PHILIPPINE

HARDWOODS

A National Strategy for

Regenerating Our Forests
@roheadvocacy
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 PHILIPPINE
HARDWOODS

A National Strategy for

Regenerating Our Forests
@roheadvocacy

3
 Philippine Hardwoods
A National Strategy for Regenerating Our Forests
© 2025@roheadvocacy
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means — electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise — without the prior written permission of the author.
First edition published 2021 (Scribd)
Hardbound edition published 2025
ISBN: _____________________
Published by United Business Communication, Inc.
Mandaluyong City, Metro Manila, Philippines,
Printed in Hong Kong

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Everything that grows begins small. 10 million hectares of sustainable Philippine
hardwood forestry generating 1 million jobs may be called impossible.

This book is dedicated to those who will do the impossible.

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Contents
Preface

A personal note on why this book matters — passion and advocacy

01 The Vision: Preserving the Legacy of Philippine Hardwoods

Why Philippine hardwoods matter
The call to action for preservation
Personal journey / inspiration

02 Our Forest Heritage: A Historical and Cultural Background

Ancient forests and their role in Philippine history
Hardwoods in ancestral homes, churches, and galleons
Cultural symbolism and folklore

03 The Art and Science of Wood: Understanding Strength, Grain, and Beauty
What makes hardwoods unique (density, grain, natural oils)
The science behind durability and resistance
Appreciating wood aesthetics (color, polish, natural patterns)

04 Masters of the Forest: Select Philippine Hardwood Species

Narra: The Royal Tree
Molave: The Wood That Endures
Yakal, Tindalo, Kamagong, and other key species

05 Vanishing Giants: Endangered Hardwoods and How to Save Them

Species at risk (list and status)
Past logging practices and their impact
Ongoing conservation efforts

06 Guardianship and the Way Forward: Strategies for Sustainable Use

Practical strategies for sustainable forestry
Responsible sourcing and wood alternatives
A call for collective stewardship

Author’s Note: 2025 Hardbound Edition

References and Sources

Acknowledgments

Back Cover Blurb

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Preface
More than a century ago, during the American occupation of the Philippines, an
article titled “Philippine Hardwoods Are Rare and Valuable” appeared in the
Sacramento Union on August 31, 1913. It described how little was known in the
West about the rare and beautiful hardwoods of the Philippine Islands—yet those
who saw the furniture crafted from them admired it with awe. This admiration led
the Insular Bureau—then responsible for Philippine civil affairs — to organize an
exhibit in Washington, D.C., showcasing one of our country’s most valuable natural
resources.1

That was 1913. What followed was a century of both opportunity and irreversible
loss.

In the decades that followed, the Philippines became a major exporter of quality
hardwoods. But the consequence was severe: From 30 million hectares of land
almost totally covered in forest when the Spaniards arrived, it went down to just 2
million hectares of closed forest by 2010. Today, who can say for certain how much
of our rarest native hardwoods remain?

According to a report of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), roots of

large-scale timber exploitation in the Philippines were laid during the American
colonial period, when the country’s abundant forests began to be viewed through
the lens of economic productivity. A Forest School was established in Los Baños in
1910 under American guidance, introducing professional logging and scientific
forestry. Forestry Acts in 1904 and 1917 created the legal framework for
commercial timber concessions—legitimizing resource extraction over indigenous

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rights or clear ecological limits. By the mid-20th century, the Philippines had become
one of Asia’s top timber exporters, reflecting policies and industries established
decades earlier. FAO notes that this export-driven orientation turned the forestry sector
into a ding contributor to foreign exchange earnings—a trend that escalated well into
the 1960s and 70s. By the 1960s, the Philippines had emerged as one of the world’s
top log exporters, with the forestry sector contributing more than 30% of the nation’s
foreign exchange earnings. But the cost was immense: according to FAO data, forest
cover loss peaked in the late 1960s at an alarming rate of 300,000 hectares per year.
This unsustainable boom—driven by timber license concessions and weak enforcement
of logging regulations—set the stage for long-term ecological degradation.2

Today, remaining forest cover is a reflection of over a century of commercial

exploitation, policy failures, and missed opportunities for sustainable management.
True closed-canopy forests—where tree cover exceeds 60%—total just 1.9 million
hectares. That’s a mere 6% of the country’s land area.

Conservationists emphasize the importance of forests for watersheds, erosion control,

and typhoon mitigation. Yet no large-scale national program has moved beyond
conservation rhetoric toward industrial-scale regeneration—one that sustainably
replenishes our hardwood stock. Reforesting 1,000 hectares per year, as some NGOs
propose, would take a thousand years to reforest just one million hectares.

A resort hotel in Central Luzon is adorned with stunning furniture crafted from
Philippine hardwoods. According to the owners, much of the wood had been salvaged
as driftwood—carried by the devastating typhoon that struck Leyte in 2013. As
beautiful as they were, those pieces evoked a somber truth: this is how rare these
woods have become—retrieved from ruins or demolition sites.

In the 1970s and earlier, such trees were abundant. Homes were built entirely from
wood, and festivals meant cutting down trees for firewood. Lumber was plentiful,
cheap, and locally sourced.

Meanwhile, fast-growing softwoods—often non-native—dominate the few commercial

plantations that remain. Hardwood, by contrast, takes decades to mature.

Traveling through Dalton Pass in Nueva Vizcaya offers a glimpse of what remains. After
hours of denuded hills, the air suddenly cools, the greenery thickens, and you arrive in
Santa Fe—a pocket of original-growth forest. It’s a breathtaking reminder of what once
blanketed our entire nation.

But don’t expect roadside hardwood shops here. There’s even a joke: unscrupulous
loggers sell Narra in the north, then tip off inspectors down south, so the wood gets
“confiscated”—only to be sold again.

Builders now rely on medium-density imported woods or fruit trees—soft, dent-prone,

8
and lacking the elegance and durability of Philippine hardwoods. Occasionally, you
might still spot used Philippine hardwood—salvaged from colonial-era homes or
typhoon wreckage—being sold along Tagaytay roadsides. But these pieces are
limited, weather-worn, and expensive. Buyers, we were told, include influential
people furnishing their mansions. What remains may be our last chance to own a
piece of this national treasure.

In this project, we found access to reliable information on lesser-known species like

Ebano, Bolong-eta, and Mankono, is a challenge. It also took us a while to get
specimens for photographs of the wood. Some woods are now so rare that we had
to change some species e.g, Betis, Bolong-eta, in the original selection simply
because we could not locate them at all. We wanted a complete set of our own
actual photographs of the mature tree, the application, the wood, the seedling and
the leaf, but sometimes we have the seedling but not the wood or the tree but not
the wood.

This book aims to fill that gap. It seeks to raise awareness, ignite action, and rekindle
appreciation for this extraordinary heritage. Our forests were not created to be
locked away under a blanket log ban, nor to be exploited to extinction. They were
created for us to steward—so we may build, furnish, and pass on a living legacy.

@roheadvocacy envisions a Philippines where hardwoods thrive once again—not

only in forests, but in our homes, institutions, and export industries. Countries like
Germany, dedicate over 30% of their land to sustainable forestry—harvesting no
more than what can be replanted. This approach has worked for over 300 years.
Why can’t it work here?

Every year, Germany grows 120 million cubic meters of new biomass, much of it
unused. With over 3.4 billion cubic meters of wood stockpiled in its forests, it has
built a renewable resource base while absorbing carbon and preserving biodiversity.
Meanwhile, our own majestic species—renowned for their color, strength, and
durability—vanish silently.

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 🌱The Dream e

Of the Philippines’ 30 million hectares of land, it is our

dream to see—before the year 2036—no denuded
landscapes; developed cities and dwellings; modern
road arteries; active mining and industrial regions; and
vibrant, productive farmlands—all nourished by 10
million hectares of sustainable forests of Philippine
hardwood trees. These forests will provide vital inputs to
Rice field close to forest reserve in Kiamba,
forest-based industries, storing tremendous volumes of
Sarangani Province. clean water, feeding our lowlands, and revitalizing our
surrounding seas. They will also generate enough lumber
for beautiful, locally sourced hardwoods to once again be
part of every Filipino home. We imagine a country where
our most beautiful native woods are not museum
relics—but vital, thriving parts of everyday life.

Let this book be the seed

Preface References:
1
Sacramento Union, Philippine Hardwoods Are Rare and Valuable, on August 31, 1913
2
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The State of Forestry in the Philippines.
Bangkok: FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 1997. Accessed July 30, 2025. https://www.fao.org

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Chapter 01. The Vision –
Preserving the Legacy of
Philippine Hardwoods
A Heritage Worth Keeping Alive

The Philippine archipelago was once cloaked in

majestic hardwood forests—among the richest on
Earth. Narra, molave, yakal, and kamagong: names
that conjure strength, grace, and a deep-rooted sense
of identity.

These trees shaped the spires of centuries-old

churches, the beams of ancestral homes, and the hulls
of mighty galleons. They were not just resources—they
were monuments to resilience and craftsmanship.

Today, that legacy stands at the brink. Old-growth

forests have all but vanished, and with them, the
natural abundance of these treasured woods.

If we hope to build again with their timeless character,

we must learn to cultivate them anew.

We may never again carve galleons from timber—but

nothing is quite like the elegance of homes and offices
adorned with finely crafted Philippine hardwoods.

The luxury, the fragrance, the warmth—it is a beauty

that cannot be replicated.

Not Just Planting Trees – Planting a Future

This book is not just another call to “plant a tree.” It is

a blueprint for commercial-scale regeneration — a
vision to make beautiful, valuable native hardwoods
commercially available again without cutting what little
remains of our natural forests.

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The Case for a New Forestry Paradigm

The goal is to build millions of hectares of sustainable

hardwood plantations on idle and degraded lands,
taking inspiration from countries that perfected forest
farming centuries ago through the following strategies:

1.​ Commercial Reforestation at Scale

The Philippines has 15 million hectares of forest lands,

but only 2 million hectares of closed forest remain. We
propose the allocation of 10 million hectares for
sustainable commercial hardwood plantations,
integrated into a national land-use strategy.
This is not just about saving trees; it is about making
the Philippines a reliable source of premium
hardwoods, reviving an industry once lost.

2. Propagation with Purpose

While biodiversity preservation is important, this

program focuses on intentional propagation —
selecting species based on timber quality, physical
properties, and adaptability. This is not planting for the
sake of greenery but for tangible, generational value.

3. A Shift from Restriction to Regeneration

Total log bans may protect the last natural forests, but
they do not encourage growth. The vision is to plant
and manage trees explicitly for future harvesting,
replenished continuously through modern forestry
techniques.

4. A New National Land-Use Mindset

Forests are not just scenery or protected parks.

Properly managed, they are factories for timber, clean
water, soil protection, and livelihoods.

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Filipino homes, offices, and public buildings proudly
hardwoods — not as rare heirlooms, but as sustainable
riving forestry economy.

The Vision for the Next Generation

Imagine 30 years from now: builders, craftsmen, and

homeowners working with plantation-grown narra,
molave, and yakal — wood as fine as our heritage
timber, but grown responsibly.

The forests we plant today will outlive us. They can

either remain a fading memory or become a source of
strength, pride, and prosperity.

If implemented at scale, this initiative could:

1)​ Revitalize our economy by supplying high-value

hardwoods domestically and globally
2)​ Strengthen environmental resilience against
landslides, floods, and drought
3)​ Reverse deforestation through profitable forest
development
4)​ Position the Philippines as a model for tropical
hardwood sustainability
5)​ Capture millions of tons of carbon and contribute
to climate change mitigation
6)​ Revitalize our economy by supplying high-value
hardwoods domestically and globally

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This is a national dream—not just a forestry plan.

A dream where future generations can walk into a

Filipino home, office, or public building and see the
warm, elegant grain of native hardwood—not as a rare
heirloom, but as a proud, sustainable expression of our
natural heritage.

Let us not simply preserve what little is left.

Let us grow forests again, and make them thrive

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Chapter 02. Our Forest
Heritage – A Historical and
Cultural Background

The Forests That Built a Nation

There was a time when the Philippines was almost

entirely covered with forests. Molave, narra, yakal,
tindalo, and kamagong towered across the
archipelago, some reaching heights of over 40 meters,
their dense canopies feeding rivers and nurturing soil.

These trees built the foundations of our history.

Boats and canoes carried trade across the islands.
Houses and bridges withstood storms for generations.
Spanish churches and galleons, built with molave and
yakal, still stand today as silent monuments to their
legendary durability.

In 1901, the Philippine Commission to the President of

the United States praised Philippine hardwoods as
“unexcelled for sea piling and shipbuilding,” admired
for their resistance to decay, sea worms, and termites,
and sought after by cabinetmakers for their color,
strength, and grain.

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The report listed 187 species, with 34 considered the
most valuable, classified by their uses — for furniture,
houses, ships, and fine carvings. Our hardwoods were
among the best in the world.

Wood in Culture and Pride

These trees were not just materials; they shaped

Filipino culture and character.

Narra — “the royal tree” — symbolized dignity and

national pride. Its warm golden-red glow adorned
ancestral houses and heirloom furniture.

Molave became a metaphor for resilience (“matibay pa

sa molave”), its beams lasting over a hundred years
without rot.

Kamagong, dark and dense, was carved into heirloom

weapons, tools, and ceremonial pieces.

Hardwoods were part of our language, our artistry, and

our sense of identity.

A Century of Warnings Ignored

The 1901 report carried an unheeded warning: “This

resource, if unregulated, will not last a generation.”

By 1900, the Philippines had 28 million hectares of

forest cover. Today, only 2 million hectares remain,
mostly watersheds and protected parks. Of the 15
million hectares legally classified as forest land, much
is now degraded, idle, or informally occupied.

What Went Wrong?

Unlike countries like Germany, Canada, or Finland,

which turned forestry into a managed industry, the
Philippines failed to establish a serious commercial
forestry system. Instead:

1)​ Large-scale, unregulated logging during the

20th century stripped entire mountain ranges.
2)​ Total log bans, while halting illegal cutting,
discouraged tree farming. As foresters say:
“We locked the pantry but refused to cook
more food.”
3)​ Private investment collapsed. According to the
DENR’s 2018 Forestry Report:
a)​ Only 24,428 hectares were under
commercial forest agreements — a
fraction of the 2.3 million hectares

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 reforested in the past 18 years.
b)​ From 2011 onwards, private
investment virtually vanished.
c)​ Even species like tanguile, once
common in limited farms, are now
scarce.

State of Forest Production and Demand in

the Philippines

Despite its rich forestry history, the Philippines today

produces little of its own wood requirements.
Domestic lumber and processed wood output has
steadily declined, and what remains is largely from
fast-growing plantation species such as acacia,
gmelina, and mahogany, rather than traditional
Philippine hardwoods. The ban on logging in natural
forests, combined with weak enforcement, land-use
conversion, and persistent illegal logging, has left the
country unable to meet its own demand.

National consumption averages around six million

cubic meters per year, driven by rapid growth in
housing, infrastructure, furniture, and tourism-related
construction. However, more than three-quarters of
this demand is supplied through imports, particularly
plywood, veneer, laminated boards, and softwoods
from Asia, North America, and Europe. U.S. forestry
exports to the Philippines alone grew by an estimated
50 percent in 2021, underscoring the widening supply
gap.

