Fsa

k ? JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION

A Publication of the Society for Scientific Exploration

Volume 16, Number 2 2002

Page
169 Editorial
Research Articles
171 Arguing for an Observational Theory of Paranormal Joop M. Houtkooper
Phenomena
187 Differential Event-Related Potentials to Targets and Bruce E. McDonough
Decoys in a Guessing Task Norman S. Don
Charles A. Warren
207 Stigmatic Phenomena: An Alleged Case in Brazil Stanley Krippner
Essay
225 The Case for the Loch Ness "Monster": The Scientific Henry H. Bauer
Evidence
Letters to the Editor
247 Aspirin Study Flawed Joel M. Kaufman
249 Mitogenetic Radiation Milton Wainwright
250 Coronary Heart Disease Christopher J. Leet
251 Reply to Christopher J. Leet Joel M. Kaufman
253 Hieronymus Machine George Sassoun
254 Reply to Dr. Sassoon D KVasilescu
254 Comment from Editor-in-Chief Henry H. Bauer
255 Unexplained Weight Gain at the Moment of Death Frank G. Pollard
255 Reply to Frank Pollard Lew Hollander
256 Speransky's Effect Savely Savva
257 Reply to Savely Savva Claudio Cardella
259 A Significant Typo and a Corresponding Object Lesson James Houran
Kevin D. Randle
Obituary
261 Grover S. Krantz (1931-2002) Loren Coleman
Editorial Essay
265 What's an Editor to Do? Henry H. Bauer
Book Reviews
275 Children Who Remember Previous Lives: A Question Robert Almeder
of Reincarnation
276 On Science Henry H. Bauer
278 The End of Time Karl Gustafson
280 Atom and Archetype: The PauliIJung Letters 1932-1958 Vassi Toneva
283 Jean-Pierre Vigier and the Stochastic Interpretation of David Pratt
Quantum Mechanics
287 Hauntings and Poltergeists: Multidisciplinary Perspectives Richard S. Broughton
295 The Encyclopedia of Ghosts and Spirits James Houran
298 The Siren Call of Hungry Ghosts: A Riveting Investigation Brenda Denzler
into Channeling and Spirit Guides and Freeing the Captives:
The Emerging Therapy of Treating Spirit Attachment
301 Swamp Gas Times: My Two Decades on the UFO Beat Leslie Kean
304 Further Books of Note
308 Articles of Interest
Website Review
312 Alternative Medicine: Watching the Watchdogs at Quackwatch Joel M. KaufSman
Journal of Scientific Exploration, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 169,2002 0892-3310102
O 2002 Society for Scientific Exploration

EDITORIAL

Occasionally I get a short complimentary note for something we published in

the Journal, and that's always greatly appreciated. Rather more frequently,
there come lengthy notes of complaint from rejected authors, sometimes
copied to SSE members and non-members. Quite often, those complaints are
based on a different view than mine, of what sorts of things the Journal of Sci-
entific Exploration should be publishing. As an expansion of our "Instructions
to Authors", and also as information for members of SSE about their Editor's
practices, I included in this issue an essay describing my approach to the job of
Editor.
I feel rather apologetic about the fact that I have another essay in this same
issue. My preference would have been to publish "The Case for the Loch Ness
Monster" in Cryptozoology, the journal of the International Society of Crypto-
zoology, but that journal was last published in 1996 (though no official an-
nouncement has been made that it has ceased publication). I have visited Loch
Ness almost annually for many years, and have noted with some distress that
little substantive progress is being made toward understanding what exactly it
is that gives rise to persistent eyewitness accounts of plesiosaur-like creatures
as well as essentially reproducible sonar recordings. Visitors find little useful
material in local book-shops. What was once the "Official Loch Ness Monster
Exhibition" has reformed itself as the "Loch Ness 2000 Exhibition" and fea-
tures skepticism more than the Loch Ness Monster story. A number of people
long interested in the matter have been seeking to find flaws in some of the
long-standing evidence. Altogether, it seemed time to review the strongest ev-
idence that Loch Ness harbors large unidentified creatures. In the following
issue of JSE, I shall survey the television coverage that the Loch Ness Monster
has received over the last few decades, concluding that the strongest evidence
has not been well presented in most of the documentaries.
Cryptozoology is, sadly, also represented in this issue by an obituary, of
Grover Krantz. Grover became, among anthropologists and other scientists,
the chief proponent of the view that Bigfoot or Sasquatch is real, most proba-
bly a surviving representative of the genus Gigantopithecus. He argued his
case tenaciously but courteously and with determined respect for evidence,
and his passing is a great loss. Loren Coleman sent me this addendum to the
obituary he had written: Grover was born 5 November 193 1. He was raised a
Mormon (Church of Latter Day Saints) but at 13, according to his wife, "it no
longer made sense; even at that time he preferred facts and science".
Much of the remainder of this issue, including several letters, concerns para-
psychology. And once again, our Book Review Editor David Moncrief has as-
sembled a variety of interesting reviews.
Journul of Scientific Exploration, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 17 1-1 85, 2002 0892-33 10102
02002 Society for Scientific Exploration

Arguing for an Observational Theory of

Paranormal Phenomena

Centre for Psychobiology and Behavioral Medicine at the Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen,

Otto-Behaghel-Strasse 10, 0-35394 Giessen, Germanv
e-mail: joop.m.houtkooper@psychol.uni-gimsen.de

Abstract- The problem of devising a theory for paranormal phenomena

(psi) may be separated into, first, the basic physical mechanism and second,
the psychological aspects of how and when people are able to elicit psi.
Observational theory addresses primarily the first aspect, the basic physical
mechanism of psi. A problem is that the known types of physical interaction
do not fit the existing data.
The measurement problem in quantum mechanics can be used to hypothe-
size an observer who adds information at the collapse of the wave function.
For each random event one of the possible outcomes becomes realized as the
event is being observed. The basic tenet of observational theory is: the statis-
tics of single events become biased if the observer is motivated and prefers
one of the possible outcomes over the other.
Features of observational theory are: its predictive power, proven with re-
gard to retroactive psychokinesis (PK); parsimony: the same mechanism ex-
plains ESP as well as PK; fruitfulness, as there is a direct relationship with
quantum mechanics; and openness to crucial experiments. The falsifiability
criterion poses some problems: these are discussed in relation to Lakatos'
methodology of research programmes.
Observational theory is a solution to the problem of the mediation of psi,
thus providing a framework for the psychological problem of the manifesta-
tion of psi. Henceforth, the observation of the outcome should be regarded as
formal part of parapsychological experiments. There is reason for cautious,
patient optimism about the acceptance of observational theory.
Keywords: observational theory - parapsychology - quantum mechanics
- non-locality - causality violation - precognition -
psychokinesis - philosophy of science

Introduction
Since the early 1970's, an approach to the theory of paranormal phenomena
has been developed, which has become known as "observational theory".
What, then, is observational theory? As I will show, it is an attempt to explain
the basic mechanism of the paranormal phenomena, that is, telepathy, clair-
voyance, precognition (collectively called ESP) and psychokinesis (PK). The
generic term for these phenomena, psi, hitherto has been a collective term
without a clear basis. Observational theory, however, does provide a theoreti-
171
172 Houtkooper

cal basis for the use of this term. Observational theory can best be character-
ized by its 'central axiom': "The act of observation by a motivated observer of
an event with a quantum mechanically uncertain outcome influences that out-
come".
For the explanation of psi, observational theory draws upon the 'measure-
ment problem' in quantum mechanics. This will be outlined in detail, but first
the general problem of a theory of paranormal phenomena is considered.

Theoretical Parapsychology
Paranormal phenomena have puzzled many scientists and therefore it is not
surprising that the literature is replete with theories of paranormal phenomena.
Parapsychological theories have been reviewed comprehensively by Stokes
(1987), who categorizes the multitude of theories that have been proposed
since the early 20th century. Apart from discussing observational theory,
Stokes mentions, for instance, electromagnetic theories, space-time theories,
neuropsychological theories and theories based upon mind-brain dualism.
These theories are accompanied by the problems they entail, such as the cod-
ing-decoding problem when considering electromagnetic radiation as the
medium for transfer of information in ESP. All theories are attempts to explain
the occurrence of certain aspects of paranormal phenomena, that is, theories
are of varying scope and of varying merits.
This article is concerned with observational theory, about which I hope to
make clear that this theory provides insight in a mechanism which can explain
all categories of paranormal phenomena in way that has a certain relationship
with present day physics. Although observational theory deals mainly with the
physical aspects of psi, it may provide a way to come to a comprehensive theo-
ry of paranormal phenomena, phenomena which then will no longer belong to
the catogory of the 'anomalous'.
For the understanding of the problems parapsychology is concerned with,
the distinction made by Irwin (1994) is revealing. Irwin distinguishes two theo-
retical problems:
1. How are psi phenomena at all possible? This is called the problem of the
mediation of psi, or the physical problem of psi.
2. How are people able to produce psi phenomena? This is called the prob-
lem of the manifestation of psi, or the psychological problem of para-
normal phenomena.
One reason why progress in parapsychology has been so slow may well be
that the one problem cannot be solved without at least a fair idea of the other.
Therefore, observational theory may serve as a catalyst, even if it is incom-
plete in the sense that not all of the problems it entails have been solved.
The purpose of this article is to show what the fruitful aspects of observa-
tional theory are-and where it could be more useful if observational theory is
further developed.
 Arguing for an Observational Theory

Physics and Psi

About Physics and Psi
In the prevalent view, physics leaves little room for paranormal phenomena.
My present objective is to make the most of the room there is within estab-
lished physics, instead of invoking completely new principles.
To grasp the difficulty of understanding psi within the framework of
physics, take for instance precognition: A future event that cannot be inferred
from present knowledge, such as an event produced by a random generator
(RNG), is predicted by a person. No physical interaction (electromagnetic,
weak, strong nuclear, or gravitational) appears to be able to explain the fore-
knowledge of such a future event, which is fundamentally random and to our
normal understanding unpredictable. Even within parapsychology the phe-
nomenon of precognition has met with considerable skepticism: see, for in-
stance, Steinkamp (1999).
As it is not excluded by the laws of physics that future events produce their
traces in the present, attempts have been made to explain precognition within
physics, for instance, by invoking advanced-wave solutions of the Maxwell
equations, but although it promises a mechanism in principle, it simply does
not work for the time scales of hours to weeks and even longer that are ob-
served for precognition. Moreover, if information transmission by such a
mechanism would indeed occur, physical apparatus should be realizable to
demonstrate the effect in a physics experiment and in existing experiments
such effects should have been observed.
In the literature, many aspects of physics, from electromagnetic radiation to
neutrinos and tachyons, have been proposed as responsible for the mediation
of paranormal phenomena. Here, only a few specific aspects will be men-
tioned, whereas for the broader overview the review by Stokes (1987) is an ex-
cellent reference. In order to place observational theory in its proper frame-
work within physics, I will first briefly outline the quantum mechanical
measurement problem.

The Measurement Problem

In quantum mechanics, a physical system is described by its wave function.
However, the wave function cannot be observed directly, but, in the conven-
tional view, is identified with the statistical distribution of observed events.
To give a concrete example of conventional quantum mechanics, suppose
we have a Stern-Gerlach device, which produces electrons that upon observa-
tion have their spin either up or down. The spin of each electron is easily de-
tected, since electrons with different spin are deflected differently in the appa-
ratus. The quantum mechanical description of one electron before observation
is a wave function that does not assign a definite up or down spin direction but
only states that the probabilities of spin up and spin down after observation are
both 50%. The wave function is, according to the usual interpretation, the
174 Houtkooper

most complete description of the system, so we cannot ascribe a definite spin

direction up or down to the electron before the observation. Upon observation,
however, each electron obtains either spin up or spin down.
Conventional quantum mechanics considers the statistical distribution of
the electrons and identifies this with the probability distribution predicted by
the wave function. The postulate of statistical determinism ensures this (d'Es-
pagnat, 1976). However, the step from the wave function to the observed indi-
vidual electron has not been taken without some reservations. This is the sub-
ject of the "measurement problem", a central issue in the interpretation of
quantum mechanics (Bell, 1987; d'Espagnat, 1976). The measurement prob-
lem has been debated between prominent theorists who were keen on under-
standing how measurement results come about, instead of being satisfied with
the mathematical formalism and the ensuing statistical predictions. Some of
these theorists (Wigner, von Neumann) have at some time suggested that only
upon arriving in the consciousness of the observer, the probabilistic event be-
comes concrete, such as a spin becoming either up or down. Other quantum
physicists have discarded such a view involving consciousness as pure mysti-
cism. From the viewpoint of physics, consciousness is an ill-defined and ill-
fitting concept and it is only rational to regard it as a bad apple in the basket
and keep it outside of the theory proper as long as possible.
A way to quantify the measurement problem is to compare the information
content of the electron wave function before the electron has been observed, in
the 50% up, 50% down state, with the situation after observation, when the
electron is with certainty in one state and not in the other. The usual Shannon
information is larger in he second case. As long as the inforrrlation which has
been apparently added to the electron is random, the statistical distribution
will remain as predicted. If, however, the added information is biased, we may
observe a biased statistical distribution of the electron spin.
The last half-century has seen numerous attempts to resolve the measure-
ment problem of quantum mechanics (QM), but no consensus has emerged.
Some recent proposals are known as 'decoherence' theories. Quantum deco-
herence is the phenomenon that through interactions with the environment the
information required to produce the characteristic quantum interference ef-
fects is almost immediately lost in the many degrees of freedom of the envi-
ronment. Decoherence theories assert that this produces a definite state in the
measuring instrument immediately after interaction with a quantum system,
although the formalism does not tell us which state has thus become definite.
Jeffrey Bub calls this an "ignorance interpretation". While he discusses differ-
ent versions of this approach, he argues that the measurement problem is not
resolved by "this manoeuvre" (Bub, 1997). With regard to the relative popular-
ity of problems and solutions, Bub remarks at the beginning of the section on
decoherence: "For most physicists, the measurement problem of QM would
hardly rate as a 'small cloud' on the horizon. The standard view is that Bohr
had it more or less right, and that anyone willing to waste a little time on the
 Arguing for an Observational Theory 175

subject could easily straighten out the muddle philosophers might get them-
selves into" (Bub, 1997, p. 21 2). All irony apart, Bub alludes here to a lecture
by Lord Kelvin on the status of physics at the end of the 19th century (Kelvin,
1901). The two 'small clouds' of that time led to the relativity theory and to
quantum mechanics.
Thus far a synopsis has been given of the measurement problem, as it can be
discussed within physics. The problem of the transition from the indefinite to
the definite seems unsolvable in present-day physics. But new resources be-
come available when we consider the problem in a wider context. Thus, the
role of the measurement problem alters fundamentally if new experimental
data are brought to bear upon it. This is what parapsychological research find-
ings will effect if they are considered within the conceptual framework of ob-
servational theory.
Before we evaluate observational theory in this respect, we will consider an-
other aspect of the relationship between physics and parapsychology, namely
the concept of non-locality, which has been the cause of some misunderstand-
ings about observational theory.

