African Journal of Business Management Vol. 4(15), pp.

3344-3355, 4 November, 2010

Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/AJBM
ISSN 1993-8233 ©2010 Academic Journals

Full Length Research Paper

The impact of color traits on corporate branding

Wei-Lun Chang* and Hsieh-Liang Lin
Department of Business Administration, Tamkang University, Taipei County, Taiwan.
Accepted 23 September, 2010

Aristotle, a famous Greek philosopher, indicated that all perceptions are triggered by witness.
Consumers have a first impression of sight memory for products within 0.67 seconds. The first
impression dominates 67% of the purchasing process, which comes from colors. This research
considers using colors to manifest corporate brand image and charm and believes that inappropriate
usage of colors may confuse the corporate brand memory and image. This paper utilizes Birren’s Color
Theory to identify each color trait and explore the consistency between color traits of the corporate
brand and the vision and goal of corporate identity. The results reveal that color also guides consumers
to recognize corporate brands and, corporate brand recognition and image improves purchase and
profit.

Key words: Color traits, corporate branding, corporate identity, brand identity.

INTRODUCTION

Of the five human senses, sight undoubtedly has the advertisement (Jun’ichi, 1994). Igloo Products
most powerful effect on consumer perceptions. The Corporation used a color consultant to develop colored
famous Greek philosopher Aristotle indicated that all coolers and increased 15% of sales (Lane, 1991).
perceptions are triggered by witness. The research of A research from Loyola University (2007) in the US
Linstorm (2005) also revealed that 83% of human beings indicated that using colors to manifest critical messages
use sight as the receiver to obtain messages among the enhances attention by 82% and brand recognition by
five senses. Gob’e (2001) considered sight the most 80%. Colors also create a positive image and 83% of
noticeable sensing tool in humans. Human beings have a businessmen believe that colors on a brand label result in
direct reaction to color and shape; hence, designers successful business. However, Grossman and Wisenblit
utilize color traits to enhance the sight memory of brands (1999) indicated that research on colors in the marketing
and improve the ability to identify brands (Perry and field is still in the preliminary stage. This research
Wisonm, 2003). Colors are embedded with messages considers using colors to manifest corporate brand image
and can trigger special reactions between the central and charm. Keller and Lehmann (2006) specified poten-
nervous system and the cerebral cortex. The seven- tial research questions, such as brand experience and
second color theory in marketing, proposed in the 1980s corporate image and reputation. In particular, the sense
in Europe, indicates that consumers experience their first experiences (involving sensory perception) and visual
impression of sight memory for products within 0.67 effect of branding are extremely significant. The wrong
seconds. The first impression dominates 67% of the use of color traits may deliver wrong messages from an
purchasing process which comes from colors. That is, enterprise perspective.
humans memorize and recognize the color and shape of This paper utilizes Birren’s (1961) color theory to
a product within seven seconds. 62% of people associate identify color traits and interpret personality and emotion
product brands via colors after watching a three-second of colors. This study explores the consistency between
corporate brand color traits and the vision and goal of
corporate identity. Moreover, the present study also uses
Aaker’s honeycomb model to interpret consumer
*Corresponding author. E-mail: wlchang@mail.tku.edu.tw. Tel: perception of brand identity based on color traits. Hence,
886-2-26215656 ext. 3148. this research investigates three research questions: (1) How
 Chang and Lin 3345