Government efforts such as the Enhanced National

Greening Program aim to rehabilitate degraded areas
and expand plantations, yet results have been uneven.

Poverty, lack of tenure security, limited funding, and

climate pressures continue to undermine long-term
forest recovery. As a result, the Philippines has
become increasingly dependent on foreign sources of
timber—an ironic shift for a country once renowned for
its abundant hardwood forests

Reference: This section on the “State of Forest Production and

Demand in the Philippines” is our own condensation of relevant
information gathered from a report which contains assessments of
commodity and trade issues made by a U.S. Department of
Agriculture staff with the disclaimer that they are not necessarily
statements of official U.S. government policy. Date: October 29,
2021. Report Number: RP2021-0062

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The Vanishing Heritage

The result is plain to see. Walk into a builder’s

warehouse today and you will not find Kamagong,
Narra, Ipil, or Masbate. These names live on only in
folklore, antiques, and reclaimed wood from
Spanish-era houses.

Environmental advocacy, once ambitious, has shifted

to what appears to be small conservation programs
and token planting events. Others push for permanent
bans, unaware that protection without propagation
leads only to extinction.

Why This Heritage Matters

Some might ask: Why revive these species when

softwoods grow faster and cheaper?

The answer is simple:

Heritage and Identity – Narra, molave, yakal, and

kamagong are not just strong; they carry centuries of
cultural pride and craftsmanship. Losing them is losing
part of who we are.

Economic Opportunity – Hardwood once fueled a

thriving economy. Countries like Malaysia and Vietnam
now export billions of dollars of furniture annually.
With proper forest farming, the Philippines can do the
same — legally and sustainably.

Environmental Benefits – Reforesting even a fraction of

our idle forest lands could restore watersheds, reduce
erosion, and capture millions of tons of carbon
We have 15,000,000 hectares of land, half of the
Philippines classified as forest land.

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The Lesson of History

For over a hundred years, we have allowed our forests

to vanish. We talked about reforestation but it appears
like it's only in symbolic gestures.

The real challenge now is this: Will we continue

guarding what little is left — or will we choose to grow
the forests we need for the future?

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Chapter 03 The Art and
Science of Wood –
Understanding Strength,
Grain, and Beauty
Why Philippine Hardwoods Are Exceptional

Every plank of wood carries a story — of storms

weathered, sunlight absorbed, and decades,
sometimes centuries, of patient growth. Among
tropical timbers, Philippine hardwoods are legendary
for their density, beauty, and durability, making them
prized by builders, artisans, and furniture makers
around the world.

But what exactly makes them so special? It is both art

and science — a harmony of natural beauty and
structural excellence.

Strength

Hardwoods like molave, yakal, and ipil are renowned

for their mechanical strength. Their dense fibers give
them:
1)​ Exceptional resistance to decay, termites, and
marine borers
2)​ High load-bearing capacity, ideal for bridges,
posts, and flooring
3)​ Longevity — a molave post can last over a
century with minimal maintenance

In the 1901 forestry report, some species were praised

as “unexcelled for shipbuilding,” particularly for sea
piling, because they could withstand constant wetting
and drying without rotting — a property that
softwoods cannot match.

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The Beauty in the Grain

Hardwoods are also living works of art. Narra glows

with warm golden-red hues, often streaked with wavy
or mottled grain — perfect for fine furniture and
paneling.

Kamagong, almost black with dramatic striping, has

been treasured for heirloom carvings, musical
instruments, and tool handles.

Tindalo displays delicate ribbon-like grains that give

an understated elegance to cabinets and tables.

Each board is unique — no two planks share exactly

the same pattern, giving handcrafted pieces a timeless
appeal.

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The Science Behind Exceptional Species

Beauty alone does not make a species ideal for

modern forestry. For forest farms to work, species must
meet specific scientific and practical criteria:

1)​ Mechanical Strength and Durability

The wood must resist decay, pests, and wear
— ensuring long service life. Example: Molave
and yakal are almost impervious to termites
and rot.

2)​ Aesthetic Value

Grain, color, and polishability should meet
premium market demands. Example: Narra’s
rich hue or tindalo’s fine ribbon grain.

3)​ Harvest Efficiency (Straight Boles).

Trees should grow tall and straight with
minimal branching, reducing waste and
making mechanized harvesting efficient.
Example: Molave, Yakal and other dipterocarps
are known for their uniform, cylindrical boles.

4)​ Growth Patterns and Size

Fast-enough growth to be commercially viable
while still yielding high-quality timber. Species
that reach good diameter and height within
25–40 years are preferable.

5)​ Market Recognition

The species should already have strong
demand locally and internationally to ensure
investment viability.

6)​ Timeless Appeal

A narra tabletop polished to a warm sheen, a
molave staircase that feels solid underfoot, a
kamagong heirloom handed down for
generations — these are more than just
objects. They are expressions of natural
excellence and human craftsmanship.

By understanding both the art and the science behind

these woods, we can ensure that future generations
will enjoy them — not as rare antiques, but as proudly
farmed, sustainable resources.

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The Science of Leaves and Wood Structure

Four Leaf Forms, Four Wood Stories

In the forest, every leaf tells a story — not just of a

species, but of its character, strength, and role in the
ecosystem. While much attention is given to wood
grain and hardness, the form of the leaves offers
subtle clues about the nature of the tree and the
properties of its timber.

Across the ten species featured in this book, four

distinct leaf patterns emerge. These patterns align
remarkably with the density, structure, and uses of
their wood, forming natural groupings that speak both
of beauty and function.

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 Group 1: The Armored Giants — Dense,
Hard, and Glossy

Species: Ebony, Mancono, Masbate

Ebony (Kamagong)
Families: Myrtaceae, Ebenaceae, Malvaceae

These species are nature’s fortresses — evolved for

survival in harsh, exposed, or coastal environments.
Masbate (Dungon) Their leaves are thick, leathery, and often glossy or
velvety, acting as a shield against sun, salt, wind, and
drought. Their wood mirrors this defense: extremely
hard, heavy, and resistant to decay or wear.

Mancono
Wood: Dense, slow-growing, exceptionally strong

Uses: Machine bases, tool handles, marine posts,

industrial components. Luxury furniture.

Leaf traits: Simple, alternate, elliptic to oblong, with a

All three leaf photographs taken from trees high-gloss or textured surface​
planted at the Washington Sycip Garden of
Native Trees, U.P. Theater Complex, ​
University of the Philippines Diliman They are among the strongest, most dense and
Campus, Quezon City
hardest woods. Janka hardness of Ebony, Mancono,
Masbate are 3,200; 4,450 and 2,850 respectively,
which ranks among the highest in the world.

Group 2: The Fabaceae Trio — Nature’s

Furniture Makers

Species: Narra, Tindalo, Ipil

Narra
Family: Fabaceae (Legume family)

Belonging to the same plant family as mung beans,

these trees share the classic compound leaf structure
of legumes — made up of rounded, symmetrical
Tindalo leaflets.

Their wood is often fragrant, decorative, and highly

valued for interior uses. They also enrich the soil
through nitrogen fixation, making them ecologically
important as well.
Ipil

Legumes with leaflets Wood: Medium to high density, strong, with beautiful
Like that of mung beans — a quiet color and grain
reminder that even the grandest trees
once began with pods.
Uses: Furniture, floors, cabinetry, sculpture
All three leaf photographs taken from
seedlings from Cainta Plant Nursery, Cainta,
Leaf traits: Pinnate or trifoliate compound leaves,
Rizal rounded to ovate leaflets, smooth texture

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Group 3: The Dipterocarps — Tall, Straight,
and Timber-Rich

Species: Apitong, Guiho, Yakal

Family: Dipterocarpaceae Apitong

These trees are the giants of the Philippine rainforest

— tall, straight, thick-bole, and timber-rich. Their
leaves are long, narrow, and leathery, often
unremarkable in shape but perfectly adapted to rise
through the canopy.
Guijo
Wood: Strong, resilient, abundant in volume — ideal
for structural uses

Uses: Bridges, beams, shipbuilding, house framing

Leaf traits: Simple, alternate, lanceolate to oblong,

with strong venation
Yakal Saplungan

Special trait: Exceptionally wide trunk diameters and These trees were the columns
tall, clean boles — a single dipterocarp can yield of our ancient forests — Tall, long-boled
and full of timber.
timber equivalent to ten smaller trees.

Photographs taken from trees or seedlings

from Cainta Plant Nursery (Apitong),and
Washington Sycip Garden of Native Trees, U.P.
Theater Complex, University of the Philippines
(Guijo & Yakal)

Group 4: Molave- A Category of Its Own

Molave (Vitex parviflora) stands apart from the three

major groupings of Philippine hardwood leaves. Unlike
the armored species with thick, protective foliage, the
legumes with compound leaves, or the dipterocarps
with their broad blades, Molave presents a different
botanical pattern. Its leaves are simple, opposite, and
entire, with smooth margins and a firm, leathery
surface. This leaf form reflects a balance of toughness
and refinement—traits echoed in its wood.

Molave wood is celebrated for being both

exceptionally durable and fine-grained. It does not
reach the extreme density of Mancono nor the fibrous
bulk of dipterocarps, yet it resists decay, pests, and Photograph taken from a seedling from Cainta
weathering with remarkable endurance. Its unique Plant Nursery
combination of properties—hardness without
brittleness, strength with workable grain—justifies its
recognition as a separate group in the correlation
between leaf structure and wood character.

25
 Each tree writes its story Final Note: Form Reflects Function
through its leaves —
and in doing so,
leaves a legacy in the forest, In each of these groups, leaf structure echoes wood
in our homes,
character.
and in our memory.

The thick, glossy leaves of Ebony, Masbate, and

Mancono foretell a hard, unyielding core.

The rounded leaflets of the Fabaceae group hint at

balance, beauty, and utility.

The narrow, wind-cutting leaves of the dipterocarps

point to their skyward ambition and massive trunk
volume

26
Chapter 04 Masters of the
Forest – Select Philippine
Hardwood Species
Out of hundreds of native hardwoods, only a select
few combine strength, beauty, and market
recognition, that made them to a shortened list we
believe is ideal for the undertaking proposed in this
book.

We looked at heritage, the woods we grew up with,

their beauty, strength, grain and general properties.

These are the “masters of the forest” — some of the

most important species that built our history and can
define our forestry future.

01. Ebony (Diospyros blancoi) – The Dark

Jewel

Why It Matters:

Heritage: Known as Philippine ironwood, used for

heirloom weapons, tool handles, and ceremonial
pieces.

Beauty: Dark, almost black wood with striking striping;

ideal for fine turned pieces.

Forestry Advantage: Slow-growing and

smaller-diameter, but perfect for niche high-value
markets; preserves genetic diversity when farmed
selectively.

27
02. Mancono (Xanthostemon verdugonianus)
– The Iron of the Forest

Why It Matters:

Heritage: Known as “Philippine ironwood,”traditionally

used for marine piles and tool handles. The Spaniards
call it Palo de Hierro.

Strength: Extremely dense — so heavy it sinks in water;

among the hardest woods in the world.

Forestry Advantage: Best for limited high-value belts;

inclusion in farms ensures species survival.

03. Molave (Vitex parviflora) – The Wood

That Endures

Why It Matters:

Heritage: Used for Spanish-era houses, bridges, and

flooring — many still stand today.

Strength: Extremely dense and decay-resistant; molave

beams can last more than a century.

Forestry Advantage: Uniform bole and predictable

growth make it excellent for mechanized harvesting.

04. Narra (Pterocarpus indicus) – The Royal

Tree

Why It Matters:

Heritage: The national tree of the Philippines,

symbolizing honor and pride.

Beauty: Warm golden-red hue with wavy or mottled

grain, perfect for fine furniture and paneling.

Durability: Naturally termite-resistant, ideal for

interiors.

Forestry Advantage: Responds well to managed

planting; grows relatively straight under proper
spacing, though slower than others.

28
05. Tindalo (Afzelia rhomboidea) – The
Refined Classic

Why It Matters:

Heritage: Highly prized in pre-war furniture and

veneers.

Beauty: Reddish-brown with ribbon-like grain,

excellent for fine cabinetry.

Forestry Advantage: Adapts well to plantation

conditions when propagated from quality seed stock.

06. Ipil (Intsia bijuga) – The Resilient Marine

Wood

Why It Matters:

Heritage: Famous for boat keels, piers, and bridges

due to its water resistance.

Strength: Heavy, hard, and durable — comparable to

molave in toughness.

Forestry Advantage: Though slower-growing, it is

valuable for specialized construction markets.​
​
07. Masbate (Heritiera littoralis) – The
Coastal Protector

Why It Matters:

Heritage: Used for boat parts and flooring; valued for

its resistance to saltwater and wear.

Strength: Hard, tough, and naturally oily, making it

weather-resistant. The grain and texture is also of
exceptional beauty. The handrail in the picture is
unstained, only polished, and applied a thin wipe of
lacquer and yet exudes a lustrous reddish bright color.

Forestry Advantage: Thrives in coastal or lowland

areas, ideal for specialized regional plantations.

29
 08. Apitong (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus) –
The Builder’s Backbone

Heritage: Apitong was one of the most widely used

timbers in the country’s history, forming the backbone
) of bridges, truck beds, ship parts, and house beams. In
many rural areas, “Apitong” became synonymous with
“hardwood,” reflecting its popularity and availability in
the past.

Beauty: While less ornate than narra or tindalo,

Apitong has a warm brown tone with a slightly coarse
but uniform grain, giving it a sturdy, no-nonsense
appeal.

Forestry Advantage:

●​ Bole Profile: Apitong is among the straightest

and tallest native hardwoods, with long, clean
boles ideal for long-span construction timber.​

●​ Growth & Management: Naturally abundant

and faster-growing than some premium
hardwoods, making it an excellent candidate
for large-scale commercial plantations.​

Versatility: Its strength and workability make it suitable

for structural components, flooring, and heavy-duty
applications.

30
09. Guijo (Shorea guiso) – The Strong Silent
Worker

Heritage: Guijo was one of the most trusted woods in

the old Philippines, used extensively for bridges,
house posts, and railroad ties. Builders favored it for
structures requiring sheer toughness and wear
resistance, making it a common sight in Spanish- and
American-era public works.

Beauty: Its wood is reddish to dark brown,

fine-textured, and polishes well, giving it a quiet
elegance suited for flooring and heavy-duty furniture.

Forestry Advantage:

●​ Bole Profile: Guijo trees are tall, straight, and

cylindrical, with minimal branching — perfect
for mechanized sawing and long-span beams.​

●​ Growth & Management: Though moderately

slow-growing, its uniform bole makes it highly
efficient for commercial forestry, with high
yield per log.​

Durability: Naturally resistant to wear and pests,

ensuring long service life.

10 Yakal (Shorea astylosa) – The Builder’s

Favorite

Why It Matters:

Heritage: A staple in trusses, beams, and high-stress

construction.

Strength & Durability: Tough, termite-resistant,

suitable for indoor and outdoor use. Though more
popular with builders for its use as doors, jambs, stairs,
it can also be a good furniture material. It is very
durable. The polished bar shelf in the picture was
made out of wood that has been exposed to sun and
rain for at least 2 years, yet when the outer dark layer
was removed, the inside looks pristine and beautiful,
obviously surviving termite attack.