Non-Locality
In discussing theories of paranomal phenomena, parapsychologists often
7
refer to the 'non-locality of quantum phenomena. The phenomenon of the
non-locality or non-separability of wave functions is best known from the Ein-
stein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox, a gedanken experiment that was originally
proposed to show the absurdity of quantum mechanics in 1935. Until 1964 this
remained a moot point, as it seemed to have no consequences for experimental
outcomes. In 1964, John Bell showed that the essential spatial extendedness,
or 'entanglement', of wave functions could have experimental consequences
and this was confirmed by Alain Aspect and his coworkers in 1982 for the first
time and in many experiments since.
An interesting corollary is that an issue which at first has to do with the un-
derstanding of the theory and how to paint a satisfactory mental picture of it
became an experimental issue, with the possibility of quantum mechanics to
be rejected by experimental outcomes, as new experiments were invented. As
it is, quantum mechanics was vindicated and the reality of entangled quantum
states which have a non-local character confirmed.
Some attempts to explain psi have focussed on this non-locality of the wave
function. However, despite the fact that "non-local correlations" do indeed
exist, it is hard to imagine a wave function describing, in a precognition exper-
iment, the compound system of the human subject on the one hand and a ran-
dom number generator of which the outcomes are to be predicted on the other
hand. Furthermore, according to the formalism of quantum mechanics, no
transfer of information is possible via non-local, or EPR-, correlations. Carry-
ing the "non-local explanation" of psi to the extreme, sometimes the argument
that all elementary particles in the universe have been connected with each
176 Houtkooper

other at the big bang is seriously put forward. Indeed, that may be the case, but
if an apparent information transmission is possible between one collection of
particles and another, why doesn't this effect show up in physics experiments?
And, moreover, why would this specific prediction come true and why doesn't
it connect to any other process in the universe?
Lack of specificity is a bad property of a theory. A theory of psi based upon
non-local correlations might be called a permissive theory: Everything is pos-
sible, but this implies that nothing specific can be predicted.
But, one might ask, what about the relationship between the observer and
the observed system; can't we regard this as a non-local correlation? Here, the
"colloquial" approach we follow reaches its limits. However, the necessary
technical treatment shows that the relationship between observer and observed
system is fundamentally different from a non-local correlation. Exacerbating
the conceptual muddle, non-local correlations have become associated with
'holism', a panacea which again sadly fails on the specificity argument.
At this point we may surmise that, from the point of view of present-day
physics, the only possible (that is, imaginable within present-day physics)
mechanism for psi lies in the measurement problem and in hypothesizing a
role for the conscious observer in the collapse of the wave function. This will
be argued for in the remainder of this paper.

Parapsychologists and Physicists

Scientific parapsychology has traditionally been practised mostly by psy-
chologists and scientists from various other disciplines, some with a definite
preference for a mind-brain dualism. For them, quantum mechanics is the bad
apple (or an esoteric gem) in the psychological basket. The other side of the
same coin is that for quantum theorists "consciousness" is the bad apple in the
physical basket. The use of the word "quantum" in a more or less mystical
sense is not any less frequent than the misuse of the term "paranormal" for any
unusual, arousal-provoking story. (There has been no reason for quantum
physicists to abandon the word "quantum" anymore than there should be a rea-
son for parapsychologists to abandon the words "paranormal" and "parapsy-
chology".)
These problems, that physicists and parapsychologists have with each
other's technical terms, are paralleled by the two main problems of parapsy-
chology, namely of the mediation and the manifestation of psi.

Observational Theory

The History of Observational Theory

The basic idea of observational theory was first formulated by Evan Harris
Walker (1973, 1975), who tried to identify quantum processes in the brain
with the quantum uncertainty in observed random events. In his view, the es-
 Arguing for an Observational Theory 177

sential connection between the human observer and the observed random
process can be represented by 'hidden variables' they have in common. Hid-
den variables theories were fashionable at that time as candidate solutions of
the measurement problem of quantum mechanics.
Furthermore, Helmut Schmidt (1975) proposed a simple mathematical
model of psi, based on the premise that the probabilities of random events be-
come biased through being observed by the subject in an experiment. Al-
though the theories by Walker and Schmidt primarily explain the influence of
an observer on a quantum mechanical random process, it was Schmidt who
showed that the same mechanism can explain precognition and ESP in gener-
al. Implicitly, Schmidt supposed "Von Neumann's hierarchy" (d7Espagnat,
1976) to apply to unobserved-quantum mechanical-random events. There-
fore, in these theories the role of the observer in quantum mechanics is the cen-
tral concept.
Not surprisingly, the generic name 'observational theories' was coined
shortly afterward (Houtkooper, 1977), followed by a review by Millar (1 978).
This author scrutinized observational theory with regard to the interpretation
of quantum mechanics, both from the experimentalist's viewpoint and from
the viewpoint of the philosophy of science (Houtkooper, 1983). To my initial
surprise, the most fruitful view was provided by the orthodox Copenhagen in-
terpretation of quantum mechanics, or, in Bub's terminology, the "orthodox
Dirac-von Neumann interpretation". The conclusion was that the phenomena
which are usually regarded as representing 'backward causation', such as pre-
cognition and retroactive PK, can be understood by assuming that random
events which have not yet been observed remain in a state of 'indefinite reali-
ty'. They only obtain a definite status upon observation. In this view, which is
compatible with quantum mechanics, ordinary causal relationships between
events can be maintained. The cost of maintaining causality consists of having
to give up realism with regard to quantum mechanical random events.
In the 1980's observational theory has been discussed in various articles, of
which those by Schmidt (1984) and Walker (1984) may be mentioned, al-
though not reviewed here. Applications in experiments have been scarce and
the elaborate protocols have apparently not been conducive to the occurrence
of psi in these experiments (Houtkooper et al., 1989; Johnson & Houtkooper,
1988; Schmidt & Dalton, 1999).

The Unification of Paranormal Phenomena

The idea that PK and ESP belong to the same class of phenomena goes back,
at least, to the mediumistic sciances of the 19th century. Observational theory
for the first time provides a relationship and even a common mechanism for
both phenomena. Schmidt (1975) has made this very explicit by 'constructing'
a paragnost, which exhibits precognition, using a scheme involving a source of
PK. PK is to be regarded as the basic phenomenon, acting on quantum mechan-
ically random events. Assuming Von Neumann's hierarchy means that unob-
 178 Houtkooper

served random events remain in a state of 'indefinite reality'. Upon observa-

tion the particular outcome of a random event is determined. This explains the
apparent success of experiments with retroactive PK.
In a precognition experiment, the target is a picture or symbol, determined
randomly some time before the experiment proper. The experiment consists of
a subject guessing, using his or her intuition or imagery, what the target might
be. After this, the correspondence between target and guess is determined. The
outcome of the experiment is therefore determined at the moment this corre-
spondence is observed and the preference of the observer of the correspon-
dence between target and guess must be a major factor in determining the suc-
cess of the experiment. In other words, precognition is simply retroactive PK
in disguise. The same explanation holds for the other ESP phenomena, telepa-
thy and clairvoyance. Therefore, the paranormal phenomena have a unified
explanation within observational theory.
The ramifications of Schmidt's unification theorem, such as the a priori
pairwise stochastic independence of target, guess and correspondence, and the
application to psi in real-life situations, may serve to further develop observa-
tional theory.
I
Observational Theory and Lakatos' Methodology of Research Programmes
When considering pros and cons of observational theory, we may regard ob-
servational theory as a research programme in the sense of Lakatos (1978).
I
Lakatos' view of the acceptance and rejection of scientific theories is different
from Popper's: If theories have apparently been falsified, they protect them-
selves against falsification by secondary theories or "auxiliary hypotheses".
The basic theory which is thus defended is the "core theory" and it has some
resemblance to Kuhn's "paradigm" (Kuhn, 1962). To cite an example of
Lakatos: The anomalous precession of the perihelion of the planet Mercury
was well known in the 19th century; instead of regarding this as a falsification
of Newton's law of gravitation, astronomers hypothesized a new planet be-
tween the sun and Mercury as the cause and searched for it, but in vain. The
cause of not finding it was blamed on the difficulty of observing a small object
close to the sun. It was Einstein's general relativity theory which explained the
observations without the need for an extra planet.
Therefore, according to Lakatos, theories are accepted or superseded, not by
the outcome of a crucial experiment or observation, but by their connections
with other theories and their explanative power on the one hand and their need
for protection to explain away the falsifications and to defend themselves
against conflicting experiments on the other hand. These characteristics are
called, respectively, the positive and negative heuristics of a theory. The theo-
ry, as it develops its different heuristics, is called a research programme.
Observational theory can be best characterized by its central axiom: "The
act of observation by a motivated observer of an event with a quantum
mechanically uncertain outcome influences that outcome."
 Arguing for an Observational Theory 179

This is the core theory in the sense of Lakatos. By a "motivated observer" is

meant an observer with a conscious or unconscious preference for one specific
outcome over the other possible outcome(s).
Thus, we may regard observational theory as a research programme in the
sense of Lakatos. Next, we examine the positive and negative heuristics of ob-
servational theory, in order to show to what extent observational theory can be
considered a fruitful approach and to what extent it has some unwanted char-
acteristics.

Positive Heuristics of Observational Theory

1. The phenomenon of retroactive PK was predicted by observational theo-
ry: The moment of observation is crucial instead of the moment of gen-
eration of the random events. In experiments with retroactive PK, or
7
'retro-PK , random events are generated and recorded some time before
the proper experiment is conducted. In the experiment, the random
events are presented to the subject, possibly without he or she being
aware of the fact that the events are not being momentarily generated.
As it is assumed, based on "Von Neumann's hierarchy" (d7Espagnat,
1976), that the randomness of the recorded events is not compromised
by having been stored, this delay of the observation should make no dif-
ference for the PK effect. In fact, this idea has been corroborated by ex-
periments with prerecorded trials. Moreover, in these experiments with
retroactive PK some good experimental corroboration has been found
for the influence being exerted at the time of feedback to the subject, and
not at the time of generation of the prerecorded trials (Schmidt, 1976).
This means observational theory has proven its power to predict new
phenomena and that the central axiom has found direct support.
2. Precognition is accounted for without needing an (ad hoc) extra mecha-
nism. Schmidt (1975) showed the equivalence of precognition and PK if
one assumes an observational model. As clairvoyance and telepathy are
equivalent to precognition in real time, the various paranormal phenom-
ena, psychokinesis, telepathy, clairvoyance and precognition, can be
unified into one basic mechanism. In other words, observational theory
is parsimonious in comparison to theories which invoke different princi-
ples for different paranormal phenomena.
3. Observational theory predicts specifically the possibility to manipulate
effects, such as in repeated retroactive PK, so that detailed models can
be formulated and tested. Such a model, the hierarchical model
(Houtkooper, 1983), was devised on the basis of indications from exper-
iments. It implies a diminishing influence of the observations by later
observers of the same random events, through a "psi-absorption" para-
meter assigned to observers. The designs based upon this model promise
experimental results with a better reproducibility than had been hitherto
achieved.
180 Houtkooper

4. The use in PK experiments of random processes, like dice and RNGs, in-
stead of sensitive instruments to measure small static forces, can now be
justified on the grounds of the consideration of psi effects as effects act-
ing upon the quantum mechanical uncertainty in these random process-
es. Experimental corroboration is found in PK experiments with a gifted
subject who could reproducibly influence the motion of cubes rolling on
a horizontal surface, but not the motion of a ball rolling down an incline
(Forwald, 1977; Pratt & Forwald, 1958).
5. The experimental finding that psi effects are independent of the com-
plexity of the random process involved (Schmidt & Pantas, 1972), can
be explained by the act of observation as the crucial event at which a psi
effect is mediated. Devices used as PK target systems, like numerous
dice in one throw, noise-based RNGs and even the speed of radioactive
decay of uranium, are highly non-transparent to the PK agent. The suc-
cess of these devices in ensnaring ostensible psi-effects has hitherto
been a source of concern for theorists. Observational theory predicts on
the one hand the success of devices which feature complex and even mi-
croscopic randomness and on the other hand the scarcity of controlled
experiments in which macroscopic forces have been measured and re-
vealed psi-effects.
6. Observational theory bears directly upon quantum mechanics, in that
the existence of psi effects contradicts the principle of statistical deter-
minism (d'Espagnat, 1976). The important limiting principle is that the
deviations from this principle all involve the observation of quantum
mechanically uncertain variables by a motivated observer. Thus, obser-
vational theory has a direct conceptual relationship to quantum mechan-
ics.
7. The unsolved problems in observational theory appear to have their ana-
logues in quantum mechanics, namely the problem of what constitutes
an observation (in quantum mechanics: a measurement) and the prob-
lem of how to determine the order in time of observations (in quantum
mechanics: the order in time of spatially separated measurements). That
is, the direct relationship to quantum mechanics may yet prove to be
fruitful for quantum mechanics as well as for observational theory.
8. Implicitly, parapsychological researchers still use a transmission para-
digm in their design of experiments. The major drawback of this view,
or rather, prejudice, is that conditions of observation of random events
are not noted. An example is the very successful series of ganzfeld ex-
periments reported by Honorton (Bem & Honorton, 1994; Honorton et
a]., 1990), where it is unclear who, either sender or experimenter, is the
first to observe the target-guess correspondence. Ganzfeld experiments
are experiments on the ostensible transference of information between a
'sender' and a 'receiver', in which the receiver is put in a situation of
mild sensory deprivation. The receiver speaks out his or her impres-
 Arguing for an Observational Theory 181

sions, the 'mentation'. Usually in these experiments, the sender may

hear this mentation. Even if this is the case, and the sender listens to the
receivers' mentation, it is unclear whether the sender is the first to know
if the session was a success. Accepting the possibility of observational
theory means that the importance of the observation of outcomes of an
experiment has to be stressed, as a formal part of the experiment. Also, if
the transmission paradigm is regarded as an alternative to observational
theory, observational theory forces it to reveal itself openly, including its
auxiliary assumptions, such as the issue of real time transmission-
Parker and Persson (1999) are taking up this challenge-and the proper-
ties of sender and receiver.
9. Not only PK, but also ESP experiments, can and should be designed
using observational theory. Both a blind-matching and a ganzfeld exper-
iment have been designed and carried out by the author in collaboration
with others: First, the ganzfeld experiment reported by Houtkooper et al.
(1989) aimed, among other things, at showing the role of feedback in
ganzfeld experiments. An observational part was added to the design of
an otherwise ordinary ganzfeld experiment. Results of the experiment
revealed no psi, so that corroboration for neither observational nor
transmission paradigm was obtained. The second was the blind-match-
ing experiment reported by Johnson and Houtkooper (1988). Likewise,
it was unsuccessful in revealing straightforward psi-effects, so that the
effect of later observations could not be ascertained. Lack of experience
and familiarity with the somewhat cumbersome observation procedures
may in part have been the cause of these disappointing results, but never-
theless these experiments may show that observational theory can very
well be applied to experimental designs.
10. The apparent effects of experimenter psi can be understood as effects of
the experimenter as a later observer (Weiner, 1982; Weiner & Zingrone,
1986, 1989) of the data of his or her experiment. Apart from normal,
psychological experimenter effects, apparent effects of the experimenter
have been observed in situations where normal sensory channels do not
apply. These are ostensible cases of parapsychological experimenter ef-
fects, or 'experimenter psi' (Houtkooper, 1994; Irwin, 1994; Schmei-
dler, 1977).