traits associated with colors affect consumer perception Brand identity

of brand identity; (2) How corporate identity utilizes traits
associated with colors to deliver messages to customers, Most consumers treat brand and corporate name as the
and (3) Color performance in corporate branding. same concept. Kapferer (1992) specified that brand has
specific and individual meaning after a time-period. Aaker
(1995) considered that a strong brand needs an abun-
Literature review dant and clear brand identity. Basically, brand identity
represents the external image that the organization
intends to present. Upshaw (1995) considered brand
Color theory identity as the synthesis of text, image, intention, and
customer perception of a brand. Brand identity is
Colors are formed by light, which is also a type of energy. determined by the perception of a receiver. Good brand
Scientists have investigated that people experience identity transmits appropriate brand essentials to form a
psychological change when they are in contact with superior brand image. Perry and Wisnom (2003)
different colors. Colors can stimulate, excite, and form specified brand identity as composed of controllable
different emotions (Perry and Wisonm, 2003). Each color elements of a company’s product or service; for instance,
results in various reactions (Schmitt and Simonson, position, text, vision, and experience.
1997). Color with a long wavelength has a stimulus Schmitt (1997) specified brand identity to include the
effect; for example, red is a vivid color. A short visual factor (e.g., color, type, line, and form), the hearing
wavelength of color has a comfort effect; for example, factor (e.g., volume), the touching factor, the tasting
blue can reduce blood pressure and pulse. Orange factor, and the smelling factor, the five senses of the
indicates friendliness, pink represents softness, and grey brand. Brand identity provides visible value and creates
specifies professionalism (Gob’e, 2001). company advantage. Knapp (2001) considered that the
In the research of human media interaction (HMI), brand needs visual conversion to symbol, color, font, and
Nijdam (2009) utilized certain color area theories to intro- style, to be efficiently and correctly delivered to
duce color characteristics and emotions. In the first color consumers. Lindstrom (2005) specified that colors create
theory, Goethe (1808) proposed the concept of a color obvious brand association, which is also concrete to
circle that separates colors into positive and negative communicate with consumers. Different colors represent
parts. Positive colors include yellow, orange, and red that different emotions and affect consumer reactions; that is,
represent conspicuous, vivid, and ambitious. Negative brand color relates to brand personality (Moser, 2003).
colors include blue and purple that represent obedient According to Knapp’s research, Aaker (2004) proposed
and admirable. In the research from Claudia Cortes a honeycomb model to describe the elements of brand
laboratory, the concept of color meanings was proposed identity (Figure 2). Core value, the company’s
and indicates the specific traits of colors. Shirley Willett’s commitment to its customers and employees, should be
color codification of emotions is the major foundation for different from that of its competitors and should create
interpreting the emotions of colors as shown in Figure 1. value and trigger desires. Although it is the basis for a
The outside circle includes positive traits, the second brand’s survival, core value is intangible and not always
circle represents six emotions, and the inside circle easy for people to identify. Ideal customer image drives
indicates negative traits which presents depression. brand traits through perceptions of similar values and
Colors symbolize abstract concepts and affect beliefs between brands and customers. Emotional
psychology and emotion. Each color has its positive and benefits mean that the brand causes positive responses
negative traits to influence human emotions. Hence, this from consumers, and functional benefits mean that the
research synthesizes certain color theories from Nijdam’s brand satisfies customer needs and solves their problems
study and Birren (1961) in Table 1. in differentiating products. Personality is a crucial element
Perry and Wisonm (2003) considered how personal that makes brands significant and particular. Brand
and cultural experience affects color associations. Gob’e personality appeals to ideal consumers and builds solid
(2001) indicated that colors result in cultural and physical relationships between brands and consumers. The base
reactions. The concepts of the color circle (Goethe), the of authority refers to a competitor’s inability to imitate a
meaning of colors (Claudia Cortes), color meanings firm’s personality and earn consumer trust through it.
(Color Wheel), color codification (Shirley Willett), and Finally, symbols guide people to generate images,
color psychology (Birren) are different in terms of cultural establish brand identity, and build relationships with it.
experience and theoretical background. Hence, there are This research utilizes Aaker’s honeycomb model to
various definitions of color traits and emotions. However, measure customer perception of a brand identity.
these researches all consider that colors transmit specific
traits and cause emotional reactions. This study utilizes
Birren’s research (color psychology) as its basis because Corporate identity
the color psychology explanation is appropriate for
interpreting color traits of corporate brands. Corporate identity encompasses “visual identity,” which
3346 Afr. J. Bus. Manage.

Figure 1. Color Codification (Shirley Willett).

Table 1.Traits and emotions of colors.

Color theory
Color Trait Color circle Meaning of color Color Meaning Color codification Color Psychology
(Goethe) (Claudia Cortes) (Color Wheel) (Shirley Willett) (Birren, 1961)
Red Positive trait Seriousness, Dignity, Active, Emotional Passion Enthusiasm Passion, Love, Heat
Grace/Charm
Negative trait X Offensive, Embarrassed Offensive, Courage Rage Danger, Anger
Emotion Faith Anger, Love Emotionally, Intense, Anger Excitement, Energy
Aggressive, Anger

Orange Positive trait Energetic, Warmth, Ambition Wisdom, Desire Pride Happiness, Enthusiasm
Passive
Negative trait Irritating Tiring Domination, Distrust Disgrace Aggression, Arrogance
Emotion Happiness, Powerful Joy, Determination Joy, Happiness Shame Happiness, Energy

Yellow Positive trait Purity, Pleasant Lively, Freshness Awareness Joy, Happiness, optimism
Energetic
Negative trait X Cautious Sickness, Jealousy Panic X
Emotion Joy Fear, Happiness/Joy Joy, Happiness Fear Sunlight, Joy, Happiness,
Optimism, Intelligence
 Chang and Lin 3347

Table 1. Contd.