Forestry Advantage: Straight, cylindrical growth

pattern ensures high yield with minimal waste.

31
Why Focus Only on Ten?

While hundreds of other species exist, not all are

practical for farming. Species with irregular boles, very
slow growth, or limited demand complicate
management and reduce economic viability.

A focused forestry model with 8 to 10 superior species

ensures:
1)​ Efficient harvesting and processing
2)​ Predictable supply cycles
3)​ High-value returns for investors and
communities
4)​ Conservation of genetic heritage through
controlled propagation

In the following section we present data on select 10

species for our appreciation.

Data was gathered from sources including:

1)​ The International Tropical Timber Organization
(ITTO)
2)​ The Integrated Taxonomic Information System
(ITIS)
3)​ The International Plant Names Index (IPNI)
4)​ The USDA Wood Handbook – Centennial
Edition
5)​ The Morlan Wood Gifts global database of
species hardness
6)​ Plants of the World Online, The Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew
We also collected and photographed physical wood
specimens from salvaged hardwoods found in
demolition sites, markets, and rural homes — to offer
not just data, but a visual and tactile connection to
these irreplaceable species. Pictures of seedlings and
leaves were taken from actual seedlings obtained from
Cainta Plant Nursery in Cainta, Rizal; while mature tree
images were taken from several trips to the Makiling
Botanic Garden at the University of the Philippines in
Los Baños, Laguna and other sites.

Species Profiles

Each species in this chapter is presented with:

1)​ Scientific classification

2)​ Tree description
3)​ Natural habitat
4)​ Mechanical and physical wood properties
5)​ Commercial uses

32
This book is primarily written for readers to appreciate
the beauty, strength and overall value of Philippine
hardwoods.

The idea is to make use of one third of the overall land

area of the Philippines for actual sustainable forest
plantations of native varieties of hardwoods.

This undertaking will entail use of the area long

allocated to forest lands, about 15 million hectares,
which to date has never come to fruition. In the latest
report of the Department of Environment and Natural
Resources there is but about two million hectares of
closed forest. Closed forest is defined as forest where
the trees in various storeys and the undergrowth cover
a high proportion- at least 40 percent- of the ground
and have a continuous dense grass layer (Philippine
Forestry Report 2019).

To do that, we thought research on the properties

from available literature would be necessary to
compare the species against the rest of the world’s
species of trees.

Much of the data comes from the International

Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) database and we
are extremely grateful for allowing us referenced use
of their data.

On taxonomy and phylogeny, we are grateful for free

access to the Plants of the World Online, The Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew and the International Plant
Names Index (IPNI) and Integrated Taxonomic
Information System (ITIS) and International Plant
Names Index (IPNI).

33
To compare the properties of Philippine hardwoods
with the rest of the species of the world we used two
main references: www.morlanwoodgifts.com for Janka
hardness and a very comprehensive book entitled
Wood Handbook- Wood as an Engineering Material,
Centennial Edition of the United States Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory
General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190

Since the idea for this book is about commercial and

sustainable propagation through tree farming, the
resulting supply chain of the industries that would
proliferate as a result will benefit from narrowing the
choices to a few choice species selected for
commercial tree planting.

The selected species are amongst the strongest and

most beautiful that would find its way into furniture,
trimmings and parts of concrete houses and buildings,
and even perhaps going back to wooden Filipino
homes like they do in western countries where wood is
available at low prices.

The following table shows the list of species with their

corresponding accepted scientific names and numbers
that were selected and featured in this book.
.

34
Numerical Taxonomic Reference Table
Common Scientific Name Taxonomic First Publication Genus Taxonomic Family Taxonomic
Item
Name Number Number Number

Ref (2,8) Ref (8) Ref (4.5,6&7) Ref (8) Ref (1&5) Ref (1&5) Ref (1&5) Ref (1&5)

01 Ebony Diospyros blancoi ITIS- A.P.de Candolle, Prodr. 8: Diospyros L. ITIS- Ebenaceae Gürke ITIS-
A.DC. 502076; 237 (1844) 23853: 23852;
IPNI IPNI- 326017-2 IPNI-
-322146-1 77126676-1

02 Mancono Xanthostemon WCSP- F.M.Blanco, Fl. Filip., Xanthostemon IPNI- Myrtaceae ITIS-
verdugonianus 215248; ed. 3. 4(13A): 82 F.Muell. 332068-2 Juss. 27172;
Náves ex IPNI- (1880) IPNI-
Fern.-Vill. 602816-1 30000056-2

03 Molave Vitex parviflora ITIS- Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Vitex L. ITIS- Lamiaceae ITIS-
A.Juss. 32225; 7: 76 (1806) 32220; Martinov 32251;
IPNI- IPNI- IPNI-
865916-1 30000069-2 30000097-2

04 Narra Pterocarpus ITIS- Sp. Pl., ed. 4. 3: 904 Pterocarpus Jacq. ITIS- Fabaceae ITIS-
indicus Willd. 506292: (1802) 500522 Lind. 500059;
IPNI- IPNI- IPNI-
16487-1 331884-2 30000147-2

05 Tindalo Afzelia IPNI- F.M.Blanco, Fl. Filip., Afelia Sm. ITIS- Fabaceae ITIS-
rhomboidea 473080-1 ed. 3. 4(13A): 72 500709; Lindl. 500059;
(Blanco) (1880) IPN|- IPNI-
Fern.-Vill. 1331326-2 30000147-2

06 Ipil Intsia bijuga ITIS- Revis. Gen. Pl. 1: 192 Intsia Thouars ITIS- Fabaceae ITIS:
(Colebr.) Kuntze 819919; (1891) 819591: LindI. 500059
IPNI- IPN|-
500954-1 22666-1

07 Masbate Heritiera IPNI- Revis. Pl. Vasc. Filip.: Heritiera J.F.Gmel. IPNI- Malvaceae POWO:
sylvatica S.Vidal 823591-1 66 (1886) 19468-1 Juss. 30000208-2

08 Apitong Dipterocarpus IPNI- Fl. Filip., ed. 2.: 314 Dipterocarpus IPNI- Diptero- IPNI-
grandiflorus 320683-1 (1845) C.F.Gaertn 14361-1 carpace ae 77126600-1
(Blanco) Blanco Blume

09 Guijo Shorea guiso IPNI- Mus. Bot. 2: 34 Shorea Roxb. ex ITIS- Diptero- IPNI-
(Blanco) Blume 321298-1 (1856) C.F. Gaertn. 500828 carpace ae 77126600-1
Blume

10 Yakal Shorea astylosa IPNI- Philipp. J. Sci., C 13: Shorea Roxb ex ITIS-500828; Diptero- IPNI-
Foxw. 321206-1 188 (1918) C.F. Gaertn. IPN1-14402-1 carpace 77126600-1
ae Blume

References:
1
Integrated Taxonomic Information Svstem (ITIS)
2
DENR Administrative Order No. 2017-11. 02 Mav 2017 lists Diospyros blancoi A.DC. as Kamagong, which is not listed among common names
in the Plants of the World Online, The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
3
Report of the Philippine Commission to the President. United States Commission to the Philippine Islands, Volumes III & IV. Paper No.
VI-Timber & Fine Woods, John R. MacArthur. Secretary and Counsel, 12/20/1900. pages 285~303
4
The Plant List. The Plant List is a working list of all known plant species.A collaboration between the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri
Botanical Garden enabled the creation of The Plant List by combining multiple checklist data sets held by these institutions and other
collaborators.
5
International Plant Names Index (IPNI. The International Plant Names Index (IPNI) is a collaborative database produced by The Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, The Harvard University Herbaria, and The Australian National Herbarium.
6
The World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP). The World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP) is an international
collaborative program that provides the latest peer-reviewed and published opinions on accepted scientific names and synonyms for selected
plant families. It allows users to search for plant names, create checklists, and access information about plant families, genera, and species.
WCSP is maintained by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
7
Novissima Appendix ad Flora Philippinarum. Manila. Alt. Title: FI. Filip., ed. 3, vol. 4(3, fasc. 13A-23A). TL-2 (no. 1766) listed this publication
under C. Fernändez-Villar and mentioned A. Naves as the coauthor
8
Plants of the World Online, The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

35
Phylogenetic Tree

Kingdom Plantae
Phylum Streptophyta
Class Equisitopsida
Sub-class Magnoliidae

Order Ericales Myrtales Lamiales Fabales Malvales

Family Ebenaceae Myrtaceae Lamiaceae Fabaceae Malvaceae Dipterocarpaceae

Species [A] Diospyros [B] Xanthostemon [C] Vitexparviflora [D] Pterocarpus [G] Heritiera [H] Dipterocarpus
discolor Willd., D. Verdugonianus Juss. [Molave] indicus Willd. sylvatica grandiflorus
blancoi A. DC. Naves ex Fern.-Vill. forma indicus S.Vidal [Blanco] Blanco
[Ebony] [Mancono] [Narra] [Masbate] [Apitong]

[E] Afzelia [I] Dipterocarpus

rhomboidea grandiflorus
(Blanco) (Blanco) Blanco
S.Vidal [Guijo]
[Tindalo]

[F] Intsia bijuga [J] Shorea

[Colebr.) astylosa Foxw.
Kuntze [Ipil] [Yakal]

Phylogenetic Glossary
This glossary provides concise definitions of the major clades, orders, and families represented in the phylogenetic chart,
based on authoritative botanical sources including Encyclopædia Britannica, Kew’s Plants of the World Online, the Tree of
Life Web Project, and NCBI Taxonomy.

Plantae (Plants)

The kingdom Plantae consists of multicellular, eukaryotic organisms that carry out photosynthesis using chlorophylls a
and b. Plants range from mosses to giant trees and form the basis of most terrestrial ecosystems. Nearly all exhibit
alternation of generations, and most possess cellulose cell walls; a few, such as parasitic plants, lack
chlorophyll.(Summarized from Encyclopædia Britannica)

Streptophyta (Streptophytes)

Streptophyta is a major clade of green plants that includes charophyte algae and all land plants. Streptophytes are
defined by phragmoplast cell division, cellulose-rich cell walls, and multicellular reproductive structures. They mark the
evolutionary transition from aquatic algae to terrestrial plants.(Source: Tree of Life Web Project; NCBI Taxonomy)

Equisetopsida (Vascular Plants, Broad Sense)

In modern systems such as Kew POWO, Equisetopsida refers broadly to all vascular plants, including ferns,
gymnosperms, and angiosperms. They are characterized by xylem and phloem, tissues that permit upright growth and
structural complexity. In older classifications, however, the name applied narrowly to horsetails and their extinct relatives.
(Source: Kew POWO; Tree of Life Web Project)

Magnoliidae (Magnoliids)

Magnoliidae, or magnoliids, are a group of basal angiosperms with about 10,000 species, including magnolias, laurels,
nutmeg, and peppers. They are distinguished by aromatic oils, floral parts typically in threes, and pollen grains with a
single pore. In APG IV they are recognized as one of the main lineages of flowering plants, separate from monocots and
eudicots. (Source: Encyclopædia Britannica; Kew POWO)

36
Ericales (Rhododendron Order)

Ericales is an order of flowering plants comprising 22 families, 346 genera, and more than 12,000 species. Classified as
basal asterids in APG IV, they are morphologically generalized, with radially symmetric flowers, fused petals, superior
ovaries, and often capsule fruits with thin seed coats. Families include Ericaceae (heaths), Ebenaceae (ebonies),
Theaceae (tea), and Sapotaceae.(Summarized from Encyclopædia Britannica)

Myrtales (Myrtle Order)

Myrtales includes 9 families, 380 genera, and about 13,000 species of mainly tropical trees and shrubs. Dominant
families are Myrtaceae and Melastomataceae. Members often have evergreen leaves with oil glands, and economically
important genera include Eucalyptus, guava, and clove. APG IV places the order in the basal rosid group of core eudicots.
(Summarized from Encyclopædia Britannica)

Lamiales (Mint Order)

Lamiales is an order with 24 families, 1,059 genera, and nearly 23,800 species. Major families include Lamiaceae (mints),
Oleaceae (olives), Plantaginaceae (plantains), and Bignoniaceae. In APG IV it belongs to the lamiid group of asterids.
Members often have opposite leaves, glandular hairs, capsular fruits, and distinctive chemical compounds.(Summarized
from Encyclopædia Britannica)

Fabales (Legume Order)

Fabales includes 4 families, 754 genera, and over 20,000 species, dominated by Fabaceae (legumes). Legumes form root
nodules with rhizobia that fix nitrogen, enriching soils. Their characteristic fruit is a pod that splits along two seams.
Important crops include beans, peas, soybeans, peanuts, and clovers.(Summarized from Encyclopædia Britannica)

Malvales (Mallow or Hibiscus Order)

Malvales comprises 10 families, 338 genera, and about 6,000 species, mostly woody plants. Families include Malvaceae
(mallows, cacao, cotton, hibiscus) and Dipterocarpaceae. Members typically have palmate leaves, fibrous bark, mucilage
cells, and flowers with numerous stamens. Economically important for fibres, oils, timber, and food.(Summarized from
Encyclopædia Britannica)

Ebenaceae (Ebony or Persimmon Family)

Ebenaceae contains about 855 species in 4 genera, mainly Diospyros. Trees and shrubs are mostly tropical, with simple
two-ranked leaves, unisexual flowers, and large-seeded berries. The heartwood is characteristically black (ebony), while
fruits such as persimmons are widely consumed.(Summarized from Encyclopædia Britannica)

Myrtaceae (Myrtle Family)

Myrtaceae includes about 150 genera and 3,300 species, primarily tropical trees and shrubs. They have evergreen leaves
with oil glands. Economically important members include Eucalyptus (timber, pulp), guava, clove, rose apple, and allspice.
Many are cultivated ornamentals.(Summarized from Encyclopædia Britannica)

Lamiaceae (Mint Family)

Lamiaceae is the mint family with 236 genera and over 7,000 species, distributed nearly worldwide. Most are aromatic
herbs with square stems, opposite leaves, and two-lipped tubular flowers. Important for herbs, spices, ornamentals, and
medicinal plants, including mint, basil, sage, and rosemary.(Summarized from Encyclopædia Britannica)

Fabaceae (Pea or Legume Family)

Fabaceae is the pea family with more than 700 genera and about 20,000 species. The third largest angiosperm family, it
includes trees, shrubs, vines, and herbs. Leaves are usually compound, and fruits are pods that split open when mature.
Key crops are soybeans, peas, peanuts, and alfalfa.(Summarized from Encyclopædia Britannica)

Malvaceae (Mallow or Hibiscus Family)

Malvaceae includes 243 genera and at least 4,225 species of herbs, shrubs, and trees, especially in the tropics.
Economically important members include cotton, cacao, durian, okra, linden, and hibiscus. Formerly divided into four
families, they were united under APG III based on DNA evidence.(Summarized from Encyclopædia Britannica)

Dipterocarpaceae (Dipterocarp Family)

Dipterocarpaceae is a family of 17 genera and about 680 species of tall tropical trees, dominant in Southeast Asian
lowland forests and present in Africa and South America. Most have leathery leaves, resinous wood, and twisted-petal
flowers. Economically vital, they yield durable timber and valuable resins such as balsam, copal, and camphor.
(Summarized from Encyclopædia Britannica)

📚 Sources
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, entries on *Plantae, Magnoliidae, Ericales, Myrtales, Lamiales, Fabales, Malvales,
Ebenaceae, Myrtaceae , Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, Malvaceae, Dipterocarpaceae

37
Note:

Plant taxonomy is a dynamic field that evolves with advances in molecular and phylogenetic research. The definitions in
this glossary reflect the consensus of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group IV (APG IV) system and major botanical
references at the time of writing. While future refinements may adjust certain relationships, the clades, orders, and
families outlined here represent the best current understanding of plant evolution.

