshapur as the scope india.org/downloads/ancient.pdf
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https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture
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15. Gamage U, Thilakarathna NT. Hospital
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