Green Positive trait Calm, Neutral Calm, Neutral Good Health, Growth Satisfaction Nature, Youth, Fertility
Negative trait X Greedy, Sick Disorder, Sickness, Hoarding Coldness, Jealousy
Envy
Emotion Calm Faith, Greed Greed Greed Coldness, Nature

Blue Positive trait Comfort Faithful, Traditional Understanding Clarity Peace, Calmness, Trust,
Confidence
Negative trait Void Cold Depressed Depression Racing Coolness
Emotion Sadness Confident, Sadness Trust Confusion Depression, Coldness
Calmness

Purple Positive trait Active Leadership, Passive Nostalgic, Romantic Leadership Royalty Creativity
Negative trait Restless Arrogant, Sorrow Frustration Impotence Mystery
Emotion Discomfort Introspective, Melancholic Sadness Power Flamboyance, Gaudiness
Mystery

Black Positive trait X X Elegance X Modernity, Power ,Elegance

Negative trait X X Death X Fear, Anger, Sadness,
Remorse
Emotion X X Power X Power, Style, Elegance

White Positive trait X X Purity, Safety X Purity, Peace, Innocence,

Cleanliness
Negative trait X X X X Humility Sterility
Emotion X X X X Innocence, Cleanliness,
Simplicity

Figure 2. Honeycomb model of brand identity.

3348 Afr. J. Bus. Manage.

delivers messages. Fair communication enhances The major differences are that corporate brand
competitive advantage of companies. Behavior (1) focuses more on internal and external stake-
derives from superior communication, which may holders than product brand, (2) provides a more
result in good corporate image and reputation. comprehensive marketing mix than product brand,
This research utilizes the concept of Van Riel and and (3) communicates via enterprise rather than
Balmer (1997) to interpret the delivered message by marketing mix. The philosophy of corporate
from corporate brand colors and to validate brand is more comprehensive than product brand.
identification consistency. This paper investigates corporate brand as the
Figure 3. A conceptual model. target based on strategic thinking and long-term
synergy. Hence, this research synthesizes the
Corporate branding definition and features of corporate brand based
on existing researches and consider that
has traditionally been associated with According to Knox and Bickerton (2003), corporate brand conveys brand value and
organizational symbols. Melewar and Saunders “corporate brand is the visual, verbal, and guarantee, differentiates among competitors, and
(1998) indicated that corporate visual identity behavioral expression of an organization’s unique builds good relationships among employees and
consists of the corporate name, logotype and/or business model. Brand is expressed through the stakeholders.
symbol, typography, and color. Although visual company’s mission, core values, beliefs, commu-
identity is an important aspect of corporate iden- nication, culture and overall design (Simoes and
tity, it is only a component of corporate identity Dibb, 2001). King (1991) indicated that corporate RESEARCH METHOD
(Melewar and Saunders, 2000). Everything an brand audiences go beyond customers to include
organization does, makes, and sells, and all stakeholders, and that these audiences The present study
everything it says, writes down or displays, exercise a wider range of discriminators, including
constructs its identity (Olins, 1990). According to both intangible and tangible product/service This research proposes a conceptual model that enfolds
psychology theory, people receive 70% of their elements. Ind. N (1997) supported the concepts of customer and enterprise perspectives (Figure 3). The
external messages from their visual sense; intangibility and complexity, highlighting the concept is similar to the research of Knox and Bickerton
variety of contact points, or interfaces, between an (2003), who examined corporate branding from customer
therefore color can be used effectively to deliver a and organizational perspectives. The causal path of the
message about the corporate identity of the organization and its stakeholder audiences. customer perspective is brand image, brand positioning,
enterprise. Corporate branding delivers brand value, provides brand identity, corporate association, and corporate
Napoles (1988) proposed corporate identity as a customer promise, furnishes differentiation for branding. The causal path of the organizational perspective
symbol, composed of signs, by which the organizations with competitors, and increases is corporate image, corporate personality, corporate
company expects to be recognized. Van Riel loyalty. identity, corporate reputation, and corporate branding. The
Lawer and Knox (2004) specified corporate present research considered that color selection may affect
(1995) defined corporate identity as the what companies attempt to convey and how customers
controllable communication of an enterprise; that brand as a way to represent, manage, and perceive. Consequently, this study considered that color
is, companies combine the essences of corporate communicate with corporate brand value used on traits may cause brand awareness and association based
identity to communicate with internal and external a trademark. Balmer (2001) proposed five on customer perception (Perry and Widnom, 2003). The
stakeholders (Olins, 1990; Birkight and Stadler, elements of corporate brand: cultural, intricate, existing literature also indicates that companies create
tangible, ethereal, and commitment. Knox and image and reputation and convey to stakeholders through
1980). Van Riel and Balmer (1997) proposed a
a corporate identity system (Gray and Balmer, 1998) and
three element combination of corporate identity, Bickerton (2003) also considered the goal of
color is the most noticeable and common approach for
including symbol, communication, and behavior. corporate brand and product brand is similar in communication (Lindstrom, 2005). Thus, the proposed
Symbol is a type of visual representation, which creating differentiation and preference. This paper model aims to examine if enterprises can utilize
provides powerful differentiation of an enterprise. synthesized existing researches by comparing the appropriate colors to convey correct brand identity and
Communication represents the way a company attributes of corporate brand and product brand. corporate identity and the impacts on corporate branding.
 Chang and Lin 3349