PHYSICAL & MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Density & Hardness
Item Philippine Philippine Reference Species Density Data Reference Name Density, Hardness Data Ref. Scientific Hardne
Common g/cc Name ss, lbf
Name

1 Ebony Diospyros blancoi Diospyros philippensis 0.81 Diospyros blancoi 3,200

2 Mancono Xanthostemon verdugonianus Xanthostemon verdugonianus 1.04 Xanthostemon verdugonianus 4,450
3 Molave Vitex parviflora Vitex parviflora 0.77 Vitex parviflora 1,379
4 Narra Pterocarpus indicus Pterocarpus indicus 0.66 Pterocarpus indicus 1,260
5 Tindalo Afzelia rhomboidea Afzelia spp. 0.80 Afzelia 1,810
6 Ipil Intsia bijuga Intsia bijuga 0.61 Intsia bijuga 1,890
7 Masbate Heritiera sylvatica Heritiera sylvatica 0.77 Tarrietia sylvatica 2,850
8 Apitong Dipterocarpus grandiflorus Shorea spp. balau group 0.70 Dipterocarpus alatus 1,520
9 Guijo Shorea guiso Shorea guiso 0.68 Shorea plagata 1,560
10 Yakal Shorea astylosa Shorea astylosa 0.73 Shorea laevis 1,800
References:
The Internet archive, https://web.archive.org/web/20120415210040/http://www.morlanwoodgifts.com/MM011.ASP?pageno=215
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)https://www.fao.org/4/w4095e/w4095e0c.htm#TopOfPage​
ITTO http://www.tropicaltimber.info/specie/sonokembang-pterocarpus-indicus/, 8/27/2025 21:15:15
http://www.tropicaltimber.info/specie/vitex-vitex-parviflora/, 8/27/2025 21:18:50

Mechanical Properties
Item Philippine Philippine Reference Species Reference/ ITTO Species MOR MOE (psi) Source
Common (psi)
Name

1 Ebony Diospyros blancoi Mabolo / Diospyros spp. 19,900 2,360,000 DENR-ERDB; CIRAD
2 Mancono Xanthostemon verdugonianus Mangkono / Xanthostemon spp. 21,200 3,020,000 DENR-ERDB; CIRAD
3 Molave Vitex parviflora Molave / Vitex parviflora 13,327 1,860,982 ITTO Direct
4 Narra Pterocarpus indicus Sonokembang / Amboina 13,555 1,750,822 ITTO Direct
5 Tindalo Afzelia rhomboidea Afzelia / Afzelia spp. 21,022 2,050,000 ITTO Direct (Genus)
6 Ipil Intsia bijuga Merbau / Intsia bijuga 21,193 2,376,649 ITTO Direct
7 Masbate Heritiera sylvatica Palapi / Heritiera javanica 15,944 2,029,102 ITTO Reference Species
8 Apitong Dipterocarpus grandiflorus Keruing / Dipterocarpus spp. 11,948 2,074,033 ITTO Reference Species
9 Guijo Shorea guiso Red Balau / Shorea robusta 17,296 2,220,263 ITTO Direct
10 Yakal Shorea astylosa Balau / Shorea levis 20,951 2,905,971 ITTO Reference Species
References:
ITTO values are publicly available on their “Lesser-Used Species” timber database.
CIRAD data are from the Tropix 7 Database, which is the main French wood mechanics dataset.
DENR–ERDB and FPRDI reports are official Philippine references; some are older but still widely cited.

38
CONSERVATION STATUS
Item Common Scientific Name, Ref (1) IUCN Status (Ref 1)
Name

01 Ebony Diospyros blancoi A.DC. DENR DAO 2017 - VU Vulnerable AERP: Not threatened

02 Mancono Xanthostemon verdugonianus IUCN: VU - Vulnerable AERP: Threatened

Náves ex Fern.-Vill. DENR. DAO 2017-11: EN-Endangered

03 Molave Vitex parviflora A.Juss. IUCN: LC - Least concern

DENR. DAO 2017-11: EN-EndangereD

04 Narra Pterocarpus indicus Willd. IUCN: EN-Endangered ILDIS: Not Threatened

DENR. DAO 2017-11: EN-Endangered AERP:Not Threatened

05 Tindalo Afzelia rhomboidea (Blanco) IUCN: VU-Vulnerable ILDIS: Vulnerable

Fern.-Vill. DENR. DAO 2017-11: EN-Endangered AERP:Not Threatened

06 Ipil Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze IUCN: NT-Near Threatened ILDIS: Endangered
DENR. DAO 2017-11: VU-Vulnerable AERP:Not Threatened

07 Masbate Heritiera sylvatica S.Vidal AERP: Threatened

08 Apitong Dipterocarpus grandiflorus IUCN: EN - Endangered AERP:Not Threatened

(Blanco) Blanco

09 Guijo Shorea guiso (Blanco) Blume IUCN: VU-Vulnerable AERP:Not Threatened

10 Yakal Shorea astylosa Foxw. IUCN: EN - endangered AERP: Threatened

DENR DAO 2017-11: CR-Critically Endangered
Reference: POWO- Kew Botanic Gardens

ALTERNATIVE SPECIES
The species selected in this book is by no means meant to be the final selection in a massive
sustainable forestry program. Here we show some of the similar species which may be considered also shown is their
conservation status.

Ebenaceae Myrtaceae Lamiaceae Fabaceae Malvaceae Dipterocarpaceae

Oi-oi (Diospyros Bagoadlau Philippine teak Palawan Ipil (Intsia Yakal-malibato

philippinenis A. DC.) (Xanthostemon (Tectona palembanicaMiq.)- (Shorea malibato
- VU philippinensis Merr.)- philippinensis VU Foxw.) - CR
CR Benth. & Hook.f.) -
EN

Anang (Diospyros Mapilig Banuyo Gisok-gisok (Hopea

pyrrhocarpa Miq.) - (Xanthostemonbracte (Wallaceodendron philippinensis Dyer) -
VU atus Merr.) - CR celebicum Koord.) CR
VU

Batulinau Sierra Prickly Narra Yakal-magasusu

(Diospyros ferrea Madremangkono (Pterocarpus (Hopea mindanensis
[Willd.] Bakh.) - VU (Xanthostemon indicus Willd. forma Foxw.) - CR
fruticosus Peter G. echinatus) - VU
Wilson & Co) -CR

Ponce kamagong Tiaong (Shorea

(Diospyros poncei ovata Dyer ex
Merr.) - CR Brandis) - EN

Malinoag Yakal-saplungan
(Diospyros (Hopea plagata
brideliifolia Elmer) - [Blanco] S. Vidal) -
CR CR

Itom-itom Red lauan (Shorea

(Diospyros negrosensis Foxw.) -
longciliata Merr.) - CR
CR

Diospyros White lauan (Shorea

pilosanthera Blanco contorta S. Vidal) -
[BOLONG-ETA] CR

Shorea polysperma
[Blanco] Merr.
[TANGUILE]

39
Philippine Hardwoods Compared with World
Species in Physical & Mechanical Properties​
​
In the graphs shown we compare the ten selected
species with a population group of world woods with
properties cutting across the spectrum (soft wood to
hardwoods, tropical to temperate) within the indicated
group.

This data on density and hardness compares select

Philippine hardwoods to 2155 species and shows they
are among the denser species of wood.

References
The Internet archive,
https://web.archive.org/web/20120415210040/http://www.morlanwoodgifts.
com/MM011.ASP?pageno=215
Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO)https://www.fao.org/4/w4095e/w4095e0c.htm#TopOfPage

40
SELECT
SPECIES

Notes on Images.

All wood samples are actual wood

specimens gathered from all over the
country, mostly from old demolished
building woods. The images on wood
uses are actual furniture and
applications except for Mancono,
Tindalo, Molave, Apitong, and Guijo
which are generated from images of
actual wood textures (shown below the
generated image). Modern luxury
furniture design reflects how beautiful
they would be if processed using the
best methods.

41
 01. Ebony
Diospyros blancoi A. DC.
DATA REFERENCE NAME (Ref 3-1)
Kamagong

DATA REFERENCE SCIENTIFIC NAME

Diospyros discolor Willd. (Note 3-1)

FAMILY
Ebenaceae Gürke

COMMON NAMES
Kamagong, mabolo, mala-santol

DESCRIPTION OF THE TREE

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Kamagong is a tree that reaches a height of 20 m and a diameter of
80 cm. The bole is irregular, often defective and straight, but
oftentimes bending shortly above the ground. The bark is about 3-5
mm thick, brown, rarely black, the inner pinkish. The leaves are
simple, alternate, and leathery in texture, pointed at the apex, round
or pointed at the base. The upper surface is green and shiny, the
lower covered with soft, pale hairs. The fruit is large, rounded, fleshy,
7-9 cm in diameter, densely covered with brown hairs, edible with a
disagreeable odor but has a good flavor. It contains seeds which are
oblong to ellipsoid, 2.5-3.0 cm X 1.6-2.0 cm.

NATURAL HABITAT
Kamagong is often found in primary and secondary forests at low
and medium altitudes. They are typical in limestone soils in the
coastal areas which are usually quite shallow and excessively
drained.

WOOD PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

BASIC DENSITY OR SPECIFIC GRAVITY (O.D. WEIGHT/VOL.
GREEN) (G/CM³): 0.85
WOOD MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
BENDING STRENGTH (MOR),12%MC (KGF/CM²): 1,642
STIFFNESS (MOE) 12%MC (KGF/CM²): 205,983
COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO FIBER 12%MC (KGF/CM²): 445

42
 USES
The wood is generally used for house construction such as flooring,
post, interior finish, doors, windows, joists, sills, frames, ceiling
beams, rafters, trusses, girders, and stairs; making medium grade
furniture, office fixtures; foundation piles, telephone and electric
light poles; wharf and bridge construction; railroad ties, mine
timber; banca, framing of barges, shipbuilding, marine piling; and
other uses where a moderately hard and comparatively heavy wood
is required.
Ref 3-1
http://erdb.denr.gov.ph/2015/06/01/other-traditional-and-emerging-
species-for-the-furniture-and-handicraft-industries/
Note 3-1
http://plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:322
146-1. Reference lists Diospyros blancoi A.DC as a synonym of
Diospyros discolor Willd.

Tree photograph taken from trees planted at the Washington Sycip Garden of
Native Trees, U.P. Theater Complex, University of the Philippines Diliman
Campus, Quezon City. Seedling from the Cainta Plant Nursery

43
 02 Mancono
Xanthostemon verdugonianus
Náves ex Fern.-Vill.
DATA REFERENCE NAME (Ref 3-3, 3-4)
Mancono

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Xanthostemon verdugonianus Náves ex Fern.-Vill.

FAMILY
Myrtaceae Juss.

COMMON NAMES
Philippine ironwood (En, trade name). Indonesia: lara. Papua New
Guinea: kasi kasi (trade name). he name Xanthostemon is conserved
against Nani (which was published by Adanson in 1763). Nani was
formerly considered to be a synonym of the large genus
Metrosideros (it was often treated as a section of that genus), but

DESCRIPTION OF THE TREE

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Shrubs to medium-sized trees up to 30(-40) m tall; bole usually
straight, branchless for up to 12 m, up to 50(-150) cm in diameter;
bark surface smooth, greyish; branches often low on the bole.
Leaves alternate or opposite, simple, entire, exstipulate.
Inflorescence an axillary, simple or compound pleiochasium or
reduced to a few or a single flower. Flowers with a shallow to deep
hypanthium, (3-)4(-5)-merous; sepals and petals free, dotted;
stamens numerous, free, not grouped, long and with a gland at the
apex; ovary superior or half-inferior, 3-5-locular with many ovules,
placentas axile and horizontal or inserted obliquely in basal angles of
locules, style 1, long. Fruit a woody, many-seeded capsule
opening by valves. Seeds in a ring or arc in each locule, more
or less semi-circular, laterally flattened, few fertile. The trees
may be briefly deciduous. X. verus was reported to flower in the
Bogor Botanical Gardens (Java) almost throughout the year. X.
verdugonianus flowers in the Philippines from July to October. The
fruits ripen in 2-3 months.
Trees may produce ripe seeds when 2 m tall. Xanthostemon can be
propagated by seeds or by wildlings. A seed count from South
Sulawesi estimated that there are about 960 000 dry seeds/kg.
Germination of X. verdugonianus is 30-50% in 7-40 days, the highest
germination rate being obtained on a humus medium, but
germination on sand is only about 13%. Seedlings attain an average
height of 7 cm after 6 months. In the Philippines X. verdugonianus is
considered to be endangered because it has been subjected to
excessive logging due to the high price of its timber. Moreover, it
shows poor regeneration and has a limited distribution.
NATURAL HABITAT
Xanthostemon occurs in lowland rain forest, but often also in
savanna forest. X. verdugonianus occurs on sandy and rocky soils,
often on steep slopes along the coast, and is usually associated with
Shorea, Tristania and other Xanthostemon species.

NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
The species is naturally rare. Restricted to the islands of Homonhou,
Dinagat, and the eastern tip of Leyte in the Philippines​

44
 WOOD IDENTIFICATION

ANATOMIC DESCRIPTION OF WOOD

Grain wavy, alternating or interlocked; texture fine to very fine and
even; wood lustrous. Growth rings not distinct; vessels very small
to moderately small, almost exclusively solitary, somewhat
unevenly distributed, often plugged with tyloses or filled with a
dark gum and yellowish-white or pink deposits; parenchyma
sparse, paratracheal vasicentric and apotracheal diffuse, fairly
inconspicuous; rays fine, only visible with a hand lens, paler than
surrounding tissue.

GENERAL WOOD DESCRIPTION

COLOR
Heartwood red-brown to dark brown turning very dark brown with
age, not sharply demarcated from the pale brown or pale-yellow
sapwood;

NATURAL DURABILITY
The tree is mainly valued for its excellent wood that is extremely
hard, very heavy, and probably the most durable wood of the
Philippines. The heartwood is a yellowish brown, turning to a dark
bronze colour or nearly black with age; it is sharply demarcated
from the 1 - 2cm layer of pale reddish heartwood. The grain is
always crossed, frequently curly and twisted; the texture extremely
fine and dense, so that the raw wood without oil or polish) can be
burnished almost like metal[721[. The wood is exceedingly hard,
very heavy and very durable
Shrinkage is high and the wood requires careful seasoning to
prevent warping and twisting. The logs are subject to severe
end-checking and need protection. The wood is siliceous and very
hard, extremely strong and extremely tough. It is very difficult to
work, mortise and saw due its hardness, abrasiveness and the
interlocked or spiral grain; a low cutting angle improves the finish.
The "glassy" surface after planing is a special feature. The wood
has very good wearing and weathering properties. It is extremely
durable, even under the most severe conditions, X. verdugonianus
is considered the most durable wood in the Philippines. The
heartwood is extremely resistant to preservative treatment and the
sapwood is resistant. The wood is almost immune to termite and
marine borer attack. The sapwood is non-susceptible to Lyctus.