Negative Heuristics of Observational Theory

We should be well aware of the negative heuristics of a research programme,
because these would eventually be the cause of its possible obsolescence and
demise:
1. The Central Axiom is, by itself, non-falsifiable: In principle, all experi-
mental outcomes that can be discussed have at one time been observed.
Also, motivation can hardly be reliably measured, apart from its end-ef-
 Arguing for an Observational Theory 183

ESP and likewise field models for PK, or, more recently discussed is Decision
Augmentation Theory (DAT): May, Utts, and Spottiswoode (1995) proposed a
mechanism for the mediation of psi in that the subject basically uses his or her
intuition to decide between targets in an ESP task, whereas PK is explained by
waiting to start a run until the random event turns out favorably with regard to
the target-whereby PK is explained as ESP. May et al. find support in existing
data on the dependency of effect size on run length (May, Spottiswoode et al.,
1995), which has been criticized by Dobyns and Nelson (1998). Is DAT a su-
perior research programme?
An experiment which would discriminate between DAT and observational
theory is quite obvious: One has to separate the subject who pushes the start-
button from the subject who observes the outcome. Experiments with retroac-
tive PK are a case in point: Schmidt's (1 976) experiments are hard to explain
as an effect of DAT, except as a contorted case of an experimenter effect. Fur-
thermore, DAT has some elements in common with observational theory, such
as 'state selection', but in contrast, DAT lacks a physical basis for 'intuition',
whereas observational theory indicates the point in conventional physics
where psi can be fitted in. This point in physics is the observation of a quantum
mechanically random event by an intent observer. The conclusion must be that
DAT is conceptually less fruitful and finds as yet less experimental support
than observational theory.
As observational theory indicates the point in physics where "the action is",
it is clear the same indication specifies where the psychology cum neurophys-
iology of paranormal phenomena should aim, namely at the same intent ob-
server, in parapsychological experiments, as he or she observes a quantum me-
chanically random event which is the the subject of his or her intention.
Parapsychology will not make progress if it doesn't come to grips with spe-
cific models of the underlying phenomena. Certainly, the difficult area of rela-
tionships with psychological variables will have a hard time if it doesn't take
into account the best available assumptions about the basic mechanism of psi.
Observational theory provides such a basic mechanism and this should bear its
fruits if applied in the design of future experiments.
How likely is it that experimental parapsychologists take heed of observation-
al theory in the future? A note of caution is in order: The very idea of a theory
that specifically includes the experimenter himself will have profound difficul-
ties in establishing itself. This is an element that is new to science and one that
implies requirements of experimental methodology that still have to be ex-
plored. In fact, the only example-that I know of-of an intimate interaction be-
tween the researcher and object of research is in primatology (De Waal, 2001). In
parapsychology, the situation is more extreme: Every wish or motivation of the
experimenter may well influence the result of an experiment decisively. The
methodological difficulties this entails are by no means close to a solution.
Nevertheless, parapsychology fits well in the picture painted by Dijkster-
huis (1950) of the evolution of science: The ancients started their scientific en-
184 Houtkooper

deavours with astronomy. Physics developed at a much later stage. Biology be-
came a science after that and only in the second half of the 19th century was
psychology developed. The obvious 'inward' movement, namely from the
cosmos to the mental phenomena of human being, inexorably seems to lead to
a science where the researcher is part and parcel of his or her object of research.
To accept this role will be a psychological stumbling block, but, despite our
very wish and need to have an objective science, it is the challenge apparently
posed by paranormal phenomena.

Acknowledgments
This paper is based on a talk given at the 17th Annual Meeting of the Society
for Scientific Exploration at the University of Virginia, 28-30 May 1998.
I wish to thank Dennis Dieks, Kamiel Houtkooper and Dean Radin for help-
ful and stimulating comments on earlier drafts of this paper and the Institut fiir
Grenzgebiete der Psychologie und Psychohygiene for financial support that
has facilitated this study.

References
Bell, J. S. (1987). Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics. Cambridge, United King-
dom: Cambridge University Press.
Bem, D. J., & Honorton, C. (1994). Does Psi exist? Replicable evidence for an anomalous process
of information transfer. Psychological Bulletin, 115(1),4-18.
Bub, J. (1997). Interpreting the Quantum World. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press.
Dijkstcrhuis, E. J. (1950). De Meclzarziserirzg varz het Wereldbeeld. [Thc Mcchanization of thc
World-Picture]. Amsterdam: Meulenhoff.
Dobyns, Y. H., & Nelson, R. D. (1998). Empirical evidence against Decision Augmentation The-
ory. Journal of Scientific Exploration, 12, 23 1-258.
D'Espagnat, B. (1976). Conceptual Foundations of Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). Reading, MA:
W.A. Benjamin.
Forwald, H. ( 1 977). A PK experiment with a single ball rolling on a decline. European Journal of
Parapsychology, 2(1), 4-1 4.
Honorton, C., Berger, R. E., Varvoglis, M. P., Quant, M., Derr, P., Schechter, E. I., & Ferrari, D. C.
(1990). Psi communication in the ganzfeld: Experiments with an automated testing system and
a comparison with meta-analysis of earlier studies. Journal of Parapsychology, 54, 99-139.
Houtkooper, J. M. (1977). A study of repeated retroactive psychokinesis in relation to direct and
random PK effects. European Journal of Parapsychology, 1(4), 1-20.
Houtkooper, J. M. (1983). Observational Theory: A Research Programme jbr Paranormal Phe-
nomena. Lisse, The Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
Houtkooper, J. M. (1994). Does a meta-analysis demolition effect exist? Abstracts of 18th Interna-
tional Conference of the Society for Psychical Research (Bournemouth, England, 2-4 Septem-
ber 1994), 14-15.
Houtkooper, J. M., Gissurarson, L. R., & Haraldsson, E. (1989). Why the ganzfeld is conducive to
ESP: A study of observational theory and the percipient-order effect. European Journal of
Parapsychology, 7(2-4), 169-1 92.
Irwin, H. J. (1994). An Introduction to Parapsychology (2nd ed.). Jefferson, NC: McFarland.
Johnson, M. U., & Houtkooper, J. M. (1988). The effect of anxiety on scoring and observer-effects
in a blind matching test with targets of specific and emotional implications to the subjects. In
D. H. Weiner & Morris, R. L. (Eds.), Research In Parapsychology 1987, 56-59. Metuchen,
NJ: Scarecrow Press.
Journal of Scientific Explorution, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 187-206,2002 0892-33 10/02
02002 Society for Scientific Exploration

Differential Event-Related Potentials

to Targets and Decoys in a Guessing Task

B RUCE E. MCDONOUGH
Kairos Foundation, Wilmette, IL 6009 1
University of Illinois at Chicago
e-mail: hem @ uic.edu

NORMAN S. DON
Kairos Foundation, Wilmette, IL 60091
University of Illinois at Chicago

Kairos Foundation, Wilmette, IL 60091

University cfllllinois at Chicago

Abstract-Event-related brain potentials (ERPs) were recorded from 20 sub-

jects performing a computerized, forced-choice guessing task. On each of 40
trials, ERPs were elicited by digitized images of 4 playing cards, sequentially
presented on a video monitor for 150 ms. After the last card was presented,
subjects guessed which of the 4 cards would be the target for that trial. Fol-
lowing the subject's guess, the computer randomly selected one of the 4 cards
to be the target and presented this as feedback; the remaining 3 cards served as
nontarget decoys for the trial. We found that a negative Slow Wave measured
at 150-500 ms post-stimulus had greater amplitude when elicited by targets
than when elicited by nontarget decoys ( p I .05). This result indicates an ap-
parent communications anomaly because no viable conventional explanation
of the ERP differential could be identified. It is the fourth study in our labora-
tory employing essentially the same design to yield this or a similar ERP ef-
fect.
Keywords: event-related potential (ERP)-slow wave-communications
anomaly-anomalous information transfer-ESP-guessing
task-target stimuli

Introduction
The physiological approach to parapsychology dates back nearly a half centu-
ry. Physiological responses which have been studied in extra-sensory percep-
tion (ESP) research include measures of autonomic nervous system activity
such as the electrocardiogram, respiration, and electrodermal responses, and
measures of central nervous system activity such as the spontaneous elec-
troencephalogram (EEG) and event-related brain potentials (ERPs). The theo-
retical rationale for using physiological measures was expressed by the
188 B. E. McDonough et al.

philosopher and parapsychologist John Beloff. If ESP is largely an uncon-

scious process, as is widely believed, such physiological measures have an ap-
parent advantage over the typical verbal response in parapsychological experi-
ments because they may circumvent the conscious decision-making process
(Beloff, 1974).
In contrast to the relatively large number of studies using measurements of
the spontaneous EEG (primarily, alpha activity) as their dependent variable,
the use of ERPs in parapsychological research has been extremely limited. The
earliest report of the ERP technique being used to study ESP was published by
Lloyd (a pseudonym) in 1973, although Silverman and Buchsbaum (1970, p.
155) referred briefly to an unsuccessful pilot attempt in their laboratory. Lloyd
observed ERP-like deflections in averaged EEG epochs of a percipient which
were time-locked to the onset of a pacing light flash seen only by the sender.
The obtained waveforms somewhat resembled those oktained in response to
auditory tone stimulation, with the principal features corresponding to two
components: one at 120 ms (NI 00) and another at 220 ms (P200). The light
flashes served as a signal for the sender to "psychically communicate" or
"transmit his thought image" to the percipient. The percipient was not in-
formed of the nature of the thought image (a cup of coffee), and presumably
was not consciously aware of receiving the telepathically transmitted image,
although such awareness was not a focus of the study.
A few years later, Millar (1979) attempted unsuccessfully to replicate
Lloyd's finding under conditions similar to those used by Lloyd. However,
Millar used a bipolar montage (Cz-02), whereas Lloyd used a monopolar (Cz)
derivation, and Millar computed a variance measure 01ERP activity, whereas
as described below, Lloyd used a non-quantitative assessment of ERP activity.
Therefore, strictly speaking, Millar's study was not a replication of Lloyd's
study because it used a different dependent measure. On the other hand, Mil-
lar's study was better controlled than Lloyd's because it included a compari-
son condition in which the sender was not required to make telepathic trans-
missions, whereas Lloyd's did not, and because it used a quantitative measure
of ERP activity, whereas Lloyd's conclusion was based only on a visual com-
parison of the putative, telepathically-elicited ERP, with auditory ERP compo-
nents having the same latencies, and with average background activity.
Two parapsychology studies used the contingent negative variation (CNV)
as their dependent variable, a slow, negative-going, ERP which is believed to
reflect anticipation, expectancy, or cortical priming leading to a response. First
described by Walter et al. (1964), the CNV is typically observed in warned re-
action time (RT) tasks between the warning stimulus and an imperative stimu-
lus requiring a response. In a pilot study using a go-no go RT task, Levin and
Kennedy (1975) reported that a frontally-recorded CNV was larger prior to an
imperative stimulus requiring a button press response (green light) than to a
stimulus not requiring a response (red light), even though the color of the im-
perative stimulus was (randomly) selected only after the CNV measurement
 Event-Related Potentials in a Guessing Task 189

epoch. Hartwell (1978) studied CNV in a similar warned RT task in which pic-
tures of people served as the imperative stimuli, these pictures being either of
the same sex or the opposite sex as the percipient. However, unlike Levin and
Kennedy's study, extensive computer analysis of the CNV recorded from
frontal, central and parietal scalp sites in Hartwell's study yielded only scant
evidence for an anticipation anomaly.
A more recent study by Grinberg-Zylberbaum et al. (1993) reported that
ERPs elicited simultaneously from pairs of subjects in separate chambers ex-
hibited a high degree of similarity. However, these results may be regarded as
suggestive at best because of several methodological weaknesses, e.g., the in-
vestigators failed to perform any inferential statistical tests on their data, they
used unusually severe, high-pass filtering of the ERP data, and their controls
against sensory leakage appear to have been inadequate.
At about the same time as the Grinberg-Zylberbaum study, Warren et al.
(1992a) reported statistically significant ERP differences between target and
nontarget stimuli presented during a forced-choice precognition task which
was structurally similar to the present experimental task, but which used a dif-
ferent stimulus set. In their single-subject design, Warren et al. tested a gifted
psychic who had previously demonstrated above-chance guessing accuracy on
an earlier version of this ESP task in an experiment reported by Honorton
(1987), a study which was not concerned with ERPs or other physiological
variables. Although this subject's guessing accuracy did not differ significant-
ly from mean chance expectation in the Warren et al. (1 992a) study, examina-
tion of his brain responses to task stimuli revealed significant ERP differences
between the target and nontarget waveforms. A positive-going component,
peaking at 100 ms (PlOO), was larger over three anterior, right hemisphere sites
in response to target stimuli than it was to nontarget decoys, and a slow nega-
tive ERP component measured in the 400-500 ms latency range, was larger to
targets than to nontargets over ten widely-distributed scalp sites. A replication
attempt using a second batch of data collected from the same subject was par-
tially successful (Warren et al. 1992b). The PlOO effect did not replicate, but

~ the slow negative component was again observed to be significantly larger in

response to targets than it was to nontargets. However, this time the effect was
observed only over left hemisphere scalp sites, whereas previously the effect
was observed over both hemispheres. As in the 1992a study, the subject's
guessing accuracy did not differ significantly from chance expectation in this
second study.
Don et al. (1998) extended the anomalous ERP finding to a group of sub-
jects who were participating in a gambling study and who were unselected for
self-reported psychic ability or experience. They were, however, selected for
interest and involvement in gambling activities. The subjects performed alter-
nating blocks of gambling and nongambling, i.e., guessing, trials in a forced-
choice precognition task. Don et al. considered only data collected during the
guessing condition in order to more closely replicate the conditions of our pre-
190 B. E. McDonough et al.

vious studies in which gambling was not a variable. The results of the Don et
al. study, as well as a re-examination of our earlier data, indicated that the en-
hanced negativity was a more time-extended process than measured by the
previous 400-500 ms latency range, with ERP differences between targets and
nontargets also appearing in the earlier 150-400 ms range, and persisting
through 500 ms post-stimulus, this effect being widely distributed across the
scalp. As in our previous two studies (Warren et al. 1992a,b), overt guessing
performance in this third study also did not deviate significantly from chance
expectation.
The present experiment was performed on a subset of the data collected as
part of a second, larger study on gambling behavior, in order to replicate the
anomalous ERP effect we observed previously. This study incorporated a
tightening of experimental controls against likely sources of artifact, in partic-
ular controlling for the effects of subjects' guesses on the ERPs to task stimuli.
Additionally, we assessed the possibility of bias due to physical differences
between the target and nontarget stimuli as well as possible differences in the
serial position of the eliciting stimuli. The study method also incorporated
some additional manipulations which were germane to the study of gambling,
but which may have affected the results.

Materials and Methods

Subjects
Twenty (16 male) self-reported, frequent gamblers, i.e., persons who report-
ed gambling at least once per week, were recruited from notices and advertise-
ments for the present experiment. Subjects were in good health (mean age =
27.4 years; range = 18-49) and had normal, or corrected-to-normal, vision. All
subjects gave informed consent and were paid $8 per hour for their participa-
tion in the experiment. They were also given a $ I0 "kitty" with which to gam-
ble during the experiment and could keep any money remaining in their kitty
at the end of the session, but owed nothing if their account went negative. (As
described below, the present study was concerned only with that portion of the
data collected under a nongambling control condition, i.e., a guessing task.)

Stressor Task
Prior to participating in the gamblinglguessing tasks, half of the subjects
performed 40 trials of a simple, "low-stress" version, while the other half per-
formed 40 trials of a complex, "high-stress" version of an arithmetic problem-
solving task used by Warren and McDonough (1995). Although the subjects in
that study could easily master the simple arithmetic task, they found the com-
plex task to be extremely difficult, frustrating and stressful. (Subjects receiv-
ing either version of the stressor task were pooled for the present analyses.)
 Event-Related Potentials in a Guessing Task

Guessing Task
A computerized guessing task was developed, in-house, for this experiment
using the Micro Experimental Laboratory (MEL) system. The stimulus set
was comprised of a normal deck of fifty-two playing "cards" presented on a
computer monitor. On each trial, four playing cards of a given rank were se-
quentially presented; for example, the four sevens might be presented on one
trial (seven of hearts, seven of clubs, seven of spades, and seven of diamonds),
the four kings on another, etc. Thus, there were thirteen possible stimulus sets
for each trial (two through ace). The four card stimuli presented on each trial
were delivered in the center of the video screen in random order using an inter-
stimulus interval of 2200 ms and a stimulus duration of 150 nis. The card stim-
uli were presented in actual size and full color (standard deck) against a black
background. The target card for each trial was randomly selected from among
the alternatives using a pseudorandom algorithm 1; the remaining three cards in
the pack served as nontarget decoys for that trial. The target was selected only
after the subject made hislher choice for that trial; that is, all trials were con-
ducted as precognition trials. The set (rank) of card stimuli used on a given
trial and the order, or serial position, in which the four cards (1 target and 3 de-
coys) were presented was also determined randomly.