Design

The research was conducted from an interpretive perspective. The

current study adopted a focus group method to collect data. The
focus group included well-organized discussions with selected
groups of individuals to gain meaningful information (Morgan,
1988). The focus group also enables the facilitator to enter
participants’ realities and collect interpretations, which are crucial to
understanding the impact of color traits. The benefit of the focus
group method is that the researcher can obtain insights into
participants’ shared understanding of the topic through discussion
and interaction (Kruegger, 1988).

Sample

Six focus groups, with an average of six to eight participants each, Figure 4. Eight different colors for a new brand.
were conducted during September to December 2009. Three
groups were graduate students and three groups were office
workers. The selected graduate students were familiar with brands
and their logic thinking and presentation skills were superior to the honeycomb model? (e.g., symbol, base of authority, functional
undergraduate students. One of the other three groups included benefits, emotional benefits, ideal customer’s image, personality,
specialists in color cosmetics, who provided professional expertise and core value), (3) do you think an appropriate brand color may
and physical experience. The other two groups were ordinary office generate a positive image (association) of the company? (4) do you
workers in the service industry, who are frequently in contact with think color traits represent brand personalities? and (5) do you
people and provided similar opinions to consumers. Each group consider brand color when selecting brands?
included a mix of genders and ages and the participants were aged The second session investigated the significance of color impact
from 21 - 35 years (e.g., 50% for 21-25 years, 35% for 26-30 years, on corporate identity and the benefits of color traits to convey
and 5% for over 36 years). The overall gender ratio was balanced corporate image. This is also the logical path from color, corporate
(e.g., 43 and 57% for male and female respectively) among the 42 identity, to corporate branding in our model. This study selected
participants. The distributions of education level were 17% for under eight international brands among the top 100 brands from
high school, 26% for university, and 57% for graduate. The “Interbrand” from 2007 to 2009, including Coca-Cola (red), Hermes
occupations included service sector, medical sector, technology (orange), McDonalds (yellow), Starbucks (green), IBM (blue),
sector, color cosmetics sector, and educational sector. The group of ANNASUI (purple), CHANEL (white), and BURBERRY (black). In
color cosmetic specialists included two males and six females. The this session, the research asked three open questions: (1) what
focus groups followed the guidelines from the research of Krueger messages do brand colors convey from the corporate perspective?
and Casey (2000), including the range of participants between 4 - (2) do you think the colors on the brand symbol are important and
12, facilitation by an experienced moderator, and a common necessary? Why? and (3) could you please identity the existing
discussion protocol prepared by a research team. brands where color traits and brand image match? Meanwhile,
does that help you to recognize that brand and increase the
consumption?
Procedure After discussions in the two sessions, each group member
received a nominal fee (3 U.S. dollars) and a feedback question-
A group leader initiated and facilitated discussion in each focus naire. Returned feedback questionnaires indicated that participants
group (i.e., research) and meetings lasted for an hour and a half on felt comfortable describing their own experiences. The participants
average. The meeting place was selected in a living room at home, were also encouraged to express their views and exchange ideas
a meeting room at an office, or a balcony at a coffee shop to reduce with other members based on their perceptions.
noise. Each participant had a name card on the table and a
reserved seat. Two graduate students with a brand and marketing
background were also assigned as assistants. At the beginning of ANALYSES AND RESULTS
the discussion, the leader briefly introduced the concept of this
research and encouraged participants to freely share their
experiences. A designed questionnaire with open questions was This research adopted content analysis to refine the data
used to facilitate the discussion and interaction. extracted from the discussion (Mertens, 1998). Each
This study separated the discussion into two sessions. The first focus group discussion was video-recorded and
session investigated the color impact on brand awareness and transcribed verbatim. Verbatim quotes were also used to
association and how consumers perceived through color traits. This convey the exact tenor of group members’ comments so
is also the logical path from color, brand identity, to corporate
branding in our model. This research designed a brand new logo data reliability would not be jeopardized (Neuendorf,
with eight different colors (e.g., red, orange, yellow, green, blue, 2002). The transcriptions were analyzed, as suggested
purple, black, and white) to show to the participants (Figure 4). The by Miles and Huberman (1994). One of the authors was
reason for designing a new brand was to avoid the bias of existing the primary data analyst. Initially, the researcher read the
brands and obtain brand recognition and association through transcript to acquire a feel for the data. Next, recurring
colors. This concept follows the research of Luscher and Scott
themes that related to the study’s research objectives
(1969) who believed there was a connection between color
preference and objects. In this session, the research asked five were identified to obtain the effect of color traits on
open questions: (1) what are the associations of eight new brands, corporate branding. The process was carried out on a
(2) what are the perceptions of eight new brands based on the within-case basis and then on a between-case basis.
3350 Afr. J. Bus. Manage.