WOOD PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

AIR-DRY DENSITY (WEIGHT AND VOLUME AT 15%MC) (G/CM³)
1.41

USES
In the Philippines the wood of X. verdugonianus is considered a
luxury timber. The timber of other species (e.g. X. brassii and X.
verus) is also rated as very durable and used for house and bridge
building, wharves, salt-water piling, rollers, pulleys, fenders,
mallets, caulking hammers, and for rudders and anchors of boats.
Ref 3-3
https://pfaf.org/User/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Xanthostemon+verd
ugonianus
Ref 3-4 Keating, W.G., Boer, E. & Sosef, M.S.M., 1998.
Xanthostemon F. v. Mueller. In: Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T. and
Prawirohatmodjo, S. (Editors): Plant Resources of South-East Asia
No 5(3): Timber trees; Lesser-known timbers. PROSEA
Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. Database record:
prota4u.org/prosea
A young Mancono tree at the Washington Sycip
Garden of Native Trees, U.P. Theater Complex,
University of the Philippines Diliman Campus,
Quezon City. Seedling from the Cainta Plant
Nursery

45
 03 Molave
Vitex parviflora Juss.
DATA REFERENCE NAME (Ref 3-5)
Vitex

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Vitex parviflora Juss.

TRADE NAME
Vitex

FAMILY
Verbenaceae

COMMON NAMES
Sagat (Philippines); Amugauan (Philippines); Molave (Philippines);
Pulikaa (Indonesia); Kayu kula (Indonesia)

DESCRIPTION OF THE TREE

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
It is a medium-sized to fairly large tree, up to 30 m tall. The bole is
up to 125 cm in diameter and branchless for up to 20 m, but often
much shorter and crooked, with buttresses.

NATURAL HABITAT
Molave is the dominant timber species in monsoon forests in the
Philippines. It occurs on well-drained limestone soils. Exploitation of
the highly prized timber has led to the reduction of molave forests.

PLANTATIONS AVAILABLE?
Plantations of this species are reported in Central America.

WOOD IDENTIFICATION
ANATOMIC DESCRIPTION OF WOOD
Vessels exclusively solitary (over 90%). Tyloses are common. Vessels
per mm2 5 to 20. Simple perforation plates. Intervessel pits are
large, 10 micras or more. Paratracheal axial parenchyma scanty
and/or vasicentric. Prismatic crystals in the ray cells. Homogeneous
The super sturdy Molave would be
rays and/or sub-homogeneous rays (all ray cells procumbent).
a beautiful country house dining furniture
Septate fibers present. Fibers with distinctly bordered pits.
lightly stained
AVAILABILITY
CITES STATUS
Unrestricted

GENERAL WOOD DESCRIPTION

COLOR
The heartwood is pale straw-colored or grayish to pale brown, and
usually not very distinct from the sapwood which is slightly paler.
COLOR INDEX (1=BLACK, 7=LIGHT YELLOW,WHITE)
5

GRAIN
The grain is variable, being straight, wavy or interlocked.

TEXTURE
This species is reported to have a fine to moderately fine texture.

NATURAL DURABILITY
It is durable, even when used outside and in contact with the
ground. It is fairly resistant to fungal, termite and Lyctus beetle
attack, but not to marine wood borers.

46
NATURAL DURABILITY INDEX (1= VERY HIGH DURABILITY, 7=VERY
LOW DURABILITY)
1

RESISTANCE TO IMPREGNATION
The heartwood is very resistant to preservative treatment. The
sapwood is moderately permeable.

WOOD PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

BASIC DENSITY OR SPECIFIC GRAVITY (O.D. WEIGHT/VOL.
GREEN) (G/CM³)
0.69
AIR-DRY DENSITY (WEIGHT AND VOLUME AT 12%MC) (G/CM³)
0.77
TOTAL SHRINKAGE TANGENTIAL (SATURATED TO 0%MC) (%)
7.7
TOTAL SHRINKAGE RADIAL (SATURATED TO 0%MC) (%)
5.4

DRYING DEFECTS
Ease of Drying: Drying is moderately easy; some particular care is
needed. Drying Defects: Risks of checks. Kiln Schedules: Schedule
proposed as a reference by comparison with well known species
taking into account the general technological behavior of this
species.
DIMENSIONAL STABILITY RATIO (TOTAL TANGENTIAL
SHRINKAGE %/TOTAL RADIAL SHRINKAGE %)
1.4

WOOD MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

BENDING STRENGTH (MOR),12%MC (KGF/CM²)
937
STIFFNESS (MOE) 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
130,840
COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO FIBER 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
428
COMPRESSION PERPENDICULAR TO FIBER 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
102
SHEAR STRENGTH RADIAL 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
102
JANKA HARDNESS (SIDE) 12%MC (KGF)
626
JANKA HARDNESS (END GRAIN) 12%MC (KGF)
581

WORKABILITY
SAWING
Cutting resistance is generally low.
MACHINING
Machining operations are rather easy.
PLANING
Planing of this species is reported to be easy.
NAILING
Vitex timber needs pre-boring, but the nail holding properties are
good.
POLISHING
Polishing of this species is reportedly easy.
STEAM BENDING
This species is easy to bend.
FINISHING
Finishing of this species is reportedly easy.
RESPONSE TO HAND TOOLS
It is easy to work with hand tools.

Ref 3-5 http://www.tropicaltimber.info/ A mature Molave tree at the Makiling Botanic Garden.
Seedling from the Cainta Plant Nursery

47
 04 Narra
Pterocarpus indicus Willd.
DATA REFERENCE NAME (Ref 3-5)
Amoboyna (Note 3-1)

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Pterocarpus indicus Willd.

TRADE NAME
Sonokembang, Amboyna

FAMILY
Leguminosae

COMMON NAMES
Amboina (Indonesia); Amboyna (United Kingdom); Amboine
(France); Amboine (Germany); Andaman padauk (Andaman Islands);
PNG-rosewood (Papua New Guinea); Pashu-padauk (Myanmar); Vitali
(Philippines); Sena (Malaysia); Narra (Philippines); Narra (United
States of America); Angsana (Indonesia); Linggua (Indonesia);
Sonokembang (Indonesia); Manila-padouk (Philippines)

SCIENTIFIC NAME SYNONYMS

Pterocarpus papuana F. Muell.; Pterocarpus pallidus Blanco;
Pterocarpus casteelsi var. ealaensis Hauman; Pterocarpus carolinensis
Kaneh.; Pterocarpus blancoi Merr.; Lingoum wallichii (Wight & Arn.)
Pierre; Lingoum indicum (Willd.) Kuntze

DESCRIPTION OF THE TREE

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
It is a medium-sized to fairly large tree of up to 40 m tall. The bole is
often massive at mature age and up to 350 cm in diameter.
NATURAL HABITAT
Pterocarpus indicus is a widespread tree found in lowland primary
and sometimes in secondary forests, mainly along tidal creeks and
rocky shores.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
It is distributed in the Philippines, Borneo, Myanmar, New Guinea,
and the Malay Archipelago.
PLANTATIONS AVAILABLE?
Cultivated populations are widely distributed throughout the tropics.
It is often planted for shade along roadsides and as an ornamental.
Plantations are reported in India, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Japan, Hawaii,
Central America and Africa.
WOOD IDENTIFICATION
ANATOMIC DESCRIPTION OF WOOD
Wood semi-ring porous and/or ring porous. Tangential diameter of
vessel lumina 200 micras or more (large). Vestured pits. Vessels per
mm2 less than 6 (rare). Simple perforation plates. Vessel-ray pits
similar to intervessel pits in size and shape. Intervessel p Axial
parenchyma confluent. Axial parenchyma storied.Prismatic crystals in
chambered axial parenchyma cells and/or in fibers. Axial
parenchyma bands more than 3 cells wide. Rays storied.
Homogeneous rays and/or sub-homogeneous rays (all ray cells
procumbent). Fibers with distinctly bordered pits. Fibers storied.

48
 AVAILABILITY
CITES STATUS
Unrestricted

GENERAL WOOD DESCRIPTION

ODOR
Its odor resembles roses.
COLOR
The sapwood is clearly differentiated, pale straw colored. The
heartwood is deep blood-red with almost black markings,
alternatively honey colored with reddish black markings, darkening
to dark brown.
COLOR INDEX (1=BLACK, 7=LIGHT YELLOW,WHITE)
4
GRAIN
It is mostly interlocked or wavy.
TEXTURE
The texture of this species is reported to vary from medium to
coarse.
LUSTER
The wood is reported to be rather lustrous.
NATURAL DURABILITY
It is reportedly resistant to termite attack.
NATURAL DURABILITY INDEX (1= VERY HIGH DURABILITY, 7=VERY
LOW DURABILITY)
2
SILICA CONTENT
Silica Content: It is reported to contain very little or no silica. Silica
Value: 0.3
RESISTANCE TO IMPREGNATION
The heartwood is resistant to preservative treatment, but the
sapwood is permeable.

WOOD PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

BASIC DENSITY OR SPECIFIC GRAVITY (O.D. WEIGHT/VOL.
GREEN) (G/CM³)
0.58
AIR-DRY DENSITY (WEIGHT AND VOLUME AT 12%MC) (G/CM³)
0.64
TOTAL SHRINKAGE TANGENTIAL (SATURATED TO 0%MC) (%)
5
TOTAL SHRINKAGE RADIAL (SATURATED TO 0%MC) (%)
2.9

DRYING DEFECTS
Ease of Drying: Drying is very slow and difficult to perform; defects
are frequent. Drying Defects: Risks of checks, distortions and
collapse. Kiln Schedules: The kiln schedule has been tested.
RECOMMENDED DRY KILN SCHEDULE
UK-F; US-T6-D4
DIMENSIONAL STABILITY RATIO (TOTAL TANGENTIAL
SHRINKAGE %/TOTAL RADIAL SHRINKAGE %)
1.7
ACTUAL DRY KILN PROGRAM
http://itto.git.grav-dev.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/KD_British
_ENG.pdf
http://itto.git.grav-dev.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/KD_USA_
ENG.pdf

A mature Narra tree along the highway in Lanao del Norte. Seedling from the
Cainta Plant Nursery

49
 WOOD MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
BENDING STRENGTH (MOR),12%MC (KGF/CM²)
953
STIFFNESS (MOE) 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
123,095
COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO FIBER 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
541
COMPRESSION PERPENDICULAR TO FIBER 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
85
SHEAR STRENGTH RADIAL 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
103
JANKA HARDNESS (SIDE) 12%MC (KGF)
453
JANKA HARDNESS (END GRAIN) 12%MC (KGF)
497

WORKABILITY
SAWING
It is difficult because of interlocking grain.
ROTARY VENEER CUTTING
This species can be laminated, steaming is recommended.
SLICED VENEER
This species can be laminated, steaming is recommended.
BLUNTING EFFECT
Resin might gum up the saw teeth.
MACHINING
The workability of this species is reported to be fair to difficult
because of interlocked grain. Special cutters required.
PLANING
The presence of interlocked grain may result in picking up of grain
on radial surfaces during planing.
NAILING
This species is reported to have a good nailing behavior.
TURNING
30
GLUING
This species glues well.
SANDING
This species is reported to be easy to sand.
FINISHING
It requires filling to achieve a good surface.
STAINING
Staining of this wood is easy.
COATINGS
For some material, fillers are needed.
POLISHING
It polishes well if pre-filled.
RESPONSE TO HAND TOOLS
It is easy to work with hand tools.

50
 REFERENCED USES
HOUSING GENERAL, flooring, panelling, FURNITURE AND
CABINETS, luxury furniture, PLYWOOD AND VENEER, TURNING,
CONTAINERS, truck bodies, truck flooring, NAVAL
CONSTRUCTION, OTHER AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS,
handicrafts, cement board
GENERAL HOUSING
10 - Silica in Timbers
FLOORING
14 - Handbook of Hardwoods
PANELING
18 - W3TROPICOS Missouri Botanical Garden
FURNITURE CABINETS
21 - Tropical timbers of the world. Part III-Southeast Asian and
Oceanian Species.
FURNITURE, LUXURY
22 - Dry kiln schedules for commercial woods. Temperate and
tropical. Section IV-Asian and Oceanian Woods
PANELS, VENEERS
25 - Directory of Timber Trade Malaysia
TURNING
30 - Embassy of Honduras in Japan
TRUCK BODY
53 - Timbers of the New World
TRUCK FLOORING
54 - Bulletin of the Government Forest Experiment Station N.157:
Identification of Tropical Woods
SHIPBUILDING
55 - Tropical Timber Atlas of Latin America
OTHER & MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
63 - Madeiras do Brazil II
HANDCRAFT
66 - Maderas latinoamericanas. VII. Caracteristicas anatomicas.
propiedades fisicomecanicas, de secado, y tratabilidad de la
madera juvenil de Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pav. Oken.)
CEMENTBOARD
81 - Madeiras da Amazônia: descrição do lenho de 40 espécies
ocorrentes na Floresta Nacional do Tapajós
Ref 3-5 http://www.tropicaltimber.info/
Note 3-1
http://www.tropicaltimber.info/specie/sonokembang-pterocarpus-in
dicus/. Reference lists Amboyna as the trade name of the Philippine
species with the common name Narra

51
 05 Tindalo
Afzelia rhomboidea Fern.-Vill.
DATA REFERENCE NAME (Ref 3-5)
Afzelia (Note 3-2)

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Afzelia borneensis Harms

TRADE NAME
Afzelia

FAMILY
Leguminosae

COMMON NAMES
Ipil darat (Malaysia); Afzelia

SCIENTIFIC NAME SYNONYMS

Pahudia borneensis (Harmas) Mess; Afzelia latifolia Meijer Drees;
Afzelia borneensis Warb; Afzelia beccarii Warb

DESCRIPTION OF THE TREE

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
It is a small to medium-sized tree up to 25 m tall. The bole is up to
80 cm in diameter. The buttresses are thin and steep.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
It is mainly distributed in Sabah and Sarawak.

WOOD IDENTIFICATION
ANATOMIC DESCRIPTION OF WOOD
Wood diffuse porous. Colored deposits in heartwood vessels. Simple
perforation plates. Vessel-ray pits similar to intervessel pits in size
and shape. Intervessel pits medium, 7 to 10 micras. Axial
parenchyma in marginal or in seemingly marginal bands. Axial
parenchyma lozenge-aliform. Axial parenchyma confluent. Prismatic
crystals in chambered axial parenchyma cells and/or in fibers. Rays
and/or axial elements irregularly storied. Homogeneous rays and/or
sub-homogeneous rays (all ray cells procumbent). Body ray cells
procumbent with over 4 rows of upright and/or square marginal cells
(Kribs-I). Fibers with simple to minutely bordered pits.