Testing Procedure
Each subject was seated on a comfortable, cushioned chair in a pleasantly
decorated testing room with sound-attenuating material on the walls and door
to reduce distracting noises. During the experiment, the subject sat alone in the
testing room; an intercom permitted communications with an experimenter oc-
cupying an adjacent room. The video monitor was located on a table about one
meter in front of the subject and at eye level; a keyboard rested in hislher lap.
The testing session comprised 80 trials of the computerized, video-gam-
blinglguessing tasks, which subjects initiated at their own pace by use of the
space key on the keyboard. On each trial, subjects were shown four "cards" on
a computer monitor. Two and one-half seconds following presentation of the
last of four card images, all four cards were displayed on screen together. The
subjects then selected one of the cards using the leftlright arrow key to move a
cursor on the screen and registered their guess using the enter key. The "win-
ning card" was then displayed on the monitor as feedback. The subject's ERPs
to the display of the target and the three nontarget decoys were recorded from
an array of scalp sites.
There were 40 such trials for each of two conditions. In one condition, sub-
jects played a just-for-fun guessing game, while in the second, the player gam-
bled (50 centsltrial with a $2 payoff for a win). In alternating fashion, two
blocks of 20 gambling trials were conducted, alternating with two blocks of 20
guessing trials. Subjects were also counterbalanced to perform the experiment
either starting in the gambling condition or the guessing condition. However,
 B. E. McDonough et al.

Fig. 1. A top-down, or "bird's eye", view of the head (nose at the top) showing the 19 recorded
scalp sites. The 12 analyzed scalp sites are labeled using the nomenclature of the Interna-
tional "10-20" System (Jasper, 1958). Unanalyzed electrode sites are shaded.

the present analyses considered only the 40 trials in the two nongambling,
guessing blocks.
After every block, a performance summary and the amount of money re-
maining in their kitty was displayed to the subject on the monitor. Performance
data were output onto a signal channel, recorded on the chart paper of a poly-
graph, as well as being digitized online, along with the EEG data, and stored on
a computer's hard disk.

EEG Recording and Data Reduction

The EEG was recorded continuously while the subjects were performing the
gamblinglguessing tasks. Signal pulses on the signal channel permitted later,
off-line extraction of EEG epochs associated with delivery of the playing card
stimuli. Electrodes were applied over the 19 scalp electrode sites as defined by
 Event-Related Potentials in a Guessing Task 193

the International " 10-20" system (Jasper, 1958), and a forehead ground, using
an electrode cap and conducting gel made by Electro-Cap International, Inc.;
however, only 12 of these sites were presently analyzed (See Figure I). Scalp
leads were referenced to the left mastoid. The right mastoid, referred to the left
mastoid, was recorded on a separate channel for purposes of later digital link-
ing. Impedances for scalp, ground, and reference electrodes were kept below 5
k ohms. In addition, the impedances at the left and right mastoid leads were
balanced (equalized). An electrode placed below the right eye, in conjunction
with the Fp2 lead located directly above the right eye, was used to monitor eye
blinks and movements. The physiological signals were amplified with custom-
built Midwest Research Associates DC amplifiers having automatic DC reset
capability and a 0.5 high frequency roll-off at 50 Hz. Data were digitized on-
line at 256 samples per second.
Data editing was performed off-line and was blind to stimulus category, i.e.,
target or nontarget. EEG epochs containing eye or movement artifacts, or in-
stances where the voltage on any EEG channel exceeded 60 pV, from 100 ms
pre-stimulus to 600 ms post-stimulus, were excluded from analysis by a com-
puter-based, automated editing system developed in our lab. For each subject,
averaged ERPs were formed by calculating the mean of all artifact-free EEG
epochs in the target and nontarget category in order to enhance the underlying
electrical brain waveform. The nontargets used in this analysis were selected
from among the three decoys by a random process which was blind to the ERP
data, with the constraint that the number of guessed nontargets equaled the
number of guessed targets for each s u b j e ~ t . he
~ average ERP waveform at
each site was digitally linked by subtracting '/2 of the voltage of the right mas-
toid at each time point. As with physically-linked reference electrodes, the
purpose of digital linking was to equalize the effective distance between the
reference and the active electrodes on either side of the scalp. The Slow Wave
(SW) amplitude was then measured as the integral mean value of the ERP
waveforms in the latency range 150-500 ms, post-stimulus, relative to the
mean amplitude of a 100 ms pre-stimulus baseline. The 150-500 ms latency
range was selected on an a priori basis in order to maintain continuity with
analyses used in our most recent study of this phenomenon (Don et al., 1998).
ERP analyses compared the SW elicited by targets and nontargets, regardless
of guessing accuracy.
Grand averages (across all 20 subjects) of the target and nontarget ERPs are
shown in Figure 2 (note the convention of displaying negative-going voltages
in the upward direction). The morphology and amplitudes of the peaks and
valleys are consistent with those usually found for visual ERPs in cognitive
tasks and with our previous data. The most conspicuous difference between
target and nontarget averages is the negative displacement of the target curve
relative to the nontarget curve throughout much of the epoch, especially over
the right hemisphere sites.
 B. E. McDonough et al.

1 0 0

- Nontarget Stimuli
o 100 200 300 400 500 -Target Stimuli
ms
Target vs. Nontarget

Fig. 2. Grand average ERPs, averaged over all 20 subjects, elicited by targets (thick tracing) and
nontargets (thin tracing). Plotted waveforms were smoothed with a 5-point moving aver-
age; however, all analyses were performed on unsmoothed data. Negative voltages are
plotted in upward dircction.

Results

Guessing Accuracy
Guessing accuracy over all subjects and trials did not deviate significantly
from mean chance expectation. Collectively, the subjects correctly guessed
204 (27%) targets out of 755 trials, whereas about 189 correct guesses (25%)
would have been expected by chance (p > .lo, two-tailed exact binomial)."

Slow Wave ( SW )
The SW amplitude measurements from 12 recording sites (F3, F4, C3, C4,
P3, P4, F7, F8, T3, T4, T5 and T6) were analyzed in a 4-factor, repeated-mea-
sures Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) analysis with three topographic factors,
Hemisphere (left, right) X Lateral-Medial (lateral, medial) X Anterior-Poste-
rior (frontal, central, parietal), and the Stimulus-Category factor (target, non-
target). Only main or interaction effects involving the Stimulus-Category fac-
tor, i-e., those relevant for the effects under study, are presented here. Main
~ Event-Related Potentials in a Guessing Task 195

effects of the three topographic factors (Hemisphere, Lateral-Medial, Anteri-

or-Posterior), and interactions among only these factors are not presented or
discussed.
The Stimulus Category X Hemisphere interaction was observed to be sig-
nificant, F,,,, = 4.21, p I .05. Inspection of the marginal means suggests that
this interaction effect was due to a more negative-going SW for targets
(-0.15 pV) than for nontargets (0.48 yV) over the six right hemisphere sites,
there being little difference in SW amplitude between targets (0.13 yV) and
nontargets (0.09 yV) over the left hemisphere. For purposes of comparison
with our previous studies, post hoc analyses were performed separately on the
earlier (150-400 ms) and later (400-500 ms) portions of the SW. These re-
vealed a significant Stimulus-Category X Hemisphere interaction for the later
portion of the SW epoch, F,,,, = 4.29, p 5 .05, the earlier portion of the mea-
surement epoch showing only a trend, F,,,, = 3.03, p 5 .lo. As in the planned
analyses of the entire SW measurement epoch, these interactions reflected a
greater negative-going SW for targets than for nontargets over the right hemi-
sphere.

I Post-hoc Tests of Randomization

A chi-square test indicated that the target stimuli were presented an approx-
imately equal number of times in each of the 1 st, 2nd, 3rd, or 4th serial posi-
tions, = 1.78, df = 3, p > .lo. An analogous chi-square test on the serial po-
sitions of (analyzed) nontargets was likewise nonsignificant, XZ = 3.36, df = 3,
p > .lo.
Another chi-square test indicated that the target stimuli comprised an ap-
proximately equal number of the four playing-card suits: hearts, clubs, spades
and diamonds, 2 = 3.33, df = 3, p > .lo. An analogous chi-square test on the
suits of (analyzed) nontargets was likewise nonsignificant, 2 = 0.64, df = 3,
p > .lo. Similarly, there were nonsignificant differences in the number of black
cards (combining clubs and spades) and red cards (combining hearts and dia-
monds) for targets X = 0.33, df = l , p > .lo, or for nontargets X = 0.33, df = l ,
p > .lo.

Discussion
The present study was designed to replicate an anomalous ERP differential
which we observed previously in three separate studies conducted at this labo-
ratory, and to incorporate additional experimental controls and confirmatory
tests in order to rule out several likely sources of artifact. Although the experi-
mental design insured that the subjects could not distinguish the target stimuli
from the nontargets by normal means, the targets, nonetheless, elicited a sig-
nificantly larger, negative-going SW in the 150-500 ms latency range than did
the nontarget decoys. If this result is not just a statistical fluke, it would appear
to represent a communications anomaly, i.e., psi. Our statistical analyses tell
196 B. E. McDonough et al.

us that this result is unlikely to be a fluke. Moreover, the ERP difference ob-
served presently between targets and nontargets is consistent with the findings
of our earlier studies which used a similar task (Don et al., 1998; Warren et al.,
1992a,b), this replication suggesting strongly that the ERP differential is a real
phenomenon.
However, while the statistical evidence suggests that the ERP effect is real,
it doesn't say anything about what may be producing the effect. In order to
demonstrate a communications anomaly, it is first necessary to exclude all al-
ternative explanations of the results. Are there any conventional factors which
might be able to explain the ERP difference between targets and nontargets?
All four of our studies of this ERP phenomenon used computerized tasks
which incorporated design features to prevent sensory leakage of the target in-
formation. Chief among these was the use of a precognition design whereby
the target for each trial was not selected by the computer until after the sub-
ject's guess was registered, which was at least several seconds after the last of
the four eliciting stimuli was p r e ~ e n t e d .Because
~ the selection of the target
was still a future event at the time of stimulus delivery, there could not have
been any differential sensory cues associated with the presentation of target
and nontarget stimuli, such as disk access noises, which might explain the ERP
differential.
All of our studies also incorporated a number of experimental controls in
order to rule out several other potential sources of artifact. By design, each
subject's target and nontarget ERPs were comprised of the same number of
EEG epochs. Therefore, although there were three nontarget stimuli presented
on every trial, nontarget ERPs were computed using only one nontarget epoch
from each trial in order to maintain the same signal-to-noise ratio as the target
ERPs, which also used only one epoch per trial. And because we matched one
nontarget epoch with one target epoch from each trial, the two stimulus cate-
gories were also matched for when, during the session, the stimuli were pre-
sented, thus controlling for such generalized psychological state factors as
arousal, motivation, or fatigue.
Another possible source of artifact was controlled presently by balancing
the number of stimuli guessed (to be targets) by the subjects in the actual tar-
get and nontarget categories. The possibility that an ERP to a member of a
stimulus set could reflect guessing-related processes associated with the overt
choice made several seconds or more later was first reported by McDonough et
al. (1992). McDonough et al. found that ERP amplitudes to card stimuli in a
forced-choice guessing task similar to the present task were sensitive to
whether or not the stimuli were subsequently guessed (to be the target) by the
subject. In that single-subject study, stimuli subsequently guessed by the sub-
ject as being targets evoked a more positive-going ERP than those not guessed
by the subject. This finding, which we termed the "gleam in the eye" effect,
suggested somewhat surprisingly that ERPs to task stimuli may reflect a cogni-
tive, stimulus-selection process leading to an overt response (guess) occurring
 Event-Related Potentials in a Guessing Task 197

as long as 2.5 to 10 seconds after the eliciting stimulus. This guessing-related

effect has since been replicated in a parametric study involving 20 subjects
(McDonough et al. 1999). Presumably, the guessing-related ERP effect could
- also produce artifactual differences between target and nontarget ERPs when-
ever these stimulus categories have unequal numbers of guessed stimuli. How-
ever, guessing-related effects cannot readily explain the presently observed
differences between target and nontarget ERPs because the numbers of
guessed stimuli in the target and nontarget categories were balanced.
Another possible source of artifact which we presently considered was the
serial position of the stimuli in the target and nontarget categories. In order to
elicit an individual ERP to each of the four card stimuli, these were presented
one at a time, i.e., serially, rather than simultaneously. This method may intro-
duce bias for several reasons, such as the possibility that eye movements or
blinks may be more likely to occur for stimuli presented in some serial posi-
tions than others, or because of the fact that task stimuli presented in the 1 st,
2nd, 3rd, or 4th serial positions deliver different amounts of information to the
subject. For example, the first stimulus carries the most information because it
informs subjects of the rank of the four cards to be used on the current trial, as
well as the suit of the first card. Second, third and fourth cards carry no addi-
tional rank information and deliver progressively less information about the
suit. Indeed, the fourth card delivers only entirely redundant information; once
the first 3 cards are seen, the subject can predict the identity of the fourth card
with 100% certainty. This decreasing information content of the serially pre-
sented stimuli was a feature of all four studies conducted to date. However, in
order to explain the ERP effect, there must be a systematic bias in the serial
positions of targets vs. nontargets. While, by necessity, the target and nontar-
get stimulus must be presented in a different serial position on any one trial,
the random selection of targets and nontargets from among these four serial
positions should have made it unlikely that there would be any systematic bias
over all trials. Indeed, a chi-squared analysis conducted precisely for this rea-
son indicated that there was not a significant difference between the two stim-
ulus categories in terms of the serial position of the stimuli over all subjects
and trials included in the ERP analyses. Therefore, we may rule out serial posi-
tion effects as a viable explanation of the observed ERP differential.
Other potential sources of artifact include physical differences in the stimuli
comprising the target and nontarget categories, such as color or pattern. For
example, if by chance the target category had more cards of one suit, or color,
whereas the nontargets, again by chance alone, had more cards of another suit
or color, then such physical differences between the stimulus categories could
conceivably produce totally spurious differences in the ERPs. This possibility
was considered highly unlikely, again because our randomization procedure
should have eliminated systematic bias and because similar ERP results were
observed in our earlier studies, which utilized completely different stimulus
sets having very different visual qualities. However, just to be completely sure,
 B. E. McDonough et al.