Subsequently, data with similar themes were drawn associations of colors; particularly, red, yellow, green,
together from different cases, and placed in the data blue, black, and white. Blue, green, black, and white
category to further support analysis. cause consumers to experience the most functional
benefits and may satisfy basic expectations. Emotional
benefits indicate brand results in the joyful response of
Colors affect customer perception for corporate consumers. The results of the focus group reveal: (1) red
brand identity brand causes fulfillment, (2) red and yellow convey
happiness, (3) red and yellow represent values, and (4)
This research utilized the honeycomb model to measure the yellow brand is more distinctive than other colors.
brand perception through colors, which is also the level of Red and yellow colors conform to emotional benefits and
brand recognition from the customer perspective. First, cause joyful feelings connected to happiness, hope, and
participants from each group provided the associations of passion. Conversely, red and yellow are closer to
eight colors through eight designed brands. The results consumers compared to cool colors (such as green and
from the six groups reveal that the red brand triggers blue) which may cause gaps for consumers.
respondents’ emotions and stimulates people to be
impetuous, passionate, and energetic. The orange brand
is between red and yellow and exudes happiness, Colors affect customer perception of corporate brand
optimism, and youth. Participants associate the yellow recognition
brand with brightness, joy, and warmth. The green brand
presents health and nature concepts and is associated Ideal customer image indicates the way a brand provides
with environmentalism and peace. Participants who value to generate sympathy. However, consumers
experience the blue brand think of intelligence, future, pursue their own ideal customer image which varies
and hope. Participants who experience the purple brand among genders or ages. For example, young male
associated it with class and glamour. Some respondents students prefer yellow and blue, and male office workers
consider purple as noble and others associate it with like black or gray, which is staidness. By contrast, young
sickness. Finally, the black brand reveals darkness, female students prefer cute pink and naïve white and
staidness and mystery and the white brand provides the office ladies prefer colorful red or mystery purple. The
traits of pureness, monotony, and kindness. Table 3 results also reveal that: (1) the traits of red and yellow
shows the associations for all colors. brands are according to participants’ image, (2) red and
yellow brands are praised and appreciated by
Colors affect customer perception for corporate participants, (3) red and yellow brands have fine
brand awareness expectations, and (4) green brands are comfortable.

Symbol is the visual identity for brand recognition,

identity, and association. Most participants were Colors assist customers shaping corporate brand
impressed by red and yellow colors and considered black image and affect purchase motivation
and white as out of the ordinary. The color base of
authority can trigger consumer brand awareness and Core value indicates the essentials and vision of brand
shape brand image. Base of authority is difficult to imitate value. Participants considered the appropriateness of
and connects trust and evaluation of a brand. The results using colors to convey the meaning and position of a
also reveal that blue and black are associated with brand. The results reveal that consumers consider colors
trustworthiness and red is popular among participants. to represent the spirit of firms and convey messages
Different colors elicit various feelings and the meanings such as culture, vision, or mission. In short, brand will
on brands may be very different. In short, this research gradually shape its own meaning of autonomy and
concludes that blue and black have positive evaluations uniqueness, which is brand identity (Kapferer, 1992). The
of trustworthiness and red is the most popular color focus group results reveal that participants agreed that
among participants. colors assist consumers in shaping brand image in the
first level, affect consumer psychology and emotion and
purchase motivation and judgment in the second level,
Colors affect customer perception for functional and and discover appropriate meanings for ideal brand image
emotional benefits of the corporate brand in the third level.