AVAILABILITY
CITES STATUS
Classic elegance with Tindalo
Unrestricted

GENERAL WOOD DESCRIPTION

COLOR
The heartwood is red to red brown, clearly demarcated from the
grey white sapwood.
GRAIN
The grain is straight or interlocked.
TEXTURE
This species is reported to have a fine to medium texture.
LUSTER
Wood of this species is reported to present a high luster.
NATURAL DURABILITY
This species is considered to be very durable.
NATURAL DURABILITY INDEX (1= VERY HIGH DURABILITY, 7=VERY
LOW DURABILITY)
1

52
 WOOD PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
BASIC DENSITY OR SPECIFIC GRAVITY (O.D. WEIGHT/VOL.
GREEN) (G/CM³)
0.82
AIR-DRY DENSITY (WEIGHT AND VOLUME AT 12%MC) (G/CM³)
0.94
TOTAL SHRINKAGE TANGENTIAL (SATURATED TO 0%MC) (%)
4.1
TOTAL SHRINKAGE RADIAL (SATURATED TO 0%MC) (%)
3.3
DRYING DEFECTS
Ease of Drying: Air seasoning is rated as good with little or no
checking and warping. Boards of 13 mm thick take 2 months and of
38 mm thick take 3 months to air dry.
DIMENSIONAL STABILITY RATIO (TOTAL TANGENTIAL
SHRINKAGE %/TOTAL RADIAL SHRINKAGE %)
1.2

WOOD MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

BENDING STRENGTH (MOR),12%MC (KGF/CM²)
1,478

WORKABILITY
MACHINING
It is moderately difficult to work, but easy in comparison with other
high-density woods.
FINISHING
It has a good finishing.

REFERENCED USES
HOUSING GENERAL, FURNITURE AND CABINETS, luxury furniture,
PLYWOOD AND VENEER, TOOLS, tool handles, OTHER AND
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
GENERAL HOUSING
10 - Silica in Timbers
FURNITURE CABINETS
21 - Tropical timbers of the world. Part III-Southeast Asian and
Oceanian Species.
FURNITURE, LUXURY
22 - Dry kiln schedules for commercial woods. Temperate and
tropical. Section IV-Asian and Oceanian Woods
PANELS, VENEERS
25 - Directory of Timber Trade Malaysia
TOOLS
42 - Utilización Industrial de Nuevas Especies Forestales en el Perú.
TOOL HANDLES
43 - Maderas de Bolivia (Características y Usos de 55 Maderas
Tropicales)
OTHER & MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
63 - Madeiras do Brazil II

Ref 3-5 http://www.tropicaltimber.info/

Note 3-2
http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:name
s:473080-1#source-ILDIS. Reference lists Afzelia Borneeinsis as one
A mature Tindalo tree at the Makiling Botanic
of the synonyms of Afzelia rhomboidea Fern.-Vill.
Garden. Seedling from the Cainta Plant Nursery

53
 06 Ipil
Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze
DATA REFERENCE NAME (Ref 3-5)
Merbau

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze

TRADE NAME
Merbau

FAMILY
Leguminosae

COMMON NAMES
Ipil laut (Philippines); Ipil (Sarawak); Merbau (Indonesia); Mirabow
(Sabah); Lum-paw (Thailand); Ipil (Philippines); Gonuo (Vietnam);
Merbau (Netherlands); Kalabau (China); Kwila (Papua New Guinea);
Komu (New Caledonia); Kwila (Australia); Merbau (United Kingdom);
Hintsy (Madagascar)
SCIENTIFIC NAME SYNONYMS
Macrolobium bijugum Colebr.
DESCRIPTION OF THE TREE
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
It is a medium-sized to large tree up to 50 m tall. The bole is
branchless for up to 20 m and up to 160 cm in diameter.
NATURAL HABITAT
It is a lowland rain forest tree which produces one of the most
valuable timbers of South East Asia. It is common in lowland forests,
in transitional zones behind mangroves.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
It is distributed in the Indo-Malayan region, Indonesia, Philippines,
and many of the western Pacific islands as well as in Australia.
PLANTATIONS AVAILABLE?
Plantations of "Merbau" are reported.
WOOD IDENTIFICATION
ANATOMIC DESCRIPTION OF WOOD
Vessels per mm2 less than 6 (rare). Tangential diameter of vessel
lumina 200 micras or more (large). Vestured pits. Vessel-ray pits
similar to intervessel pits in size and shape. Simple perforation
plates. Intervessel pits small, 7 micras or less. Axial parenchyma
aliform. Axial parenchyma confluent. Axial parenchyma in narrow
bands on lines up to 3 cells wide. Homogeneous rays and/or
sub-homogeneous rays (all ray cells procumbent). Fibers with
distinctly bordered pits.
Wood Macro Photo Tangential Plane
Wood Micro Photo Of Transversal Section

AVAILABILITY
CITES STATUS
Unrestricted

54
 GENERAL WOOD DESCRIPTION
ODOR
It has the characteristic odor when fleshly cut, resembling that of raw
beans, and bitter taste.
COLOR
The sapwood is clearly differentiated, lighter pale yellow. The
heartwood varies from brownish gray through bronze to dark brown,
darkening with age.
COLOR INDEX (1=BLACK, 7=LIGHT YELLOW,WHITE)
5
GRAIN
It is not always straight, occasionally interlocked.
TEXTURE
It is coarse and homogeneous.
LUSTER
The sapwood has a somewhat greenish luster.
NATURAL DURABILITY
It is very durable, but the sapwood is vulnerable to the fungi and
insect attack.
NATURAL DURABILITY INDEX (1= VERY HIGH DURABILITY, 7=VERY
LOW DURABILITY)
2
SILICA CONTENT
Silica Content: It is reported to contain 0.2% silica. Silica Value: 0.2

RESISTANCE TO IMPREGNATION
The heartwood is very difficult to treat.

WOOD PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

BASIC DENSITY OR SPECIFIC GRAVITY (O.D. WEIGHT/VOL.
GREEN) (G/CM³)
0.73
AIR-DRY DENSITY (WEIGHT AND VOLUME AT 12%MC) (G/CM³)
0.83
TOTAL SHRINKAGE TANGENTIAL (SATURATED TO 0%MC) (%)
4.9
TOTAL SHRINKAGE RADIAL (SATURATED TO 0%MC) (%)
2.7
DRYING DEFECTS
Ease of Drying: Air seasoning is reported to be good.
RECOMMENDED DRY KILN SCHEDULE
UK-C; US-T3-C2
DIMENSIONAL STABILITY RATIO (TOTAL TANGENTIAL
SHRINKAGE %/TOTAL RADIAL SHRINKAGE %)
1.8
ACTUAL DRY KILN PROGRAM
http://itto.git.grav-dev.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/KD_British
_ENG.pdf
http://itto.git.grav-dev.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/KD_USA_
ENG.pdf

WOOD MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

BENDING STRENGTH (MOR),12%MC (KGF/CM²)
1,493
STIFFNESS (MOE) 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
167,655
COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO FIBER 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
785
SHEAR STRENGTH RADIAL 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
183
JANKA HARDNESS (SIDE) 12%MC (KGF)
797
JANKA HARDNESS (END GRAIN) 12%MC (KGF)
774 A mature Ipil tree at the Makiling Botanic Garden.
Seedling from the Cainta Plant Nursery

55
 WORKABILITY
SAWING
The response of this wood in sawing is fair to difficult. During
sawmilling, the teeth might become covered with gums.
ROTARY VENEER CUTTING
It is difficult to cut or slice into veneer, even after pre-streaming,
mainly due to its high density.
SLICED VENEER
It is difficult to cut or slice into veneer, even after pre-streaming,
mainly due to its high density.
BLUNTING EFFECT
Wood of this species exerts a moderate blunting effect on the
cutting tools.
MACHINING
Machining of this species is fair to difficult.
PLANING
A reduction of the cutting angle to 20 degrees is advantageous in
planing quarter-sawn material with interlocked grain to prevent
picking-up of grain.
NAILING
This species is reported to have a poor nailing behavior.
BORING
Boring is reported to be easy.
TURNING
30
GLUING
Gluing behavior is reportedly good.
FINISHING
Finishing is rated as good to fair. It has to be protected from
humidity until the finishing operations are completed.
STAINING
Wood of this species is easy to stain.
COATINGS
Painting or varnishing of this wood is easy.
POLISHING
The wood stains and polishes satisfactorily, but requires
considerable filling.
REFERENCED USES
EXTERIOR GENERAL, poles, rails, crossties, piers, HOUSING
GENERAL, flooring, frames, steps, panelling, FURNITURE AND
CABINETS, TURNING, cutlery, SPORTS, TOOLS, tool handles,
agricultural tools, CONTAINERS, chemical storage, truck bodies,
truck flooring, NAVAL CONSTRUCTION, port pillar, port storage,
OTHER AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, handicrafts, matches
EXTERIOR GENERAL
1 - Tabela de resultados de ensaios fisicos e mecanicos
POLES
3 - Estudo dendrologico e determinacao das caracteristicas fisicas e
mecanicas do genipapo (Genipa americana)
RAILS
6 - Physical and mechanical properties of Eucalyptus deglupta Blume
grown in Costa Rica
CROSSTIES
8 - Maderas latinoamericas. III, Podocarpus standleyi ,Podocarpus
oleifolius, Drims granadensis, Magnolia poasana y Didymopanax
pittieri
PIERS
9 - Maderas latinoamericanas. IV, Nectandra sp. Ocotea austinii,
Persea sp. aff. vesticula, Persea schiedeana
GENERAL HOUSING
10 - Silica in Timbers

56
 FLOORING
14 - Handbook of Hardwoods
FRAMES
16 - Woods of the World
STEPS
17 - Tree Conservation Database
PANELING
18 - W3TROPICOS Missouri Botanical Garden
FURNITURE CABINETS
21 - Tropical timbers of the world. Part III-Southeast Asian and
Oceanian Species.
TURNING
30 - Embassy of Honduras in Japan

KNIFE HANDLES
33 - Embassy of Gabon in Japan
SPORTS
38 - Annual Review and Assessment of the World Timber Situation
1998-ITTO
TOOLS
42 - Utilización Industrial de Nuevas Especies Forestales en el Perú.
TOOL HANDLES
43 - Maderas de Bolivia (Características y Usos de 55 Maderas
Tropicales)
AGRICULTURAL TOOLS
44 - Atlas of Peruvian Woods
CONTAINERS
50 - Properties of imported tropical woods
CHEMICAL STORAGE
52 - Propiedades mecanicas y asociadas del pino insigne (Pinus
radiata d.don)
TRUCK BODY
53 - Timbers of the New World
TRUCK FLOORING
54 - Bulletin of the Government Forest Experiment Station N.157:
Identification of Tropical Woods
SHIPBUILDING
55 - Tropical Timber Atlas of Latin America
PORT PILLAR
61 - Manual de Diseño para Maderas del Grupo Andino
PORT STORAGE
62 - Estudio Tecnológico de Maderas del Perú (Zona Pucallpa) Vol I
OTHER & MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
63 - Madeiras do Brazil II
HANDCRAFT
66 - Maderas latinoamericanas. VII. Caracteristicas anatomicas.
propiedades fisicomecanicas, de secado, y tratabilidad de la
madera juvenil de Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pav. Oken.)
MATCHES
71 - Proprietes physiques et mecaniques des bois tropicaux, premier
supplement

Ref 3-5 http://www.tropicaltimber.info/

57
 07 Masbate
Heritiera sylvatica S.Vidal
DATA REFERENCE NAME (Ref 3-2)
Dungon

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Heritiera sylvatica S.Vidal

FAMILY
Sterculiaceae Vent.

COMMON NAMES
Philippines: Dungon.

SCIENTIFIC NAME SYNONYMS

Tarrietia sylvatica (S. Vidal) Merr. (1903).

DESCRIPTION OF THE TREE

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
A large tree, up to 45 m tall, with columnar bole of 12-18 m long and
up to 100 cm in diameter, buttressed. Leaves simple silvery scaly
beneath, petioles 1-5 cm long, slender. Panicles lax, up to 13 cm
long, Fruit with fairly large winf, scaly.

NATURAL HABITAT
H. sylvatica grows in dry primary forests at low and medium
altitudes, and is locally abundant in the Philippines. The wood is very
similar to that of H. littoralis and, just like that species, smells like
leather. The density of the wood is about 945 kg/m3 at 15%
The beautiful natural color of Masbate. moisture content. See also the table on wood properties.

Very heavy and strong wood. NATURAL DISTRIBUTION

The Philippines; possibly also in Sulawesi and Irian Jaya
Polished, unstained hand rail in a classic
Mediterranean themed house.
GENERAL WOOD DESCRIPTION
ODOR
Smells like leather

58
 WOOD PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
AIR-DRY DENSITY (WEIGHT AND VOLUME AT 12%MC) (G/CM³)
1.04
WOOD MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
BENDING STRENGTH (MOR),12%MC (KGF/CM²)
1,346
STIFFNESS (MOE) 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
183,550
COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO FIBER 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
734

Ref 3-2
https://uses.plantnet-project.org/en/Heritiera_sylvatica_(PROSEA)

Photograph taken of a young Masbate tree at the

Washington Sycip Garden of Native Trees, U.P.
Theater Complex, University of the Philippines
Diliman Campus, Quezon City . Seedling from the
Cainta Plant Nursery

59
 08 Apitong
Dipterocarpus grandiflorus
(Blanco) Blanco
DATA REFERENCE NAME (Ref 3-5)
Keruing (Note 3-3)

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Dipterocarpus elongatus Korth

TRADE NAME
Keruing

FAMILY
Dipterocarpaceae

COMMON NAMES
Ran (Brunei Darussalam); Kudan (Brunei Darussalam); Keruing
kasugoi (Malaysia); Keruing gumbang (Malaysia); Keruing latek
(Malaysia); Kruen (Spain); Keruing (Indonesia); Apitong (Philippines);
Bagac (Philippines); Basilan (Philippines); Keruing tempudau
(Indonesia); Panau (Philippines); Hagakhak (Philippines); Gurjun
(India); Keruing (Spain); Kruen (Italy); Keroewing (Netherlands);
Indonesian keruing (United Kingdom); Indonesian keruing (United
States of America); Indonesian gurjun (United Kingdom); Indonesian
gurjun (United States of America); Kruen (France); Keruing (Malaysia);
Keruwing (Germany); Yang (Thailand); Eng (Myanmar); In (Myanmar);
Kanyin (Myanmar); Dau (Vietnam); Dau (Cambodia); Keruing (France);
Keruing (Italy)

SCIENTIFIC NAME SYNONYMS

Dipterocarpus apterus Foxw.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TREE

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
It is a large to very large tree of up to 60 m tall. The bole is straight,
cylindrical, up to 175 cm in diameter. The buttresses are large,
straight, up to 3 m tall, up to 2 m long, 20 cm thick. This species is
considered an oleo-resin tree.
NATURAL HABITAT
A large tree of secondary and primary forest and freshwater swamp
forest.