11 ~ a b ~ t uion
ot

A Conditioning

A Conditioning

~xtinction

- Nonreinforced 100 msec

---- Reinforced
Fig. 3. ERPs to reinforced and nonreinforced tone stimuli from Paige et al. (1987). The differ-
ence between the two tracings in the uppermost plot (labeled "Habituation") resembles
the ERP differential between the targets and nontargets of the present experiment.
Reprinted with permission.

additional chi-square analyses were performed, confirming that neither the

suit nor the color of the targets or nontargets were biased in this way.
Having ruled out likely sources of artifact and having no viable normal ex-
planation for the ERP differential, we are left with an apparent communica-
tions anomaly. Of course, one can never completely rule out the logical possi-
bility that some hidden artifact may be producing the observed effect.
However, interpreting the ERP differential which we observed as a communi-
cations anomaly, or psi, is supported by the fact that this study is the fourth
consecutive investigation in our laboratory to yield essentially the same ERP
phenomenon, and by the fact that all of the hardware and software have been
changed over the course of these four experiments. It should also be pointed
out that labeling an observed effect as psi does not explain it, but only serves to
identify it as belonging to a particular class of anomaly, i.e., that which in-
volves an ostensibly paranormal event (Rao & Palmer, 1987). Only if it were
conclusively shown to be due to an extrasensory transfer of information could
it be regarded as a genuinely paranormal event.
In addition to the work conducted at our own laboratory, a previously pub-
lished report of an ERP study on Pavlovian conditioning seems to provide fur-
 Event-Related Potentials in a Guessing Task 199

ther, independent support for our findings (Paige et al. 1987). The results of
the Paige et al. study, which was not concerned with ESP, were entirely consis-
tent with our own findings. Those investigators observed a significant ERP
difference between two tones in the habituation phase of a conditioning exper-
iment, before subjects had any normal means of knowing which of the two
stimuli would subsequently be reinforced. It can be seen in the top panel of
Figure 3 that the ERP effect observed by those investigators bears a remark-
able resemblance to our own findings (after adjusting for scale differences be-
tween our plots and theirs). The target, i.e., the subsequently-reinforced tone,
elicited a brain potential which appears more negative in the approximate
100-500 ms latency range than the ERP elicited by the nontarget, i.e., the non-
reinforced tone. This ERP differential, which the investigators measured as a
P300 component (larger for the nonreinforced tone), was reported to be statis-
tically significant; however, apparently unwilling to entertain the psi hypothe-
sis, the authors ascribed it to a Type I error.
We have previously interpreted the anomalous ERP effect as an indicator of
unconscious or preconscious precognition. That is, if a precognitive transfer
of information did in fact occur, it may be regarded as unconscious or precon-
scious, by definition, because the subjects' overt guessing accuracy did not
differ from mean chance expectation. Thus, although the subjects' conscious
guesses were not influenced by the precognitive target information, differen-
tial brain responses to target and nontarget stimuli indicated that precognitive
information transfer may have occurred outside the bounds of conscious
awareness.
If, as it presently appears, target information has been communicated anom-
alously, we must then ask: what might be the functional significance of the
anomalous ERP differential? That is, what brain process, or processes, might
be reflected in the ERP difference between targets and nontargets? Beloff
(1974) suggested that however the psychic information might get into the per-
cipient's brain in the first place, once there it will probably be treated in the
same way as information obtained through normal means. Warren et al.
(1992a) and Don et al. (1998) also argued that what we are seeing is not a novel
type of ERP component associated with the reception of psychic information
by the brain, but rather the operation of conventional information-processing
mechanisms.
A number of negative components have been described in the conventional
ERP literature which appear to reflect various aspects of information process-
ing, particularly involving attention-related cognitive processes. Although still
speculative at this stage, several of these components may offer plausible ex-
planation of the anomalous ERP effect. For example, the N2, a negative ERP
peaking at about 230-275 ms is typically elicited by infrequent stimulus
changes embedded in a train of standard stimuli, whether these deviant stimuli
are targets or nontargets (For reviews, see Donchin et al., 1978; Nagtanen,
1982). The present SW measurement epoch encompasses a centrally-domi-
200 B. E. McDonough et al.

nant negative peak at about 260 ms, which is likely to be an N2 component

(See Figure 2). Therefore, possibly the targets of the present experiment were
perceived as deviant; perhaps a psychically mediated attribute tagged the tar-
gets as deviant in the context of the nontargets, which were three times as like-
ly to occur. Interestingly from the present perspective, the N2 component has
even been associated with infrequent target stimuli which subjects failed to
consciously detect (Naatanen et al. 1982). More recently, Suwazono et al.
(2000) reported enhanced amplitude for a centrally-dominant N2 to novel vi-
sual stimuli which were not themselves targets, but which predicted the occur-
rence of subsequent target stimuli, an effect which they interpreted as an index
of an alerting system facilitating target detection.
Another negative ERP component, the processing negativity, is associated
with relatively long-duration attentional processes beginning as early as 50 ms
and commonly extending for several hundred milliseconds thereafter (For re-
view, see, Naatanen & Michie, 1979). processing, or selection, negativities are
typically observed in selective attention experiments and measured as a differ-
ence waveform obtained by subtracting the ERPs elicited by stimuli delivered
in a non-attended channel from those elicited by stimuli delivered in an attend-
ed channel. Our experimental situation was very different from the standard
selective attention paradigm in that we did not define an attended channel on
the basis of discriminable sensory attributes. Had we done so, of course, it
would have ceased to be an ESP experiment. However, if the presently ob-
served SW effect does represent a processing negativity, one could infer that
subjects allocated more attentional resources to the targets than they did to the
nontargets even though, ultimately, they did not select theill any Illore often, as
indicated by nonsignificant performance measures. Thus, the negativity might
reflect more of a pre-attentive process than a conscious allocation of attention,
as in a standard selective attention task. It might also suggest that designating a
subset of the experimental stimuli as targets, in some sense, defines an attend-
ed channel.
In a similar vein, McCallum et al. (1989) observed a negative-going fronto-
central slow wave (350-500 ms) that was greater for stimuli delivered to the
attended ear than to the nonattended ear and which may be akin to the later
portion of the present SW, which, as seen in Figure 2, likewise appears to have
a predominantly fronto-central distribution. McCallum et al. observed this
negative slow wave to be greater for a target recognition task than for a no-task
condition and to be greater for targets than for nontargets. Similarly, De Jong
et al. (1988) also observed a negative frontal slow wave which was greater for
attended than for nonattended stimuli.
In addition, seminal work by Kutas and Hillyard (1980, 1984) has shown
that a late negative ERP component, the N400, can be produced by a wide va-
riety of verbal target stimuli that deviate in meaning from the preceding
episodic or semantic context (For review, see Kutas & Van Petten, 1988).
Moreover, a number of studies have observed N400-like components, as well
 Event-Related Potentials in a Guessing Task 20 1

as an earlier N300, to be elicited by incongruous or unprimed pictorial stimuli

(Barrett et al., 1988; Barrett & Rugg, 1989, 1990; Holcomb & McPherson,
1994; McPherson & Holcomb, 1999). The earlier N300 component seems to
have a more frontal distribution than the N400 and may be specific to the pro-
cessing of pictorial information since it appears not to be elicited by verbal
stimuli (Barrett & Rugg, 1990; Holcomb & McPherson, 1994; McPherson &
Holcomb, 1999). Typically elicited in semantic priming tasks, the N300 seems
to be relatively robust with respect to eliciting conditions, having also been ob-
served in response to nonrepeated items in a continuous recognition task
(Friedman, 1990). Similarly, Smith and Halgren (1987) observed a negative
component peaking at 445 ms following presentation of photographs of novel
faces but not faces that were repeated. Therefore, perhaps the psi targets of the
present experiment were similarly perceived as incongruous, unprimed, or
novel in the context of the three-times-more-repetitive nontargets. The frontal
distribution of the N300 component described in the literature overlaps par-
tially with the later portion of the present SW, which, as seen in Figure 2, ap-
pears larger over fronto-central scalp sites, making the N300 a plausible candi-
date for explaining the anomalous SW effect. A more anterior than posterior
distribution of (the later portion of) the SW was also seen in our earlier data,
this gradient sometimes reaching significance, e.g., Warren et al. (1992a).
In this regard, although we did not analyze data recorded from the occipital
scalp sites in this study, visual inspection of Figure 2 suggests that the nega-
tive-going ERP differential between targets and nontargets observed at the
presently analyzed sites may have been expressed as a positive slow wave over
the occiput. Nash et al. (1994) also observed that a slow wave (which differen-
tiated deviant from standard tones) was negative-going when recorded from
anterior scalp sites but positive-going over posterior scalp.
The hemispheric distribution of the present SW effect also deserves mention
because of the variability observed among our four studies. In two of our pre-
vious studies, the ERP differential observed between target and nontarget
stimuli was bilaterally symmetric, whereas in another, the effect appeared
mainly over the left hemisphere. Presently, the effect appeared predominantly
over the right hemisphere. While we cannot point definitively to any factor
which might be responsible for these apparent discrepancies, we offer the fol-
lowing possibilities. First, the topographic variability among these studies may
have been partly due to differences in the EEG reference among studies. Our
earlier studies were conducted using the physically-linked ear reference fol-
lowing a decades-long standard practice in ERP research, whereas the present
study used the more recent ERP procedure of recording with a single-sided ref-
erence and then algebraically computing ERPs to "digitally-linked" ears. Sec-
ond, the evidence showing that processes related to the guessing response can
affect ERPs to task stimuli raises the strong possibility that some of the be-
tween-study variability may be due to changes in response manipulanda as our
task evolved. In our first two studies, the Apple I1 computer's game paddle
202 B. E. McDonough et al.

was used as a response manipulandum; in our third study, the newer Apple IIe
computer's joystick was used; and in the present study, conducted with an
IBM-compatible personal computer, we switched to a keyboard response.
However, although the presently observed right-hemispheric dominance of the
ERP differential was unexpected based on our previous results, the similarities
to those earlier data in terms of the morphology of the ERP effect and its rela-
tionship to stimulus category convinces us that we are seeing essentially the
same ERP phenomenon as in those previous studies.

Summary and Conclusion

The ERP differential observed between target stimuli and nontarget decoys
indicates an apparent communications anomaly, or psi, because the experi-
mental design and subsequent confirmatory tests ruled out likely normal ex-
planations of the result and no other viable conventional explanations could be
identified. That we cannot yet explain the functional significance of the ERP
differential underscores the fact that this is still a report of work-in-progress.
We use the terminology "negative Slow Wave" both because it is descriptive of
the polarity and morphology of the observed ERP effect, and because it is non-
committal as to which, if any, of the previously identified negative ERP com-
ponents it may represent. Moreover, it is quite possible that more than one kind
of negative component was elicited by our task. All we can do now is point to
the family of negativities and suggest that what we are seeing is akin in some
ways to this one or that one.
Future research should be aimed at identifying the mechanisms underlying
the ERP phenomenon, whether normal or paranormal. For example, some of
the potential artifact problems stemmed from the need to select one (out of
three) nontarget epochs from each trial for comparison with the target epochs.
Seemingly, therefore, an experimental task which used only two choice stimuli
on each trial, one target and one nontarget, would avoid this whole class of
problems. A future study could also manipulate the frequency of the target
stimuli, i.e., relative to the nontargets, a manipulation which could shed light
on the identity of the anomalous ERP, as some of the negative components dis-
cussed above are frequency sensitive. As another example, a task which did
not require subjects to guess the target would also make interpretations more
straightforward, if that could be done in a way which does not eliminate the
phenomenon.
In conclusion, the present results illustrate the usefulness of examining un-
conscious physiological indicators of ESP, where the subjects' conscious
guesses may be at chance levels. Since Beloff's initial review, other promising
results have emerged from a series of studies which examined the unconscious
autonomic detection of staring using electrodermal activity (EDA) as a depen-
dent variable (For reviews, see Braud et al. 1993a,b). Also, Radin and col-
leagues reported evidence that the EDA preceding the delivery of emotional
stimuli indicates an unconscious precognitive reactivity to future events by the
 Event-Related Potentials in a Guessing Task 203

autonomic nervous system, an effect they termed "presentiment" (Bierman,

1997; Bierman & Radin, 1997; Radin, 1996, 1998).
Finally, because a majority of neuroscientists today espouse psychoneural
identity theory, a philosophical position which denies the efficacy of con-
sciousness, and who thereby also have little sympathy for parapsychology, it is
appropriate to say a few words here in defense of the minority opinion, i.e.,
against the epiphenomenalist or materialist viewpoint. For one, physical cau-
sation is always imperfect or incomplete. For example, there is always some
degree of randomness following from quantum indeterminacy, and this 'loose-
ness of fit' may allow room for consciousness to influence the brain without
violating physical law (For an elaboration of this argument, see Hodgson,
1994). Second, the mere fact that there exist correlations between mental
events and brain events does nothing to indicate the direction of causation and
so cannot be considered to unambiguously support the epiphenomenalist iden-
tity thesis. That is, the observation of mind-brain correlations is also consistent
with the opposing view that conscious (or unconscious) mental events may
sometimes influence the physical brain rather than only the other way around.
While identity theory, a variant of materialism, does not necessarily preclude
the existence of ESP phenomena, other philosophically permissible solutions
to the mind-body problem, such as interactionist dualism or idealism, which
view consciousness as causally efficacious and having an existence separate
from (not reducible to) that of matter, would seem more amenable to the possi-
bility of ESP. On this later view, it is perhaps not so farfetched to wonder
whether immaterial mind might sometimes slip past the physical barriers of
space and time.

Acknowledgment
This article was based on a paper presented (under a different title) at the
42nd Annual Convention of the Parapsychology Association, Palo Alto, CA,
August 4-8, 1999. We gratefully acknowledge the Kairos Foundation for their
generous support of this project.

Endnotes
' Random numbers between 1 and 4 were generated by the RRANGE func-
tion included in the MEL software (version 1.0), seeded by the pulse count of
the system timer. A frequency test on 1000 numbers generated by this function
did not indicate significant deviations from randomness, = 0.296, d . j = 3,
n.s. The serial dependency of the algorithm's output was not tested; however,
given that each subject experienced only 80 trials, it seems extremely unlikely
that they could have detected and used to their advantage any slight deviations
from randomness that may have existed.
or every subject, one of the three nontargets presented on each trial was
initially selected for analysis as follows: The output of the rand() function
204 B. E. McDonough et al.

from Microsoft C/C++ version 7.0 (seeded using the time() function) was
scaled to give an integer between 1 and 4, and then we took the corresponding
decoy as the nontarget for that trial. If that number was the same as the target,
a new random number was generated.
After forming the initial nontarget lists, in order to balance the number of
guessed stimuli between the target and nontarget categories for each subject,
the initial lists were modified by deleting randomly selected target or nontar-
get epochs from each subject, as needed, to match the number of guessed stim-
uli in these two categories. The particular trials which were deleted for this
purpose were selected by using random numbers taken from the RAND Table
(Rand Corporation, 1955) starting at an arbitrary entry point. For some of the
random numbers, table entry was accomplished by holding the scroll-down
key of the computer keyboard for several seconds (after loading an electronic
copy of the table into the Microsoft MS-DOS text editor, version 2.0.026),
using as a starting point the beginning of the row that the cursor landed on. For
other random numbers, we used the output of a hand calculator's random func-
tion to select a row number for entering the table, again taking random num-
bers starting at the beginning of the indicated row. The reason we used random
numbers from the RAND tables for this analysis instead of getting algorithmic
random numbers, as we did previously, is because this analysis was conducted
after all programming and data collection were completed, and we did not
wish to do additional programming in order to obtain random numbers. Ad-
dressing an anonymous reviewer's concern, we note that in all instances the se-
lection of random numbers was made blind to the EEG data and so could not
have biased the results.
"ecause of equipment malfunction, six subjects did not perform the
planned 40 guessing trials; therefore, the numbers of such trials did not pre-
cisely equal 800 (20 subjects X 40 trialslsubject).
o n e could argue that the task may have involved clairvoyance rather than
precognition because the "random" target selection was made by a completely
deterministic process, i.e., a pseudorandom algorithm seeded at the start of the
session by the system clock. Thus, although the target-selection algorithm was
not invoked, nor was feedback presented to the subject, until several seconds
after stimulus delivery, the information about the targets' identity already ex-
isted as electronic code at the time of stimulus delivery and, in principle at
least, might have been clairvoyantly accessible. However, this argument can-
not account for the comparable results obtained in our earlier studies, which
used a true, hardware-based RNG for target selection.