Functional benefits indicate brand functions that satisfy

customer needs and assist them to solve problems or Colors affect customer perception and emotion for
accomplish specific tasks, while influencing customers to the corporate brand traits
have a positive evaluation of the utility and quality of a
brand. This research discovered participants have similar Colors influence human psychology and emotion. For
 Chang and Lin 3351

instance, the change of warm to cold colors results in customers and brands, attracts ideal customers, and
different feelings such as summer or winter. Colors result maintains familiarity between customers and brands.
in consumer perception and cause emotional reaction.
This research utilized an informal questionnaire to assist
in measuring the perception of brand personality in terms Customers are aware of the corporate brand through
of colors. The instrument was adopted from the brand color traits
personality scale (BPS). Participants were inquired to
select appropriate traits for different colors and the Participants are aware of brands by their symbols and
summary is shown in Table 4. associate them by color traits. The focus group results
In the first dimension, the results reveal that most reveal that participants considered that the blue of IBM
participants considered the white brand to represent provides stable and reliable products and services. The
down-to-earth (46%) followed by the green brand (22%). red of Coca-Cola represents excitement and passion.
Green also conveys health (33%). Meanwhile, white and The red and yellow of McDonalds indicate sunshine and
green present honesty, which is 38% and 32% a vivid image. Companies typically utilize warm colors,
respectively. Participants considered red, orange, and which reflect delicious and appetizing images. This is
yellow to express cheerful emotions compared to green, because long wavelength colors (e.g., red, orange, and
blue, and purple. In the second dimension, the red brand yellow) may generate a warm sensation. Conversely,
was considered a daring color (41%). Red (22%), orange short wavelength colors (e.g., purple, blue, and green)
(17%), and yellow (31%) mostly represented spirited may cause a cold sensation. If companies select blue in
feelings. Participants particularly regarded purple as food and drink, it will be associated with chemical pro-
imaginative and up-to-date. ducts and cleansing materials. That is, blue is appropriate
In the third dimension, blue (23%) and black (33%) to the technology sector such as GE, IBM, and NOKIA.
were considered the most reliable colors. Blue (22%) and Some participants consider black and white to represent
black (20%) also convey intelligence that reflects on most professional and specialized products, especially for
high-tech products (e.g., computer or mobile phone). In cosmetics. Green has the sense of nature and is
the fourth dimension, blue, purple, and black represent associated with trees and leaves, which conveys health
an upper class (20, 20, and 23%) color. Red (20%) and and environment. This research considers color as the
purple (28%) were considered as charming brands media to affect consumer perception. Utilizing appro-
among participants. As for the last dimension, green was priate colors not only obtains a positive evaluation and
associated with outdoor traits (22%) and black presents trustworthiness, but also reveals the basis of brand
tough and powerful aspects (38%). In short, colors authority.
enhance brand traits and brand association in terms of
specific attributes.
Colors convey corporate identity of the corporate
brand
Colors assist customer building the relationship with
the corporate brand This research investigated the significance of brand color
on corporate identity (Table 2), the possibility of color
This research asked participants in the focus group if traits to outline corporate image, and the benefit of color
they considered colors in choosing a brand without on corporate identity. This study selected eight brands
considering product function and price. Based on the among the top 100 brands from Interbrand ranking
responses, the moderator asked participants if they between 2007 and 2009, including Coca-Cola (red),
choose green of the Body Shop and yellow of Burt’s Bees HERMES (orange), McDonald (yellow), Starbucks
based on the same product function and price. The (green), IBM (blue), ANNASUI (purple), BURBERRY
participants also responded that colors represent (black), and CHANEL (white). This provided international
purchase emotion and customer’s first impression. The and famous brands to participants and represented
moderator also provided two examples for comparison, different colors. First, this research extracted the
blue of BIOTHERM and green of the Body Shop, based corporate identity of each brand based on open
on same moisture function. The participants considered statements, which are the sources of second-hand data.
blue as more appropriate to moisture than green. Other The open statements of eight brands were also collected
participants considered that colors help companies from official websites and assisted in representing
appeal to different customer levels. For example, Louis corporate identity for the eight brands.
Vuitton attracts mature customers and Vivienne The red curve of the letter C of Coca-Cola represents
Westwood attracts young customers. Focus group results energy and conveys life without burdens. The orange car-
reveal that participants choose red to convey excitement riage of HERMES presents pioneer characteristics and
and passion as well as blue to convey coolness and particular traits of carry all before one. The yellow arch of
stability. Thus, color builds relationships between McDonalds stands for delicious food and friendly services
3352 Afr. J. Bus. Manage.