WOOD IDENTIFICATION
ANATOMIC DESCRIPTION OF WOOD
Wood diffuse porous. Vessels exclusively solitary (over 90%).
Tangential diameter of vessel lumina 200 micras or more (large).
Vestured pits. Vessel-ray pits reticulate and/or foraminate. Simple
perforation plates. Intervessel pits are medium, 7 to 10 micras.
Paratracheal axial parenchyma scanty and/or vasicentric. Axial
parenchyma aliform. Larger rays more than 4 seriate. Sheath cells.
Silica bodies in the ray cells. Body ray cells are procumbent with over
4 rows of upright and/or square marginal cells (Kribs-I). Body ray
cells procumbent with mostly 2 to 4 rows of upright and/or square
marginal ce Fibers with distinctly bordered pits.AVAILABILITY

CITES STATUS
Unrestricted
GENERAL WOOD DESCRIPTION
ODOR
It has a distinctive smell of resin.

60
 COLOR
The sapwood is yellowish to grayish-brown and usually distinctly
demarcated from the heartwood, which is grayish-brown to
red-brown.
COLOR INDEX (1=BLACK, 7=LIGHT YELLOW,WHITE)
4
GRAIN
The grain is straight, sometimes interlocked.
TEXTURE
The texture varies from moderately coarse to coarse but even.
NATURAL DURABILITY
Most of the species in the keruing group are rated as moderately
durable. The resistance against dry wood insects is poor.
NATURAL DURABILITY INDEX (1= VERY HIGH DURABILITY, 7=VERY
LOW DURABILITY)
3
SILICA CONTENT
Silica Content: This timber is reported to have silica. Silica contents
over 0.05% may affect wood processing. Silica Value: 0

WOOD PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

BASIC DENSITY OR SPECIFIC GRAVITY (O.D. WEIGHT/VOL.
GREEN) (G/CM³)
0.61
AIR-DRY DENSITY (WEIGHT AND VOLUME AT 12%MC) (G/CM³)
0.68
TOTAL SHRINKAGE TANGENTIAL (SATURATED TO 0%MC) (%)
8.1
TOTAL SHRINKAGE RADIAL (SATURATED TO 0%MC) (%)
5.1
DRYING DEFECTS
Ease of Drying: Air seasoning of Perupok is reported to be good
and rapid without serious degradation. Boards of 15 mm thick can
be air dried in about 1 month. Drying Defects: Risk of slight
checking cupping, splitting and little warping is reported. Kiln
Schedules: Kiln drying is satisfactory.
RECOMMENDED DRY KILN SCHEDULE
JP-3; UK-D; US-T3-D2
DIMENSIONAL STABILITY RATIO (TOTAL TANGENTIAL
SHRINKAGE %/TOTAL RADIAL SHRINKAGE %)
1.6
ACTUAL DRY KILN PROGRAM
http://itto.git.grav-dev.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/KD_Japan
ese_ENG.pdf
http://itto.git.grav-dev.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/KD_British
_ENG.pdf
http://itto.git.grav-dev.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/KD_USA_
ENG.pdf

WOOD MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

BENDING STRENGTH (MOR),12%MC (KGF/CM²)
840
STIFFNESS (MOE) 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
145,819
COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO FIBER 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
477
SHEAR STRENGTH RADIAL 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
76
JANKA HARDNESS (SIDE) 12%MC (KGF)
365
JANKA HARDNESS (END GRAIN) 12%MC (KGF)
434
WORKABILITY
SAWING
It is easy to cross cut but slightly difficult to saw. Resin present in
wood is reported to clog the saw-teeth.

61
 ROTARY VENEER CUTTING
Resin patches are usually seen on the surface of the veneer.
Preheating is essential for good peeling.
SLICED VENEER
Resin patches are usually seen on the surface of the veneer.
Preheating is essential for good peeling.
BLUNTING EFFECT
Wood with high silica content quickly blunts saw-teeth.
PLANING
Planing is reported to be easy.
NAILING
Nailing properties are poor.
BORING
The response of this species to boring operations is fair.
GLUING
The resin interferes with the gluing properties and the species that
are too oily are generally not used.
FINISHING
This species is reported to be easy to finish. Resin exudation, if
present, may difficult finishing.

REFERENCED USES
EXTERIOR GENERAL, HOUSING GENERAL, beams, joists, flooring,
frames, steps, FURNITURE AND CABINETS, PLYWOOD AND
VENEER, TOOLS, agricultural tools, PACKING, pallets,
CONTAINERS, truck bodies, truck flooring, NAVAL
CONSTRUCTION, OTHER AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS,
handicrafts, paper
EXTERIOR GENERAL
1 - Tabela de resultados de ensaios fisicos e mecanicos

GENERAL HOUSING
10 - Silica in Timbers
BEAMS
11 - Prospect: The wood database
JOISTS
12 - Tropical timbers of the world. Part I-Tropical American Species
FLOORING
14 - Handbook of Hardwoods
FRAMES
16 - Woods of the World
STEPS
17 - Tree Conservation Database
FURNITURE CABINETS
21 - Tropical timbers of the world. Part III-Southeast Asian and
Oceanian Species.
PANELS, VENEERS
25 - Directory of Timber Trade Malaysia
TOOLS
42 - Utilización Industrial de Nuevas Especies Forestales en el Perú.
AGRICULTURAL TOOLS
44 - Atlas of Peruvian Woods
PACKING
45 - Recopilación y Análisis de Estudios Tecnológicos de Maderas
Peruanas

62
 PALLETS
48 - The strength properties of timbers
Ref 3-5 http://www.tropicaltimber.info/
Note 3-3
http://www.tropicaltimber.info/specie/keruing-dipterocarpus-elongat
us/. Reference lists Apitong as Philippine name for species listed as
KERUING (Dipterocarpus elongatus)

63
 09 Guijo
Shorea guiso Blume
DATA REFERENCE NAME (Ref 3-5)
Red Balau (Note 3-4)

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Shorea robusta Gaertner f.

TRADE NAME
Red Balau, Balau, Sal

FAMILY
Dipterocarpaceae

COMMON NAMES
Sakwa (Nepal); Sal (India)

DESCRIPTION OF THE TREE

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
A large deciduous tree, usually gregarious, growing 18-30 m in
height and 1.5-2.0 m in girth. The bark is 2.5-5.0 cm thick, rough
dark brown with conspicuous vertical furrows, be used for tanning,
brown dye and ropes. Tree yield a natural resin (Sal damma
NATURAL HABITAT
S. robusta is the dominant species in sal forest.
NATURAL DISTRIBUTION
The trees occur in northern and central India, sub Himalayan region
(1200-1500 m) to Nepal and south of the Ganga.
PLANTATIONS AVAILABLE?
Viability of the seed is very short. It seldom germinates two weeks
after its collection. The problem of the Sal seedling and the
regeneration of some Sal forests come to one's mind.
WOOD IDENTIFICATION
ANATOMIC DESCRIPTION OF WOOD
Vessels per mm2 5 to 20. Wood diffuse porous. Tyloses common.
Tangential diameter of vessel lumina 200 micras or more (large).
Vestured pits. Vessel-ray pits reticulate and/or foraminate. Simple
perforation plates. Intervessel pits small, 7 micras or less.
Paratracheal axial parenchyma scanty and/or vasicentric. Axial
parenchyma aliform. Axial parenchyma in marginal or in seemingly
marginal bands. Axial parenchyma bands more than 3 cells wide. 4
to 10 rays per mm (medium). Body ray cells procumbent with one
row of upright and/or square marginal cells (Kribs-III).
AVAILABILITY

CITES STATUS
Unrestricted

GENERAL WOOD DESCRIPTION

ODOR
-

2COLOR
Heartwood is light brown to brown colored, and turning reddish
brown on exposure. Sapwood when fresh is pale white with a
brownish tinge, narrow.
GRAIN
Interlocked grain with ribbon bands.
TEXTURE
Varies from moderately coarse to coarse.
LUSTER
-NATURAL DURABILITY INDEX (1= VERY HIGH DURABILITY,
7=VERY LOW DURABILITY)

64
 SILICA CONTENT
Silica Content: -
RESISTANCE TO IMPREGNATION
Sapwood is easy to be penetrated by preservatives, while the
heartwood is impermeable.

WOOD PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

BASIC DENSITY OR SPECIFIC GRAVITY (O.D. WEIGHT/VOL.
GREEN) (G/CM³)
0.76
AIR-DRY DENSITY (WEIGHT AND VOLUME AT 12%MC) (G/CM³)
0.86
TOTAL SHRINKAGE TANGENTIAL (SATURATED TO 0%MC) (%)
9.1
TOTAL SHRINKAGE RADIAL (SATURATED TO 0%MC) (%)
4.1
DRYING DEFECTS
Ease of Drying: Vutu can be kiln dried from the green condition
without difficulty using the recommended schedule,with some
surface checking or slight warp the only problems. Drying Defects:
25 mm board: Kiln drying from green to 12% m.c. requires 4～5
days, reduced to 1 1/2 days after preliminary air drying to 25%
m.c..Ahigh humidity stress relief treatment,tentatively 24 hours
should follow drying 50 mm stock :Kiln drying from green to 12% m
RECOMMENDED DRY KILN SCHEDULE
UK-B; UK-G
DIMENSIONAL STABILITY RATIO (TOTAL TANGENTIAL
SHRINKAGE %/TOTAL RADIAL SHRINKAGE %)
2.2
ACTUAL DRY KILN PROGRAM
http://itto.git.grav-dev.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/KD_British
_ENG.pdf

WOOD MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

BENDING STRENGTH (MOR),12%MC (KGF/CM²)
1,216
STIFFNESS (MOE) 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
156,100
WORKABILITY
SAWING
High resistance to cut. The wood is known as a difficult timber to
saw and to work with. Air-dried timber is more difficult to saw
compared to the green one. Red balau is usually easier to work than
Balau.
ROTARY VENEER CUTTING
S. robusta was found to be unsuitable for the production of veneer
and plywood.
SLICED VENEER
S. robusta was found to be unsuitable for the production of veneer
and plywood.
BLUNTING EFFECT
MACHINING
Varies from moderately difficult to difficult. While working with
machines, picking up fibers often takes place and it is also difficult
to get a smooth surface.
MOULDING
BORING
Easy to slightly difficult.
MORTISING A mature Guijo tree at the Makiling Botanic Garden.
NATURAL DURABILITY INDEX (1= VERY HIGH DURABILITY, 7=VERY Seedling from the Cainta Plant Nursery
LOW DURABILITY)
2
Ref 3-5 http://www.tropicaltimber.info/
Note 3-4
https://asianplant.net/Dipterocarpaceae/Shorea_guiso.htm.
Reference lists Shorea Robusta as a synonym for the species Shorea
Guiso

65
 10 Yakal
Shorea astylosa Foxw.
DATA REFERENCE NAME (Ref 3-5)
Balau (Note 3-5)

SCIENTIFIC NAME
Shorea laevis Ridley

TRADE NAME
Balau

FAMILY
Dipterocarpaceae

COMMON NAMES
Balau; Pa-yom dong (Thailand); Bangkirai (Spain); Bangkirai (Italy);
Bangkirai (Sweden); Sen (Vietnam); Phchek (Cambodia); Selangan
batu (Sarawak); Bangkirai (France); Aek (Thailand); Bangkirai
(Netherlands); Yakal (Philippines); Gisok (Philippines); Malaykal
(Philippines); Sal (India); Thitya (Myanmar); Bangkirai (United
Kingdom); Bangkirai (Germany); Chan (Thailand); Balau simantok
(Malaysia); Selangan batu (Sabah); Damar laut (Malaysia); Pooti
(Indonesia); Kedawang (Indonesia); Kumus (Indonesia); Selangan
batu (Indonesia); Brunas (Indonesia); Benuas (Indonesia); Aggelam
(Indonesia); Ca-chac (Vietnam); Bangkirai (Indonesia); Bangkirai
(United States of America); Balau Kumus (Malaysia); Sengkawan
darat (Malaysia); Kumus (Malaysia)
SCIENTIFIC NAME SYNONYMS
Shorea rogersiana Raizada & Smitinand; Shorea laevifolia (Parijs)
Endert; Shorea ciliata Ridley

DESCRIPTION OF THE TREE

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
It is a very large tree up to 75 m tall. The bole is branchless for 18 to
27 m and up to 210 cm in diameter, with prominent buttresses of up
to 6 m high.
NATURAL HABITAT
It occurs in hilly areas at altitudes 200 to 1,000 m, often gregarious,
growing on well drained soils.

WOOD IDENTIFICATION
ANATOMIC DESCRIPTION OF WOOD
Wood diffuse, porous. Tangential diameter of vessel lumina 200
micras or more (large). Tyloses are common. Vestured pits. Vessels
per mm2 5 to 20. Vessel-ray pits reticulate and/or foraminate. Simple
perforation plates. Intervessel pits are small, 7 micras or less. Axial
parenchyma in marginal or in seemingly marginal bands.
Paratracheal axial parenchyma scanty and/or vasicentric. Axial
parenchyma aliform. Axial parenchyma bands more than 3 cells
wide. 4 to 10 rays per mm (medium). Body ray cells are procumbent
with mostly 2 to 4 rows of upright and/or square marginal cells
(Kribs-II). Body ray cells are procumbent with one row of upright
and/or square marginal cells (Kribs-III).

66
 GENERAL WOOD DESCRIPTION
ODOR
It has no distinct odor, but it has a slightly bitter taste.
COLOR
The sapwood is sharply demarcated from the yellow-brown
heartwood, darkening with age.
COLOR INDEX (1=BLACK, 7=LIGHT YELLOW,WHITE)
5
GRAIN
The grain is mostly interlocked.
TEXTURE
Fine texture is reported in this species.
NATURAL DURABILITY
It is resistant to fungi attack.
NATURAL DURABILITY INDEX (1= VERY HIGH DURABILITY, 7=VEY
LOW DURABILITY)
2
SILICA CONTENT
Silica Content: It contains 0.1 to 0.4 % of silica. Silica Value: 0
RESISTANCE TO IMPREGNATION
The sapwood is permeable, but the heartwood is extremely resistant
to preservative treatment, even if incised.