References
Barrett, S. E., & Rugg, M. D. (1989). Event-related potentials and the semantic matching of faces.
Neuropsychologia, 27,913-922.
Barrett, S. E., & Rugg, M. D. (1990). Event-related potentials and the semantic matching of pic-
tures. Brain and Cognition, 14, 201-212.
 Event-Related Potentials in a Guessing Task 205

Barrett, S. E., Rugg, M. D., & Perrett, D. 1. (1988). Event-related potentials and the matching of
familiar and unfamiliar faces. Neuropsychologia, 26, 105-1 17.
Beloff, J. (1974). ESP: The search for a physiological index. Journal (#the Society for Psychical
Research, 47,403-420.
Bierman, D. J. (1997). Emotion and intuition 1,11,II1, IV & V: Unravelling variables contributing
to the presentiment effect. In The Parapsychological A.ssociation 40th Annual Convention:
Proceedings of Presented Papers (pp. 49-62).
Bierman, D. J., & Radin, D. I. (1997). Anomalous anticipatory response on randomized future
conditions. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 84,689-690.
Braud, W., Shafer, D., & Andrews, S. (1993a). Reactions to an unseen gaze (remote attention): A
review, with new data on autonomic staring detection. Journal of Parapsychology, 57,
373-390.
Braud, W., Shafer, D., & Andrews, S. (1993b). Further studies of autonomic detection of remote
staring: Replications, new control procedures, and personality correlates. Journal of Parapsy-
chology, 57, 39 1-409.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Ana1y.si.s for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
De Jong, H. L., Kok, A., & van Rooy, J. C. G. M. (1988). Early and late selection in young and old
adults: An event-related potential study, Psychophysiology, 25, 657-671.
Don, N. S., McDonough, B. E., & Warren, C. A. (1 998). Event-related brain potential (ERP) indi-
cators of unconscious psi: A replication using subjects unselected for psi. Journal of Parapsy-
chology, 62, 127-1 45.
Donchin, E., Ritter, W., & McCallum, W. C. (1978). Cognitive psychophysiology: The endoge-
nous components of the ERP. In Callaway, E., Tueting, P., & Koslow, S. H. (Eds.), Event Relat-
ed Brain Potentials in Man (pp. 349-4 1 1). New York: Academic Press.
Friedman, D. (1990). Cognitive event-related potential (ERP) components during continuous
recognition memory for pictures. Psychophysiology, 27, 136-148.
Grinberg-Zylberbaum, J., Delaflor, M., Arellano, M. E. S., Guevara, M. A., & Perez, M. (1993).
Human communication and the electrophysiological activity of the brain. Subtle Energies, 3,
25-43.
Hartwell, J. W. (1978). Contingent negative variation as an index of precognitive information. Eu-
ropean Journal of Parapsychology 83-103.
Hodgson, D. (1994). Neuroscience and folk psychology: An overview. Journal of Consciousness
Studies, 1, 205-2 1 6.
Holcomb, P. J., & McPherson, W. B. (1994). Event-related brain potentials reflect semantic prim-
ing in an object decision task. Brain and Cognition, 24, 259-276.
Honorton, C. (1987). Precognition and real-time ESP performance in a computer task with an ex-
ceptional subject. Journal of Parapsychology, 51,291-321.
Jasper, H. H. (1958). The ten-twenty system of the international federation. Electroencephalogra-
phy and Clinical Neurophysiology, 10, 37 1-375.
Kutas, M., & Hillyard, S. (1980). Reading senseless sentences: Brain potentials retlect semantic
incongruity. Science, 207, 203-205.
Kutas, M., & Hillyard, S. (1984). Brain potentials during reading reflect word expectancy and se-
mantic association. Nature, 307, 161-163.
Kutas, M., & Van Petten, C. (1988). Event-related brain potential studies of language. In Ackles, P.
K., Jennings, J. R., & Coles, M. G. H. (Eds.), Advances in Psychophysiology (pp. 139-1 87).
Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Levin, J., & Kennedy, J. (1975). The relationship of slow cortical potentials to psi information in
man. Journal of Parapsychology, 39, 25-26.
Lloyd, D. H. (pseudonym) (1973). Objective events in the brain correlating with psychic phenom-
ena. New Horizons, 1, 69-75.
McCallum, W. C., Barrett, K., & Pocock, P. V. (1989). Late components of auditory event-related
potentials to eight equiprobable stimuli in a target detection task. Psychophysiology, 26,
683-694.
McDonough, B. E., Don, N. S., & Warren, C. A. (1999). Event-related brain potentials (ERPs) to
psi targets: Disentangling effects of topography, latency, and relationship to subjects' guesses.
In Dalton, K. S. (Ed.), The Parapsychological Association 42ndAnnual Convention: Proceed-
ings of Presented Papers (pp.189-201). Palo Alto, CA.
206 B. E. McDonough et al.

McDonough, B. E., Warren, C. A., & Don, N. S. (1992). Event-related potentials in a guessing
task: The gleam in the eye effect. International Journal of Neuroscience, 65, 209-219.
McPherson, W. B., & Holcomb, P. J. (1999). An electrophysiological investigation of semantic
priming with pictures of real objects. Psychophysiology, 36, 53-65.
Millar, B. (1979). The "Lloyd" effect. European Journal of Parapsychology, 2, 38 1-395.
Naatanen, R. (1982). The N2 component of the evoked potential: A scalp reflection of neuronal
mismatch of orienting theory. In Strelau, J., Farley, F., & Gale, A. (Eds.), Biological Founda-
tions of Personality and Behavior. Washington: Hemisphere Press.
Naatanen, R., & Michie, P. (1979). Early selective-attention effects on the evoked potential: A
critical review and reinterpretation. Biological Psychology, 8, 81-136.
Naatanen, R., Simpson, M., & Loveless, N. E. (1982). Stimulus deviance and event-related brain
potentials. Biological Psychology, 14,53-98.
Nash, A., Peralme, L., & Jasiukaitis, P. (1994). The effects of magnitude and direction of stimulus
change on auditory event-related potentials elicited by deviant signal stimuli. Biological Psy-
chology, 37, 2 19-234.
Paige, S. R., Newton, J. E. O., Reese, W. G., & Dykman, R. A. (1987). Pavlovian conditioning of
cortical event-related potentials. In Johnson, R., Jr., Rohrbaugh, J. W., & Parasuraman, R.
(Eds.), Current Trends in Event-Related Potential Research, EEG Suppl. 40 (pp. 355-359).
Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Radin, D. I. (1996). Unconscious perception of future emotion. In The Parapsychological Associ-
ation 39th Annual Convention: Proceedings of Presented Papers (pp. 171-185). San Diego,
C A.
Radin, D. I. (1998). Further investigation of unconscious differential anticipatory responses to fu-
ture emotions. In The Parapsychological Association 4 l s t Annual Convention: Proceedings of
Presented Papers (pp. 162-183). Halifax, Nova Scotia.
Rand Corporation (1955). A Million Random Digits and 100,000 Normal Deviates. Glencoe, IL:
Free Press.
Rao, K. R., & Palmer, J. (1987). The anomaly called psi: Recent research and criticism. Behav-
ioral and Bruin Sciences, 10, 539-551.
Silverman, J., & Buchsbaum, M. S. (1970). Perceptual correlates of consciousness: A conceptual
model and its technical implications for psi research. In Cavanna (Ed.),psi Favorable States of
Consciousness: Proceedings of an International Conference on Methodology in psi Research
(pp. 143-169). New York: Parapsychological Foundation.
Smith, M. E., & Halgren, E. (1987). Event-related potentials elicited by familiar and unfamiliar
faces. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, Suppl. 40, 422-426.
Suwazono, S., Machado, L., & Knight, R. T. (2000). Predictive value of novel stimulus modifies
visual event-related potentials and behavior. Clinical Neurophysiology, 111, 29-39.
Walter, G., Cooper, R., Aldridge, V., McCallum, W., & Winter, A. (1964). Contingent negative
variation: An electrical sign of sensorimotor association and expectancy in the human brain.
Nature, 203, 380-384.
Warren, C. A., McDonough, B. E., & Don, N. S. (1992a). Event-related brain potential changes in
a psi task. Journal of Parapsychology, 56, 1-30.
Warren, C. A., McDonough, B. E., & Don, N. S. (1992b). Partial replication of single subject
event-related potential effects in a psi task. In Cook, E. (Ed.), The ParapsychologicalAssocia-
tion 35th Annual Convention: Proceedings of Presented Papers (pp. 169-1 81). Parapsycho-
logical Association, Inc.
Warren, C. A., & McDonough, B. E. (1995). Positive event-related potentials to real and dummy
rule-learning feedback and to perceptuomotor feedback. Electroencephalography and Clinical
Neurophy.siology, 94, 60-79.
Journal of Scientific Exploration, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 207-224,2002 0892-33 10102
02002 Society for Scientific Exploration

Stigmatic Phenomena: An Alleged Case in Brazil

Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center,

Sun Francisco, CA 94133-4640
e-mail: skrippner@saybrook edu

Abstract-The term "stigmata" refers to apparent bleeding from areas of the

body corresponding to the wounds of Jesus Christ during crucifixion. A con-
temporary ostensible case of stigmata is described, the experient being a
Brazilian male who was raised as a Muslim. Commonalities with other expe-
rients (or "stigmatics") are identified. Psychophysiological explanations are
considered, especially those that see the stigmata as evidence of various types
of psychogenic bleeding, post-traumatic bleeding, somatization, and/or dis-
sociation. Even so, those who experience the stigmata may be experiencing
meaningful spiritual growth and development as well. On the other hand,
several stigmatics have been found to self-inflict their wounds, perhaps as an
attention-getting strategy.
Keywords: stigmata-dissociation-somatization

Introduction
"Stigmata" is the plural form of the noun "stigma," a term for markings on, or
bleeding from, areas of the body corresponding to the wounds of the crucified
Jesus Christ. These marks include the hands (or wrists) and feet wounded by
nails, the side of the body wounded by a spear, the back and shoulders wound-
ed by scourging and carrying a cross, and the forehead wounded by punctures
from a ringlet of thorns. From the sixth century B.C.E. to the fourth century
C.E. when crucifixion was ended in Rome, it was the form of punishment often
used for captives, criminals, pirates, and troublemakers. Berger and Berger
(1991) note "It is an enigmatic fact that no manifestations have ever been re-
ported on the bodies of non-Christians" (p. 408). Therefore, this report on
Amyr Amiden, a Brazilian stigmatic who was raised as a Muslim, constitutes
an exception to this observation.

From St. Francis to Padre Pio

Although stigmata are generally believed to date back to 1224 and Francis
of Assisi, Berger and Berger (1991, p. 408) suggest that St. Paul might have re-
ferred to them when he said to the Galatians, "I bear on my body the marks of
the Lord Jesus" (Galatians 6:17). In any event, since the days of Francis of As-
sisi, some 330 pious Roman Catholics have been known stigmatics, among
208 Krippner

them the German nun Anne Catherine Emmerich, the German saint Lidwina
of Schiedam, the German mystic Theresa Neumann, and the Italian priest
Padre Pio (Berger & Berger, 1991, p. 408; Nickell, 2000; Ratnoff, 1969).
Thurston (1952) notes that the Roman Catholic church takes a cautionary po-
sition regarding Padre Pio's stigmata, being "wisely disdainful of abnormal
favours of the psychophysical order in which hysterical and other pathological
causes, or even fraudulent simulation, may at any time play a part" (p. 96).
Nickel1 (2000) has produced several scenarios by which a person could simu-
late stigmata (e.g., inflicting wounds on one's body which are hidden with cos-
metics until the "bleeding" is expected to occur), even demonstrating one of
them himself. As a result, the use of the term "stigmatics" in this report takes
no position as to the etiology of the wounds.
Most typically, visible stigmata have consisted of bruises, welts, and bleed-
ing wounds on the hands, feet, head, back, and/or sides. Some experients bleed
every day; some bleed every Friday or on particular Fridays. Their skin texture
varies, from reddened epidermis and blood blisters to wounds that require ban-
daging. A few stigmatics have had nine or ten such marks on their body at
once, but most have had less (Murphy, 1992, p. 484). According to the Roman
Catholic Church, to qualify as a stigmatic the wounds need to be accompanied
by reported feelings of ecstasy, or rapture, and that the bleeding is sacred. Ac-
cording to his verbal reports, this characterized Amiden, and was also the case
with Padre Pio, who sometimes bled after he saw an apparition of a celestial
person who hurled a spear at him (p. 493). Marie Rose Ferron, who moved
from Canada to Rhode Island in 1925, was bedridden and partially paralyzed
for the last decade of her life. In 1926, marks representing the wounds of
Christ's flagellation appeared on her arms; in 1927, stigmata formed on her
hands and feet; in 1928, punctures began to bleed on her forehead. She spent
much of her time in prayer and a number of devotees were attracted by her
deep spirituality despite her afflictions (p. 496).
Arthur Otto Moock, a resident of Hamburg, Germany, exhibited wounds in
his hands, feet, and side that bled profusely every four weeks or so from 1933
to 1956. Not a Roman Catholic, and not particularly religious, he asked sever-
al physicians to cure him, but they had no success (Murphy, 1992, p. 496). This
may have been a case of what some observers have described as "hysterical
stigmata," which appear in highly suggestible people, but without reports of
ecstasy and other mystical phenomena. Some psychoanalysts have provided
psychodynamic explanations for these phenomena. For example, the psychia-
trist Ernest Hadley (1930) described a patient who bled from his left armpit
during at least seven regular monthly cycles. Hadley believed the bleeding rep-
resented his patient's identification with females. Menstruation symbolized
both a defense against sexual assault and female innocence; his patient had
identified the armpit with the vagina since childhood. Lord (1957) adds such
motives as the desire to avoid menstruation by suffering periodic wounding, an
urge to punish oneself for masturbatory impulses, and a longing to identify
 Stigmatic Phenomena: An Alleged Case in Brazil 209

with a non-sexual lover. (Most female experients are stigmatized between the
ages of 15 and 50, the years during which women menstruate; stigmata, like
periods, are also cyclical.)
In addition to these psychoanalytic explanations, Thurston (1952) believes
that stigmata are of hysterical origin, and Wilson (1989) links them to disso-
ciative identity disorders. The case for the supernatural foundations of stigma-
ta has been made by Summers (1950), while Nickel1 (1996, 1999, 2000) be-
lieves they are self-induced. Nickel1 (1996) and other scoffers often point to
the case of Magdelena de la Cruz, who lived from 1487 to 1560. Her religious
ecstasies and stigmata impressed the Spanish nobility for years, but eventually
she confessed that they were fraudulent. Maria de la Visitation, born in 1556,
was exposed by a fellow nun who caught her painting a stigmatic wound onto
her hand. Her physicians defended her, but the Inquisition's examiners
scrubbed away her wounds to reveal unblemished flesh (Nickell, 1996; Wil-
son, 1989).
Nickel1 (1 999), a member of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation
of Claims of the Paranormal, points out that a contemporary stigmatic, Katya
Rivas from Bolivia, was filmed in her bed, where "the covers provided ample
means for concealment of an object that might cut her skin" (p. 61). He even
asserts that Francis of Assisi's stigmata may have been deceptions motivated
by the saint's zealous imitation of Jesus Christ. However, Francis withheld
news of the stigmata, and they were not revealed until after his death. Francis'
confidants, Brother Elias and Brother Leo, attested to their appearance (Mur-
phy, 1992, p. 485) and since the early nineteenth century, many kinds of stig-
mata have been carefully documented, some by skeptical medical researchers
(p. 486).

Louise Lateau and Eva McIsaac

Wilson (1989) has presented two case histories, those of Louise Lateau and
Eva McIsaac, that argue against trickery as the sole explanation of stigmata.
Lateau reported ecstatic experiences that accompanied bleeding from points
on her hands, feet, forehead, and side. These manifestations occurred with
clockwork regularity every Friday up to her death in 1883 at the age of thirty-
three, an estimated total of some 800 occurrences (p. 36; Myers, 1903, p. 493).
At the age of 18, the first year in which she manifested stigmata, Lateau made
herself available to a physician who specialized in "nervous disorders." Ac-
cording to Wilson (1989), "these scientific tests on Louise Lateau went as far
as any at the present time. They indicate that in the case of Louise, at least,
something genuinely spontaneous and free from physical contrivance was re-
sponsible for her bleedings" (p. 40).
A more recent case was that of Eva McIsaac, a Canadian housewife. Her
wounds included a side-wound manifesting and becoming particularly deep
and painful. The wounds in her hands penetrated deeper "until they seemed to
reach through to her palms, and those in her feet to the soles.. . Eva's wounds
210 Krippner

remained visible but dry and pain-free during the rest of the week, but on Fri-
day evenings between six and nine they flared up with such intensity that some
witnesses are said to have fainted" (pp. 54-55).
McIsaac freely made herself available for intensive medical examinations.
One of these, in 1945, lasted for three weeks; another, in 1946, lasted for two
weeks. "Such was the thoroughness and intensity of these that she was not left
alone for a single moment day or night." A Protestant physician, one of
McIsaac's observers, described the scene: "Gradually the hands and the other
wounds began to bleed. The wounds on the back bled only a few drops.. . The
others bled a good deal.. . By nine o'clock her face was covered in blood from
the head wounds and her hair was matted with it" (Wilson, 1989, pp. 56-57).
Wilson concluded, "Here we have a direct attestation of stigmatic wounds
manifesting spontaneously under controlled conditions" (p. 57).
Most cases of stigmatics were not subjected to such exhaustive examina-
tions. Even when such precautions occurred, the presence of a magician or
sleight-of-hand expert was notably absent. There are many ways to evoke
wounds, ranging from layers of false skin to hidden vials of blood, ranging
from the claimant's own blood, to animal blood or red food coloring.