Table 2. Difference between product brand and corporate brand.

Characteristic Product brand Corporate brand

Management Middle Manager CEO
Responsibility Middle Manager Everyone in the firm
Goal Attract customers Obtain support from stakeholders
Communication Marketing Corporate
Focus Product Internal and external stakeholders
Time Short-term (product life cycle) Long-term (organization life cycle)
Value Mainly contrived Creator and potential culture

Table 3. Associations of all colors.

Color Associations
Red Passion, Vitality, Excitement, Boldness
Orange Novelty, Happiness, Optimism, Youth
Yellow Bright, Joy, Warm, Harsh to the eye
Green Health, Environmentalism, Nature, Peace
Blue Staidness, Intelligence, Indifference, Smooth
Purple Classic, Glamour, Sickness, Sadness
Black Fashion, Mystery, Staidness, Noble
White Pureness, Monotony, Kindness, Honor

Table 4. Participant perception of brand personality by colors.

Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Purple Black White

Dimension Item
(%)
Sincerity Down-to-earth 0 10 10 22 12 0 0 46
Honest 3 3 3 32 12 6 3 38
Wholesome 2 14 12 33 16 2 12 7
Cheerful 30 22 26 4 9 2 0 7

Excitement Daring 41 5 13 3 0 15 18 5
Spirited 22 17 31 8 8 4 6 4
Imaginative 10 10 5 5 12 26 22 10
Up-to-date 16 11 13 4 7 24 18 7

Competence Reliable 2 0 2 20 23 0 33 20
Intelligent 15 5 8 15 22 0 20 15
Successful 24 8 5 5 16 0 27 15

Sophistication Upper class 6 4 6 4 20 20 23 17

Charming 20 9 10 10 0 28 10 13

Ruggedness Out-of-Doors 10 16 8 22 20 4 14 6
Tough 12 3 8 8 21 5 38 5

services. The green goddess of Starbucks conveys the night, adventure and lure of the journey as well as
concept of a mental experience. The blue letters of IBM mystery and the wilds of dreamland. The black
convey reliability, availability, and security to customers. Equestrian knight of BURBERRY stands for moving for-
The purple image of ANNASUI conveys bewitchment at ward in the spirit of an explorer. Finally, the white image
 Chang and Lin 3353