WOOD PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

BASIC DENSITY OR SPECIFIC GRAVITY (O.D. WEIGHT/VOL.
GREEN) (G/CM³)
0.83
AIR-DRY DENSITY (WEIGHT AND VOLUME AT 12%MC) (G/CM³)
0.96
TOTAL SHRINKAGE TANGENTIAL (SATURATED TO 0%MC) (%)
9.3
TOTAL SHRINKAGE RADIAL (SATURATED TO 0%MC) (%)
4.2
DRYING DEFECTS
Ease of Drying: Drying is rather slow and sometimes difficult to
perform. Drying Defects: Risks of checks and distortions. Kiln
Schedules: Schedule proposed as a reference by comparison with
well known species taking into account the general technological
behavior of this species.
RECOMMENDED DRY KILN SCHEDULE
UK-G; JP-7; US-T8-B3
DIMENSIONAL STABILITY RATIO (TOTAL TANGENTIAL
SHRINKAGE %/TOTAL RADIAL SHRINKAGE %)
2.2
ACTUAL DRY KILN PROGRAM
http://itto.git.grav-dev.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/KD_British
_ENG.pdf
http://itto.git.grav-dev.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/KD_Japan
ese_ENG.pdf
http://itto.git.grav-dev.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/KD_USA_
ENG.pdf

WOOD MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

BENDING STRENGTH (MOR),12%MC (KGF/CM²)
1,473

A young Yakal Sanpluganl tree at the Washington Sycip

Garden of Native Trees, U.P. Theater Complex,
University of the Philippines Diliman Campus, Quezon
City. Seedling from the Cainta Plant Nursery

67
 STIFFNESS (MOE) 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
204,310
COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO FIBER 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
795
COMPRESSION PERPENDICULAR TO FIBER 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
101
SHEAR STRENGTH RADIAL 12%MC (KGF/CM²)
159
JANKA HARDNESS (SIDE) 12%MC (KGF)
1026

WORKABILITY
SAWING
Considering its density it is moderately easy to cut.
ROTARY VENEER CUTTING
Although lamination is possible, it is unsuitable for the production of
veneer and plywood.
SLICED VENEER
Although lamination is possible, it is unsuitable for the production of
veneer and plywood.
MACHINING
It is easy if special sharp cutters are used, but severe difficulties are
reported if interlocked grain is present.
PLANING
The planing of air-dried timber is considered fair to difficult. Picking
up is fairly common in the radial faces, a reduced cutting angle of 15
degrees is recommended.
NAILING
Pre-boring is required for nailing.
BORING
In green condition, it is easy to bore, but boring of air-dried timber is
slightly difficult.
GLUING
It is reported to be easy to glue.
FINISHING
It has a good finishing.

REFERENCED USES
EXTERIOR GENERAL, bridges, poles, stakes posts, crossties,
HOUSING GENERAL, flooring, FURNITURE AND CABINETS,
PLYWOOD AND VENEER, SPORTS, TOOLS, tool handles,
agricultural tools, CONTAINERS, cooperage, truck bodies, truck
flooring, NAVAL CONSTRUCTION, port pillar, port storage
EXTERIOR GENERAL
1 - Tabela de resultados de ensaios fisicos e mecanicos
BRIDGES
2 - 25 madeiras da amazonia de valor comercial, caracterizacao,
macroscopica, usos comuns e índices qualificativos

68
 POLES
3 - Estudo dendrológico e determinação das características físicas e
mecânicas do genipapo (Genipa americana)
STAKE POSTS
5 - Propriedades físicas e mecânicas da madeira e do contraplacado
de Pinus elliottii
CROSSTIES
8 - Maderas latinoamericas. III, Podocarpus standleyi ,Podocarpus
oleifolius, Drims granadensis, Magnolia poasana y Didymopanax
pittieri
GENERAL HOUSING
10 - Silica in Timbers
FLOORING
14 - Handbook of Hardwoods
FURNITURE CABINETS
21 - Tropical timbers of the world. Part III-Southeast Asian and
Oceanian Species.
PANELS, VENEERS
25 - Directory of Timber Trade Malaysia
SPORTS
38 - Annual Review and Assessment of the World Timber Situation
1998-ITTO
TOOLS
42 - Utilización Industrial de Nuevas Especies Forestales en el Perú.
TOOL HANDLES
43 - Maderas de Bolivia (Características y Usos de 55 Maderas
Tropicales)
AGRICULTURAL TOOLS
44 - Atlas of Peruvian Woods
CONTAINERS
50 - Properties of imported tropical woods
COOPERAGE
51 - Recopilacion de propiedades mecanicas de maderas creciendo
en Chile
TRUCK BODY
53 - Timbers of the New World
TRUCK FLOORING
54 - Bulletin of the Government Forest Experiment Station N.157:
Identification of Tropical Woods
SHIPBUILDING
55 - Tropical Timber Atlas of Latin America
PORT PILLAR
61 - Manual de Diseño para Maderas del Grupo Andino
PORT STORAGE
62 - Estudio Tecnológico de Maderas del Perú (Zona Pucallpa) Vol I

Ref 3-5 http://www.tropicaltimber.info/

Note 3-5 http://www.tropicaltimber.info/specie/balau-shorea-laevis/.
Reference lists Yakal as a Philippine common name of the species
Shorea Laevi

69
Final Thoughts on Species Selection

These ten species, among the most beautiful and

mechanically sound hardwoods in the world, offer a
compelling case for strategic propagation.

By narrowing focus to the most viable native varieties,

we can begin the work of:
1)​ Building supply chains around these timbers
2)​ Developing tree farming techniques for each
species
3)​ Informing government policy and industrial
investment

This chapter aims not just to document, but to inspire

a path forward — a return to native excellence, grown
with intention.

70
Chapter 05. Vanishing Giants
– Endangered Hardwoods
and How to Save Them

The Last of the Titans

A century ago, Philippine forests were full of giants.

Narra, molave, yakal, tindalo, and kamagong once
towered over the archipelago. Today, these same
species are listed as vulnerable, endangered, or
critically endangered by the IUCN.

Some species, like mangkono (Philippine ironwood)

and ipil, survive only in remote forest patches. Entire
mountain ranges once blanketed in hardwoods are
now bare slopes.

In 1900, we had 28 million hectares of forest cover;

now, barely 2 million hectares of closed forest remain.
The rest of the country’s 15 million hectares of forest
land is degraded, idle, or encroached upon.

The Genetic Risk

When a species becomes rare in the wild, we risk

losing genetic diversity — the very traits that make
these woods strong, pest-resistant, and adaptable.

Once these genetic lines are gone, they are gone

forever. Even forest farms will fail if we no longer have
healthy seed sources to propagate.

White Lauan (Shorea contorta S. Vidal) at the

Makiling Botanical Garden of the University of
the Philippines in Los Banos

71
A Century of Missed Opportunities

The Philippines has spent over 100 years issuing

warnings, yet no commercial-scale hardwood forest
exists today. Why?

1)​ Unregulated logging during the 20th century

wiped out old-growth forests faster than they
could regenerate.

2)​ Total log bans, while stopping illegal cutting,

also discouraged tree farming: “We locked the
pantry but refused to cook more food.”

3)​ Private investment collapsed — from 2011

onwards, almost no new commercial
reforestation agreements were signed.

4)​ Conservation efforts remain tokenistic,

focusing on ceremonial tree planting rather
than industrial-scale reforestation.

The result is that premium Philippine hardwoods have

vanished from legal markets. Builders now turn to
imported timber or reclaimed wood from old houses.

72
Conservation Is Not Enough

We cannot rely on protection alone. Log bans may

guard what little is left, but they do not replace what
we have already lost. Without a legal, sustainable
supply chain, black-market logging will persist.

Saving What Remains

A serious conservation strategy must focus on two

urgent fronts:

Protecting Wild Stands – Enforce strict protection for

remaining old-growth forests and genetic seed trees.

Captive Propagation – Collect seeds and seedlings

from healthy, mature trees to grow in controlled
nurseries and plantations.

Forest Farms as the Long-Term Solution

The most realistic way to save these species is to grow

them at scale. By planting selected hardwoods
commercially, we can:
1)​ Relieve pressure on the last natural forests
2)​ Preserve genetic stock through planned
propagation
3)​ Make premium hardwoods available legally,
reviving industries once lost

The choice is clear: either we grow them, or we lose

them forever. Pat Riley, the famous basketball coach
was once quoted saying once you stop getting better,
you’re going worse.

73
Chapter 06. Guardianship and
the Way Forward – A National
Strategy for Regeneration

The Challenge and the Opportunity

If this book has shown anything, it is this:

We have the land.

We have species.

What we lack is a national strategy to regenerate our

forests and build a future around them.

The Philippines has 15 million hectares legally

classified as forest land, yet only 2 million hectares of
closed forest remain. Despite over a century of
awareness campaigns, not a single sustainable,
commercial-scale hardwood forestry program that
brings these beautiful hardwoods to our stores and
eventually to our homes has taken root.

It is time to replace restrictions with regeneration — to

treat forests not as fragile relics but as renewable
assets that, if managed wisely, can provide timber,
jobs, climate protection, and national pride.

74
Recommendations:

1. Start with a National Forest Zoning Plan

We must designate, with finality, a minimum of 10 of

the 15 million hectare forest land into clear,
planned-use zones:
1)​ Sustainable commercial hardwood plantations
2)​ Protected natural parks and watersheds
3)​ Buffer zones for biodiversity and climate
control
4)​ Agroforestry areas for mixed farming and
timber

This zoning must be legally backed and integrated

into national and local land-use plans. We cannot
protect what we do not designate — nor can we invest
in what is legally uncertain.

2. Empower the Private Sector Through Stable Policy

Private investment in forestry has collapsed due to

policy inconsistency. Farmers hesitate to plant narra or
kamagong because they fear they will be barred from
harvesting decades later.

We must:
1)​ Enact tree tenure laws protecting ownership
and harvest rights
2)​ Allow planting of endangered native species
in monitored farms
3)​ Offer long-term renewable land leases for
commercial plantations
4)​ Revive and improve the Integrated Forest
Management Agreement (IFMA)

A total log ban protects what’s left but does nothing to

encourage growth.

75
3. Launch a National Hardwood Industrial Forestry
Program

Forests are not decoration; they are economic and

environmental infrastructure. We need a serious
program to:
1)​ Develop seedling nurseries and propagation
protocols for select species
2)​ Identify high-performance seed stock for
strength, form, and disease resistance
3)​ Fund R&D partnerships with universities and
global forestry experts
4)​ Establish model plantations in Luzon, Visayas,
and Mindanao

4. Build Forest-Based Industry Ecosystems

A reliable, legal hardwood supply will revive industries

once lost:
1)​ Furniture and cabinetry exports
2)​ Woodcraft and artisan markets
3)​ Prefabricated housing and engineered wood
4)​ Boatbuilding and specialty tools
5)​ Heritage restoration and eco-tourism

Countries like Malaysia, Vietnam, and Indonesia

already export billions of dollars in processed wood
annually. The Philippines once did, and it can again.

5. Incentivize Local Government Participation

Forestry should be profitable for communities, not just

big corporations.
1)​ Share revenue with local governments for
timber sales
2)​ Issue forestry development bonds at the
municipal level
3)​ Encourage public-private agroforestry ventures
4)​ Reward community-based forest management
tied to performance
6. Educate the Public on the Role of Forests

Filipinos must stop seeing forests only as protection

from typhoons or landslides. We must teach that:
1)​ Trees are crops, not just monuments
2)​ Forests are factories for wood, clean air, and
water
3)​ Our identity is deeply tied to craftsmanship
and native woods

76
Celebrating narra, molave, and kamagong as national
heritage will inspire pride in planting and using them
sustainably.

7. Use Technology for Transparency and Governance

Modern forestry governance must be data-driven and
transparent:
1)​ GIS-based land zoning and inventories
2)​ Satellite monitoring of plantations and
harvests
3)​ Blockchain-backed timber traceability
4)​ Public digital forest registries for accountability

The German Model

A model worth looking at for all these is that

of Germany which allots one-third of its land
area to sustainable forestry. They generate
massive annual volumes of timber/biomass
and have well-developed forest related
industries.

Consider the following excerpts of an article

about German sustainable forestry:

“Despite being a densely populated country

(approximately one quarter of the population of the
USA in an area smaller than the State of Montana),
over 30% of Germany is covered in woodland.
Germany was the first country to decide to harvest
only so much timber as it was possible to reforest in
parallel. This practice has been functioning
effectively for over 300 years now and has also
been applied successfully in the USA. It is a way to
secure the raw material base for the German saw
milling industry for future generations.

77
Every year, 120 million m³ of biomass is newly
grown in Germany, which, in the case of many types
of wood, is by no means used to the full extent. A
historical forest heritage and modern sustainable
forestry ensure that the woodland is managed in
accordance with ecological principles and with due
regard to biodiversity. We currently have
approximately 3.4 billion m³ of wood in reserve in
our woodland. As a consequence, the woodland
does not only provide a secure raw material base
but, at the same time, such forestation also
significantly reduces CO2 emissions – an active
contribution to the protection of the climate!”

The article noted that forestry is an important

economic factor in Germany. The forest and timber
industry, including processing and paper as well as
printing and publishing, accounts for nearly 1.3
million jobs with an annual turnover of about 170
billion. Small- and medium-sized forest-based
enterprises play a major role in rural employment
structures*

A Closing Word

For over a century, we watched our forests vanish. For

decades, we spoke of reforestation only in token
gestures.

This book calls for a bold reversal:

1.​ Commit millions of hectares to hardwood
propagation
2.​ Shift from bans to growth and regeneration
3.​ Build an economy around forests — in
partnership with nature

The forests we plant today will outlive us. Let us ensure

they are a source of strength, not just a memory.

* Reference on German Forestry:

Source:
Foresty in Germany, accessed 2025-08-23 23:34,
https://www.forstwirtschaft-in-deutschland.de/german-forestry/forest-facts/?L=
1&fbclid=IwQ0xDSwMYDelleHRuA2FlbQIxMQABHqf1VLHrASqCcAq-lykyqoa
1YoTc4Zy7De_dAJDJ1ReuTiE-wU3GtkjSSjrr_aem_1hF9UxjUT6In6W2bhGirPw

78
Author’s Notes
(2025 Hardbound Edition)
@roheadvocacy

I first published Philippine Hardwoods in 2021. It was a

digital-only release — a quiet offering to the country
and the Philippine hardwoods I feared we were losing
for good. @roheadvocacy is a Facebook page I
created for the purpose of initially creating awareness
of the advocacy and the book.

To my surprise, it resonated. Thousands of readers,

educators, architects, artisans, and ordinary citizens
reached out — not only to show appreciation of the
advocacy, but to ask: What can we do now?

This hardbound edition is my answer. It is not only

revised, but reaffirmed. A book that aims to increase
awareness of the topic and hopefully, for the
appropriate governmental agencies to take action:
Plant at least 10 of 15 million hectares of
government-owned Philippine Forest Lands and make
the strong, beautiful Philippine hardwoods available
for this and future generations.

In the four years since the book’s first release, much

has changed in the world — but our forests remain in
peril. Yet, I believe more than ever that we have a
chance to turn things around.

This hardbound edition is for:

1.​ The students looking for purpose
2.​ The policymakers seeking clarity
3.​ The farmers, carpenters, and builders who
remember what real wood feels like
4.​ And the dreamers — those who still believe
the Philippines can lead the world in
something again

Let this book serve not as a lament for what we’ve lost
— but as a blueprint for what we can still grow.

I dedicate it to every Filipino who believes that

sustainability is not just survival, but a legacy worth
leaving.

79
PHILIPPINE HARDWOODS

Forests. Heritage. Hope.

The Philippines was once blanketed in magnificent

forests — home to some of the rarest and most
beautiful hardwoods in the world. Today, much of that
legacy is gone, and what remains is either
endangered, illegal to harvest, or forgotten entirely.

This groundbreaking book presents a bold vision: to

regenerate 10 million hectares of forest lands using
native hardwood species — not for preservation alone,
but for productive, sustainable use. Drawing from
science, history, and deeply personal insight,
Philippine Hardwoods reimagines the forest as both an
ecological sanctuary and an economic powerhouse.

Featuring species profiles, policy proposals, and a

nationwide call to action, this hardbound edition is
both a tribute and a roadmap — for builders, planners,
educators, and every Filipino who dares to dream of a
greener, stronger nation.

80