Lunch in Brasilia
My first meeting with Amyr Amiden dates back to 17 February 1993, when
a Brazilian psychologist, Dr. Maggie de Carvalho, and I led a tour group of 20
people through Brazil. This trip was sponsored by the Institute of Noetic Sci-
ences, and included four days in Brasilia, where we spent an afternoon at the
Foundation of the City of Peace. The founder of the City of Peace and its affil-
iated International Holistic University, Dr. Pierre Weil, had persuaded Amyr
Amiden to join our group for lunch.
Amiden told us that he had been born on 5 July 194 1, and that he worked as
an importer and also as a government workers' union secretary. At that time,
he lived in Brasilia, the capital city of Brazil. Of Syrian and Iranian descent,
Amiden told us that he had been raised in the Muslim faith but now finds in-
spiration in all religions. He also told us that his maternal grandfather was sur-
rounded by unusual events and exerted considerable control over many of
them. One of his brothers fought for the Allies in World War I1 (Krippner et al.,
1994).
A member of our group later wrote, "I was sitting in the lunch room about
four feet behind Amyr at the City of Peace. I heard Dr. Weil say, 'Here it goes
again.' His statement was in response to hearing something drop and bounce
inside the room. Shortly thereafter, Stanley Krippner.. . walked over and re-
trieved a small polished black stone encased in mud from the floor. I watched
with interest as they discussed it. At that moment, no one in our group, except
Dr. Krippner, knew that Amyr seemingly manifested apports, i.e., appeared to
be able to produce physical objects through mediumistic abilities. Dr. Krippn-
er asked Amyr if he felt that the phenomena happened through the work of
 Stigmatic Phenomena: An Alleged Case in Brazil 211

some spiritual force or entity operating in him. Dr. Krippner mentioned the
name 'Christ' in this dialogue. Instantly, Amyr began to bleed from his palms
and the backs of his hands. A dark red mark also appeared on his forehead. This
phenomenon, called stigmata, allegedly indicates that an individual so heavily
identifies with Christ that they express the marks of the crucifixion.. . Interest-
ingly, Amyr is a Muslim although he was ecumenical in presenting his beliefs."
Another group member wrote, "After arriving, we were conducted to the
restaurant and had an excellent vegetarian lunch. Lunch was almost over and I
was standing close to where Stan Krippner and a stranger were sitting. Sudden-
ly, something fell to the ground with a slight noise. It looked like a small piece
of mud about 2" by 1" by I". I paid no attention but Stan picked it up and found
a smooth stone.. . inside, about 112" in diameter.. . Whilst talking at lunch with
Stan, the conversation with the stranger shifted to Jesus Christ. At this mention
of Jesus, red spots appeared on the backs of each hand of the stranger and on
the palms. We were invited to look at this manifestation of the stigmata. The
stranger was introduced as Amyr Amiden. He is of medium height and has a
grey beard. He was born in Brazil into an Islamic family, although all religions
are the same to him now."
A third member of the group observed that "it first appeared to be a bruise on
both hands, and then blood appeared on both surfaces of the hands and fore-
head." A fourth group member added, "I have heard of stigmata occurring in
individuals before but have never observed it. I noticed a red spot the size of a
quarter in the center of the back of each hand with a slight evidence of blood
on one hand and one thumb. I also was aware of a red spot in the center of his
forehead."
I recalled that beet salad had been served at lunch, and speculated whether
the red fluid that appeared on Amiden's body could have been beet juice; how-
ever, I was reluctant to ask permission to taste the fluid. After asking Amiden's
permission, I invited the group to file past Amiden to observe the phenome-
non.

An Interview at the City of Peace

A member of our group recalled that, "We then moved to the lecture room.
Weil gave a brief description of the origin and aims of the City of Peace, and
then the meeting was thrown open to questions to Amyr. Apparently, his father
and grandfather were 'sensitive.'. . . All his siblings were 'sensitive,' but only
he and his grandfather manifested 'apports'-the anomalous appearance of
objects with no easily discernible source. Amyr claims he 'astral travels' and
can travel at will and return with information which can be checked later. He
says there have been reports of his bilocation, but he has no control or aware-
ness when this occurs. He has healing abilities and has healed a few lepers in
the early stages of their illness but not in later stages. Lights are often seen in
his presence when apports occur."
Once our group was seated in a circle, Weil passed around an ornate cup that
212 Krippner

had been resting on a table in the lecture room; he described it as a communion

chalice. A group member recalled that "water was in the cup when I held it in
the circle." Another participant remembered that "several people claim that
there was no water in the cup when they inspected it. However, they claim to
have smelled blood and to have observed what they took to be dried blood in
the chalice, as well as on the fabric that covered the table." It was also noted
that Pierre Weil "showed us a chalice that Amyr held shortly before we arrived.
What appeared to be blood covered a cross on one side of the chalice. Dr. Weil
explained that when Amyr picked up the chalice, the blood exuded from the
cross. I picked it up for a closer inspection and, after looking closely at the
marks inside and out, I passed it around to the rest of our group. When it re-
turned, created within it were several communion wafers that had not been
there when it left my hands. To the best of my knowledge, the chalice was in
the hands, or within plain sight, of our group the entire time."
In these accounts there are two possible discrepancies. One person reported
that there was dried blood "in the chalice," while another recalled blood "on
one side of the chalice." One observer reported the anomalous appearance of
"water" in the chalice but another one recalled the appearance of "communion
wafers.''
A group member wrote in her diary that Amiden "is a few inches taller than
me, perhaps 5' 10". Heavy fluffy beard turning gray, the beginning of balding
on top of his head, hair neatly combed to the neck. He works in a government
job but is on leave for health reasons-angina, rapid pulse, heart-so he helps
his brother's import business. On weekends he often helps out at a leper
colony. He does not cure but gives them much energy. He is now divorced, has
a 15-year-old son who is also 'blessed,' in other words a sensitive. Actually,
all his family are sensitives but his paternal grandfather and father, Amyr him-
self, and his son have power beyond being sensitive."
Our afternoon session with Amiden was neither videotaped nor audiotaped,
yet there is a general agreement regarding most of the anomalous events that
occurred. But this was not a consensus; there were differences in recall con-
cerning some minor, but still important, details.
That evening, Amiden accepted our invitation to join us for dinner at our
hotel. One participant later wrote in her diary, "He has marvelous large brown
eyes. I sat to his right at dinner and while it took some courage to look at him
and into his eyes, once I did I felt drawn in and completely connected. I felt I
knew him but I am also drawn to what I consider tragic figures. Maggie, who
translated for him, was to his left. So most of the time he was facing her.. .. At
dinner, as I said, I sat to Amyr's right but had not spoken to him except for eye
contact. He told Maggie that I calmed him. He produced more stones on the
floor, on laps, etc. I received no stones and asked for nothing."
On this occasion, one participant audiotaped the conversation and another
one videotaped it. The former group member later recalled, "When the tape
picked up the conversation, Amyr was relating an incident that had taken place
 Stigmatic Phenomena: An Alleged Case in Brazil 213

at this hotel some time before-at the time of the inauguration of the President
of Brazil. At that time, in Amyr's presence, blood had appeared on a crystal. At
that time someone had inquired as to the significance of this occurrence. Amyr
had replied, at the time when the event occurred, that he believed it to be sym-
bolic of the suffering that the Brazilian people would experience. Amyr fur-
ther related to us that ..., as if to verify the precognitive impression, the very
next day the people of Brazil had their bank accounts impounded and began to
suffer."
Several members of our group had questions for Amiden, whose answers
were translated by Maggie de Carvalho, my co-leader.

Questioner: What was the meaning of this blood?

Amiden: I think it was the blood of the Brazilian people ....
The ex-Pres-
.
ident.. did a terrible, crazed thing with our money. He held all the money
.. ..
of every Brazilian.. I saw the suffering.. It was bleeding, blood.
Questioner: How did you know this?
Amiden: Whenever I have information about something, I hear a femi-
nine voice. I never see her but it's a feminine voice that talks to me.
Questioner: This is the process?
Amiden: That's right. And this feminine voice told me that this whole
thing in Brazil is a process of purification for the country.
Questioner: Is it the same feminine voice each time?
Amiden: Yes, it is.
Questioner: Are you conscious when you hear this?
Amiden: Yes, I am conscious. I always follow the voice. It's always a
message for me.... I feed the poor people every fifteen days. So I go to a
very poor and violent neighborhood every fifteen days and make soup for
300 people. And there was a time when the authorities wouldn't let me do
this because they said I was bringing a violent crowd together and that
was dangerous. And they said I was bringing criminals and prostitutes to
this place. But perhaps one of the prostitutes was my sister in a former life.
Yes, it's very difficult to help people. My father had told me to help feed
people because with an empty stomach you can't hear words of wisdom.
Questioner: What do you do to grow spiritually?
Amiden: I live alone, so I have time to read the Bible, and about the
Muslims and the Jews. They fight so much in the Middle East. But the suf-
fering is for their development.
Questioner: They don't seem to be learning anything.
Amiden: It's a process they have to go through.
Questioner: My daughter is in another dimension. Can you help me to under-
stand .'
Amiden: You can think about helping children in this dimension. The
first thing you can do when you go back to the United States is to look for
children who need help. What is your religion?
214 Krippner

Questioner: I a m Jewish.
Amiden: Then we are cousins because I am Muslim.

One group member saw Amiden the following day, recalling, "He seemed
weary and exhausted. He said every month for about ten days he develops
great thirst and needs to drink much water, tea, or coffee. He loses weight, and
his saliva tastes acidic. During this time, phenomena occur, and he has greater
healing power." Another participant noted that Amiden had told her that he
"renews" himself by praying, taking frequent baths, drinking large amounts of
water, and by surrounding himself with the color green. According to my
notes, "Every month something like this happens.. . Before the phenomena
occur the saliva tastes acidic.. . . He drinks much water, strong tea and coffee,
loses weight, and takes many baths and showers.. . . The signs that phenomena
would happen started a week ago Wednesday and lasted for 10 days. Blood will
come in spots on his legs, then will disappear. He does considerable healing
during this time."

Exceptional Human Experiences

Were these anomalous events what parapsychologists would refer to as "psi
phenomena"? Parapsychology is the scientific study of "psi phenomena"-
those interactions between organisms and their environment (including other
organisms) that appear to bypass mainstream Western science's understanding
of time, space, and energy. But a particular phenomenon can only be consid-
ered "psi" when it is performed under "psi task" conditions, those that rule out
any ordinary explanation. Hence, the events surrounding Amiden during our
visit of 17 February 1993 were certainly puzzling, ostensibly even anomalous.
But they could not be classified as "psi" because they occurred under informal
conditions that did not rule out alternative explanations. There are many psy-
chic claimants who, on closer inspection, have turned out to be sleight-of-hand
specialists.
In November 1994, I sent a questionnaire to the other authors of this report.
It was based on Rhea White's concept of "exceptional human experience" and
the potential they offer for shifts and changes in one's worldviews and activi-
ties. The questionnaire asked: (1) "Would you consider the encounter with
Amyr Amiden an 'exceptional human experience'?" (2) "If so, what portion
of the encounter was the most 'exceptional'?" (3) "Now that a year and one
half has passed since you had the encounter with Amyr Amiden, have you no-
ticed any aftereffects?"
Ten members of the tour group responded to the questionnaire. They all an-
swered affirmatively to the first question. The aspects that were felt to be the
most exceptional included the "falling stones," "the blood on the goblet," "the
stigmata," "the numerous apports," "the objects being materialized," and "ac-
cess into the process and content of a dimension of mind that most of us are un-
 Stigmatic Phenomena: An Alleged Case in Brazil 215

able to penetrate." One respondent added, "This was the most significant expe-
rience of my life."
Six individuals listed life-changing aftereffects: "For a while, the stone I
found felt as if it had a special energy." "The time with Amyr was so out of my
ordinary experience that my mind is still uncomfortable about it; I've only told
a few selected frie'nds about this experience." "Many of his materializations
could be accomplished by a skilled magician, but the crystal dropping at my
feet when no one was near me convinced me that this was for 'real'." "The ex-
perience with Amyr.. . reshaped my core thinking, cracked a boundary, open-
ing to me an awareness of.. . the enormous potentialities of expanded con-
sciousness and how limited is our use of our own minds." "I returned from
Brazil 'different'. .. with an understanding of things I didn't have before, espe-
cially about the dynamics of energy in human interaction and healing." "This
experience had profound implications for the nature of reality; my nuts-and-
bolts world had fallen apart."
For the four other members of the group, the aftereffects simply reinforced a
previous worldview: "The experience has not altered my thinking because I
have had many contacts with mediums and sensitives in the last few decades."
"It did not change my thinking or feeling because that had happened many
years ago with my earlier experiences." "It reinforced knowledge that we on
planet Earth are part of a much larger universe." "The apparent materializa-
tions of various objects... were powerful and well-implanted in my memory"
(Krippner et al., 1994).