of CHANEL conveys a permanent, beautiful and unique McDonalds in Israel changed their color to ensure that
aroma. the burger and French fries conformed to the Judaism
discipline. The background color was changed from red
to blue to represent the sky, which is also the flag color of
Colors assist corporate brands in conveying traits to Israel. This research agrees concerning the significance
customers of color on brand symbol. Enterprises must consider if the
traits and emotions of colors are consistent with the spirit
Participants in this study were asked to provide their of the company.
perceptions of eight selected brands through discussion.
Participants considered that the red of Coca-Cola
conveys stimulus, vividness, youth, impetuousness, Marketing implication
passion, happiness, and energy. The value of Coca-Cola
on corporate identity is living without burdens and en- This research utilizes the method from research of
courages people to stimulate themselves, consistent with Romaniuk and Sharp (2000) to discover the owned
passion, stimulus, energy, and vividness. One participant attributes for each brand color. The concept is to reduce
considered orange the same as red in its representation usage bias of data by identifying a second pattern in
of youth and energy (25 years old female student). Some image responses. The problem of usage bias is that
participants regarded HERMES as courage, ego, brands with more users tend to score higher on image
uniqueness, differentiation, youth, and in vogue. responses. This study aims to transform collected data
Most participants considered McDonalds as youthful, from focus group into invisible patterns and distinguish
energetic, warm, appetitive, bright, fast, optimistic, and owned attribute for each brand color. First, this research
aggressive. Participants considered that the green of counts the total number of traits (attributes) for each color
STARBUCKS conveys quiet, leisure, youth, staidness, and presents in order. That is, out-of-doors occurs
and comfort. Furthermore, certain participants perceive frequently with 50 times. As the usage effect is reflected
IBM as reliable, staid, professional, cool, novel, and in the number of responses for each color, the concept of
trustworthy. The existing customer perception is identical chi-square can be utilized to estimate the expected
to what IBM attempts to deliver: reliability, availability, number of responses in each cell. The following formula
and security. Participants recognized ANNASUI as is used to calculate the expected values.
mysterious, elegant, noble, gorgeous, and charming and
considered that only using black letters of the corporate Row total x Column total
Expected =
brand cannot convey mystery. One participant though Total for all cells
purple conveys morbidity (25 years old female student).
Participants also identify BURBERRY as noble, my- Next, this study identifies the deviations from expected by
sterious, good looking, bad and cool. That is, bad stands simply subtracting the expected from the actual pro-
for the spirit of fearlessness for an explorer and nobility, portion of responses. The deviations are shown in Table
mystery, and cool represent personal achievement. 5. Conversely, this method clearly reveals where a brand
Participants considered CHANEL as special, mysterious, scores lower and higher than expected value, which is
elegant, classic, clean, and honorable. The existing the major advantage over correspondence analysis in
customer perception reveals that CHANEL conveys perceptual map. The deviations reveal significant
elegance and extraordinary style. information: (1) the positioning of each brand color and
(2) which attributes are owned by particular brand colors
and to what extent.
Colors on the brand symbol convey appropriate This research identifies that each of the brand colors
message, image, and spirit of the corporate brand has attributes upon which they score more or less than
expected by examining the deviations. This study also
Most participants agreed on the significance of colors on highlights attributes with major positive and negative
a brand symbol and considered that they convey an deviations for each individual brand color. For example,
appropriate message, image, and spirit of the corporate red is daring reliable is inappropriate to warm colors (red,
brand. Some participants considered various degrees of orange, and yellow) and down-to-earth is improper to
importance for colors on a brand symbol, depending on cold colors (purple and black). The information also
different preferences. Conversely, many companies have provides marketing managers an indication of how brand
undertaken a color revolution and attempted to change color is performing on specific traits and how to avoid the
color to transform to a new image. Participants agreed mismatch of perception. Furthermore, the influence of
that the acceptance of new color will be low after a short negative deviations is also significant. This study singles
time period due to the past image. However, most out owned traits when a brand color has a positive
participants indicated that cultural difference is the most deviation that is more than 50% of the largest negative
important factor for companies. Participants recalled that deviation. The results in Table 6 also indicate which trait
3354 Afr. J. Bus. Manage.

Table 5. Table showing deviations from expected.

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Table 6. Owned traits of each brand color.

Traits 50% of largest negative deviation Brand Color

Spirited -2.5 Yellow (+9.8)
Reliable -2.6 Black (+8)
Charming -3.1 Purple (+8.6)
Wholesome -2.2 Green (+8.5)
Imaginative -1.8 Purple (+7)
Down-to-earth -3.4 White (+13.2)
Daring -2.6 Red (+11)
Tough -1.7 Black (+8.5)
Cheerful -3 Yellow (+8.1) and Orange (+6.6)
Honest -2.3 White (+8.3) and Green (+6.5)

belongs to a particular brand color; for instance, charming choosing appropriate corporate color.
and imaginative are more appropriate to color purple than
others. Marketing managers can choose major and minor
colors of a corporate brand based on the mission and Conclusion
vision. Additionally, the results also reveal the identified
free traits, which are out-of-doors, upper class, intelligent, Color is important in the process of building a brand and
and successful. These traits may represent opportunities obvious as the first communication. Companies use
to add to the image of a brand color as minor effect. brand to create an experience and association and color
In summary, the estimated deviations can help allows consumers to identify corporate identity clearly.
manager to identify brand traits and position based on This research proposes a conceptual model to investi-
what traits that a corporate attempts to convey. For gate relationships among color, brand identity, corporate
instance, red owns trait of daring and is appropriate to identity, and corporate branding. The current study
companies which may convey fashionable and conducted a focus group to obtain in-depth viewpoints of
encouraging perception. Yellow is expected to represent customer perception. This work utilized the honeycomb
a cheerful brand. Black is reliable and tough which may model to link color, brand identity, and corporate bran-
convey dependable and solidness of a corporate brand. ding, to identify brand trait, customer/brand relationship,
White constantly represents sincerity and pure of a and corporate image. In linking color, corporate identity,
corporate brand. Consequently, the owned and free traits and corporate branding, the present study utilized
provide significant information and clues to managers for symbol, communication, and behavior to recognize visual
 Chang and Lin 3355

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