A Return to Brasilia
In March 1994, I returned to Brasilia to work with a seven-person team
studying the anomalous phenomena occurring in the presence of Amyr Ami-
den, events over which he claimed to have little conscious control. We spent
several hours a day with Amiden, who joined us after his occupational duties
had been completed (Krippner et al., 1996).
The settings for our work varied, but most of them were in Weil's office,
where we sat in comfortable chairs around a table. Amiden drove to the Foun-
dation, was met in the lobby by one or more team members, and escorted to the
office so that there could be no occasion on which Amiden entered the room
prior to the session. Several sessions were held in the campus Meditation
House; I investigated this site each morning to be sure it contained no unusual
objects which could later be labeled "materializations."' When the restaurant
was the setting, Amiden entered and left with other group members. From the
time that he arrived at the Foundation to the time that he departed, Amiden
was in the presence of one or more member of the group.
When one or more team members felt that an unusual event had indeed oc-
curred, Ruth Kelson, a Brazilian physician, and I took field notes. Periodically,
three members of the team rated each of these events on a five-point Anomaly
Observation Scale I had constructed. It ranged from 1 (no apparent anomaly)
216 Krippner

and 2 (slight degree), to 3 (moderate degree) and 4 (high degree), to 5 (extraor-

dinary degree of apparent anomaly). The mean of each set of ratings was used
for comparative purposes; the research design stated that an event would have
to have a mean rating of 2.1 or higher to be considered an "apparent anomaly,"
a non-ordinal number selected to divide events which were felt to be easily un-
derstandable from those that were a~llbiguousor difficult to explain.
For example, four black marks on Weil's bedroom door were observed by
another member of our team; this event was given a mean rating of 1.0 because
Weil recalled that a poster had been taped on his door a week earlier. While our
group was seated in Pierre Weil's office, a religious medallion appeared to
drop on to the floor from the ceiling; this event received a mean rating of 5.0,
as did the similar appearance of another medallion a few minutes later. A mean
rating of 3.7 was given to a series of static-like blips heard when a radio was
tuned between two bands, blips which answered questions given in both Por-
tuguese and English (one blip = "yes," two blips = "no").
Over a time span of eight days, a total of 20 sessions was held with Amiden;
using a five-point evaluation scale, 91 events were judged to have been appar-
ently anomalous while 6 events failed to meet the predetermined criteria. One
of the anomalous events was the appearance of stigmata that were observed on
14 and 15 March. The field notes I made on those days stated that "red, blood-
like liquid is seen on the front and back of Amiden's right and left hands." Dr.
Kelson's notes were similar; her personal examination of Amiden's hands
convinced her that the fluid was, indeed, blood. I noted a beatific smile emerge
on Amiden's face when he thrust forward his hands to exhibit the markings.
One day, Weil took a metal chalice from his bookcase and began to tell us
how small drops of blood and a communion wafer had appeared in the chalice
under anomalous conditions some months prior to our meeting. Amiden asked
a member of our group to allow the silver-colored chalice to balance itself
upon the palm of his hand while he himself placed both of his hands at a 1" to
2" distance from the top of the object. This took about 15 seconds, at which
time Weil asked one of us to place the object on the table. Amiden asked us all
to place our hands around the chalice without touching the metal. Amiden
placed his own hands at a 1" to 2" distance from our hands that were in closer
proximity to the object. We engaged in this activity for about 15 to 20 seconds,
after which time Amiden suggested that we remove our hands.
Then Amiden placed his hands near the chalice, but without touching it.
Weil picked up the chalice and observed that an oil-like liquid formation had
appeared which had a distinct perfume smell. Then the chalice was passed
around so that we all could see and smell the oil; like the substance that
seemed to have appeared in the chalice.
We also had the opportunity to inspect a large photograph of Gandhi that
Weil had brought from his bookcase. Weil reported that when Amiden had first
seen it, he remarked that the man in the picture had been killed. This statement
is not remarkable, given the widespread knowledge of Gandhi's assassination.
 Stigmatic Phenomena: An Alleged Case in Brazil 217

However, the following event was quite remarkable; Weil then observed the
appearance of two blotches of a blood-like substance on the picture. He point-
ed these out to us and they were easily discernible.
The results of our investigation were so provocative that plans were made
for a more formal investigation utilizing sophisticated psychophysiological
monitoring equipment and the assistance of a Brazilian magician trained in
sleight-of-hand effects. Unfortunately, Amiden7shealth necessitated cancella-
tion of these plans upon the insistence of his physician, who had observed the
increase in Amiden's cardiovascular and gastrointestinal problems following
our March 1994 visit. However, Wilson (1989) reports a case that resembles
Amiden in some respects. A Dominican nun known as Blessed Helen, who
resided in a convent in Hungary, was repeatedly observed by her sister nuns to
manifest "wounds in both hands, and in her feet, and her breast was wounded,"
and in whose presence flowers and other objects were said to have appeared (p.
21). Needless to say, if a bouquet of flowers were to suddenly appear in the
presence of a magician, the phenomenon would be conceptualized as legerde-
main. In the presence of a nun, the phenomenon would be thought to be a di-
vine manifestation, at least by devout observers.

A Psychophysiological Perspective
My own perspective draws upon the work of Barber (1984), who has studied
self-regulation of blood flow. He begins with the example of how cognition,
imagination, and emotions affect blood supply to the genital areas during sex-
ual fantasizing. If these thoughts, images, and feelings can produce variations
in blood supply, Barber proposes, it is likely that the blood flow to other parts
of the body is continually affected by what people are thinking, imagining, and
experiencing. By being deeply absorbed in imagining a physiological change,
some individuals can evoke the same thoughts and feeling that are present
when an actual physiological change occurs, hence stimulating the cells to
produce the desired physiological change (p. 118).
During the spontaneous disappearance of warts, some investigators (e.g.,
Samek, 1931) have reported an inflammatory reaction in the dermis consisting
of dilation of blood vessels, hyperemia (increased blood supply), edema, and
perivascular infiltration of white blood cells. Hypnotic treatment of "fish-
skin" diseases may involve stimulation of the affected area's vascular bed,
countering their disturbed metabolism (Kidd, 1966). Changes in blood supply
have also been implicated in rapid recovery from burns (Barber, 1984, pp.
87-93). Hypnotized individuals are able to reduce or eliminate bleeding in
cases of upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage, and self-hypnosis has been found
to be effective in patients with hemophilia (Spiegel & Vermutten, 1994, pp.
199-200). In addition, there is an extensive literature on individuals who can
shift more blood to a specific area of the skin through biofeedback or other
forms of self-regulation (e.g., Silverman & McGough, 197 1 ; Snyder & Nobel,
1968). Murphy (1992) observes that in biofeedback training there is a transi-
218 Krippner

tion from the largely dissociated processes that produce hysterical stigmata, to
a more self-reliant process. Cultivating the self-regulation skills (e.g., kines-
thetic awareness and deliberate control of autonomic processes) that are basic
human capacities, most people can learn to raise or lower their blood pressure,
change their brain wave patterns, alter the flow of gastric acid, or modify other
physiological functions (p. 545).
Murphy (1992) notes that the behavior and experiences of mystics are
shaped by their respective cultures. Indian yogis, he points out, do not exhibit
stigmata, nor do Eastern Orthodox monks. However, he notes that the battle
wounds of Mohammed have appeared on devout Islamic men (p. 498). I have
interpreted stigmata within a psychophysiological framework, and suspect
that they could occur to members of any faith who somaticize, and who are
deeply involved in the Crucifixion story, given the proper circumstances. For
example, in 1972 a young African-American Baptist girl living in Oakland,
California, manifested the stigmata from the palm of the left hand two to six
times daily during a three-week period preceding Easter Sunday. Physiological
and psychological tests did not detect serious pathology, and close scrutiny
ruled out self-inflicted wounds. Her dreams frequently included biblical
events; in the week before her bleeding began, she had read a book and had
watched a television movie about the Crucifixion (Early & Lifschutz, 1974).
She and her family professed to be religious, attending a Baptist church near
their home; interview data revealed that the girl was preoccupied with Christ's
suffering (Early & Lifschutz, 1974, p. 200). In addition, there are three known
Anglican stigmatics (Harrison, 1994).
Spontaneous hemorrhages known as psychogenic purpura occur with no
current physical trauma both as a result of hypnosis and unconscious self-sug-
gestion. Purpura refers to a dark, reddened area of the skin. The examiners of
the girl observed that she had always been in excellent health, and had never
had a serious illness or accident. They concluded that profound, intense reli-
gious and emotional forces could have caused the stigmatic bleeding. Eventu-
ally, she also bled from both feet, from her right palm, from her right thorax,
and from her forehead. Once the Easter season had passed, there was no recur-
rence of the stigmata.
I would also place considerable emphasis upon the impact of artistic rendi-
tions of the crucifixion, almost all of which depict nails driven into the palms
of Jesus' hands. In actuality, nails were probably driven into victims' wrists,
where the bony structure would provide enough support to hold a body on a
cross for the time required for death to occur. Even so, nails were not depicted
in representations of the Crucifixion until the fifth century; the more common
Roman practice was to bind the victim to the wood with thongs (Ratnoff,
1969).?The historical origin of the phenomenon of stigmata is curiously coin-
cidental with the manufacture of crosses bearing lifelike statues of Christ in his
suffering; heretofore, the crosses had been bare. By the thirteenth century, the
 Stigmatic Phenomena: An Alleged Case in Brazil 219

Christian mystics began to experience the stigmata (Panati, 1996, pp. 123,
512). By the same token, stigmatic wounds in the wrists have become more
common since media coverage has cast doubt upon the historical veracity of
palm wounds (Nickell, 2000).
In addition, the experient's chest wound typically has been found to match
the location portrayed in the local church; the wounds of one woman matched
in position and size those shown on the crucifix before which she prayed
(Thurston, 1952). The Y-shaped cross on the breast of Anne Emmerich resem-
bled a prominent cross before which she had prayed as a child (Murphy, 1992,
pp. 501-502). These observations argue more forcefully for the attention-get-
ting strategy of self-inflicted wounds or for bleeding of psychogenic origin
than any type of purported supernatural intervention.

Hypnotically-Suggested Stigmata
The work of a German physician, Alfred Lechler (1933), supports this per-
spective. Lechler experimentally induced bleeding stigmata by hypnotic sug-
gestions in a 29-year-old peasant woman who demonstrated high hypnotic sus-
ceptibility. Somewhat earlier, she had seen a film about Christ's crucifixion
that left her with pains in her hands and feet. Lecher hypnotized the girl and
suggested that she had been pierced by nails in the manner of the crucifixion.
After several sessions, the peasant woman produced the markings of a "crown
of thorns" on her forehead, an inflamed shoulder condition related to her imag-
inary carrying of the cross, and bloody tears similar to those shed by the cele-
brated mystic, Theresa Neumann. Lechler photographed these manifestations
(Lechler, 1933). The "crown of thorns" was not a customary part of Roman
crucifixion practices and, if the account is accurate, it might have been pro-
duced for Jesus, mocking his appellation as "King of the Jews."
The woman responded that she could feel the nails being driven into her
hands and feet. Lechler and at least one nurse carefully observed her prior to,
during, and after she received the suggestions. Wilson (1989) commented,
"The significance of all this is profound. Effectively, Lechler can be said to
have established more authoritatively than anyone before or since that sponta-
neous bleedings of the type attributed to stigmatics during the last seven cen-
turies really do happen, and that these can be demonstrated under properly
controlled conditions. He can also be said to have established that a fundamen-
tal key to the phenomena is hypnosis, and that the stigmatic, even without hav-
ing been formally hypnotized seems to be, during his or her bleedings, in a
mental and physical state effectively indistinguishable from hypnosis" (p. 97).
"A really riveting feature is the extraordinary precision of the mechanism's
conformity to the visualization that triggered it. Stigmata have been precisely
positioned to conform with the wounds of a stigmatic's favorite crucifix. Or a
wound may have taken on an exact shape such as a cross. Most dramatic of all,
the mechanism seems able to mould the flesh into a feature resembling the
220 Krippner

head and bent-over point of an iron nail. It is as if something within the body
has re-programmed it into a new form" (p. 126).

Psychogenic and Post-Traumatic Bleeding

Reports of "psychogenic bleeding," wounds that are linked to psychological
reactions to accidents or surgery, support this perspective. When psychogenic
bleeding has been recorded, the principal manifestation has been ecchymosis
rather than bleeding through the skin. A study of 27 cases of psychogenic
bleeding at Case Western Reserve University observed that all cases were
women, that the bleeding began after injury or surgery, and that the attendant
bruises were different from those brought on by trauma. However, among the
27 cases, there were frequent mentions of headaches, seizures, cutaneous anes-
thesia, transient parethesias, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, chest pains, and hy-
perventilation. Several women had a history of childhood or recent trauma
(Ratnoff & Agle, 1968), and a larger number have been bedridden for long pe-
riods of time (Nickell, 2000).
Following such traumas as automobile accidents, there can be syndromes of
spontaneous bleeding from body orifices as well as internal bleeding and
painful spontaneous ecchymosis (passage of blood from ruptured blood ves-
sels into skin tissue), often several months after the trauma. Gardner and Dia-
mond (1955) have hypothesized that these individuals become sensitive to
their own extravasated blood (i.e., blood that has flowed into surrounding tis-
sues) at the time of the accident, and bleeding then occurred later due to inter-
nal sensitization. This syndrome appears to be more common among women
than men.
In cutaneous anesthesia, there is no sense of touch in the skin; a severe dia-
betic who has no circulation in the toes will cut the toe but feel no pain. Tran-
sient parethesias (i.e., impaired skin sensations) are brief, episodic prickly sen-
sations; sciatica can produce them as well.

Four Commonalities
These cases are helpful etiologically, yet the bleeding of these individuals
was not interpreted as sacred or as stigmata. But when stigmatics are studied
(Lord, 1957; Ratnoff, 1969), four commonalties have been reported:
1. The stigmatic has a history of somatization (see Wickramasekera, 1995).
2. The stigmatic demonstrates a high degree of identification with a reli-
gious figure.
3. The bleeding occurs periodically during times of high affect.
4. There is considerable secondary gain derived from the stigmata.
All four of these commonalties can be said to characterize Amiden. He has a
history of somatic complaints. He demonstrates a high degree of identification
with Jesus Christ and other religious figures. The bleeding occurs when he is
 Stigmatic Phenomena: An Alleged Case in Brazil 221

deeply moved by a social situation or conversation. He receives attention and

praise from a group of his supporters, as well as from inquisitive outsiders,
from the stigmata.
Even so, we could not draw a conclusion as to whether this claimant's stig-
mata were of somatic origin or the result of legerdemain. Indeed, this
claimant's phenomena are typical of the problems that exist in this area of
study. Amiden's cancellation of a follow-up session, with a Brazilian magician
present, could have been due to health problems, as alleged. Or it could have
been motivated by a fear of exposure by an expert in sleight-of-hand effects.
However, it provides an opportunity to survey the pertinent literature, and to
propose mechanisms that would lead to a naturalistic (rather than a supernat-
ural) explanation of stigmata.
In his discussion of postmodernity, Gergen (1991) speaks of the "plurality
of voices vying for the right to reality" (p. 7). Some visitors to Florence panic
before a Raphael masterpiece; others go into a frenzy when confronted with a
Caravaggio painting; still others collapse at the feet of Michelangelo's statue
of David. At least once a month, a foreign tourist is rushed to the psychiatric
ward of Florence's Santa Maria Nuova Hospital, suffering from an acute men-
tal dysfunction brought on by an encounter with the city's art treasures (Kro-
ker et al., 1989, p. 150). Mother Ann, the founder of the Shakers, experienced
an episode of stigmata when, during a religious ecstasy, blood allegedly seeped
through the pores of her skin (Ratnoff, 1969). In 1972, a young Baptist girl was
observed to manifest the stigmata (Early & Lifschutz, 1974). In 1980, a med-
ical journal told of a woman who manifested the stigmata while singing in a
Pentecostal choir; she gave birth to a child who subsequently exhibited stig-
mata as well (Fischer & Kollar, 1980). In 1993, we observed a man raised as a
Muslim manifest stigmatic phenomena. This crossing of denominational lines,
for the sake of extraordinary occurrences, may be a characteristic of the post-
modern age (see Appendix for another example).
Postmodernism questions voices of authority as well as mainstream models
of the human being. As Wilson (1989) commented, "The truly significant fea-
ture is that the flesh really does change, in an extraordinarily dramatic way, in
response to mental activity, and that the power of mind over matter is phenom-
enally more powerful than previously thought possible.. . . If the mind really
can spontaneously produce wounds in this way, can it also be persuaded to do
the reverse?" Can it stem the bleeding of a hemophiliac, or shrink a malignant
tumor? (p. 100). Stigmata are not merely a relic of an era where superstition
reigned. These phenomena may be re-framed in terms of recent advances in
mind-body medicine (e.g., Dienstfrey, 1991) and applied psychophysiology
(e.g., Wickramasekera, 1995), providing clues for the alleviation of human
suffering. And in the spirit of post-modemism, the reality of stigmata must be
questioned on a case-by-case basis; everything that glitters is not gold, and
every stigmatic who bleeds is not necessarily shedding his or her own blood.
222 Krippner

Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the Saybrook Graduate School and Research
Center Chair for the Study of Consciousness in honor of Dr. Stanley Krippner.

Notes
A full report of the anomalous phenomena observed during our sessions
with Amyr Amiden have been published in this journal (Krippner et al., 1996).
Persians, Assyrians, Carthaginians, and Greeks were among the other
early civilizations that practiced crucifixion. But, for about 800 years, the Ro-
mans surpassed them all, crucifying some 500 people per day following the
Jewish revolt ending in 70 C. E. with the conquest of Jerusalem and the de-
struction of the Second Temple.

Appendix
In February 2000 a student showed me a deep scar on the palm of his left
hand, and told me the circumstances surrounding its appearance. I urged him
to write an account, which follows: "My father is depressed all the time and
has an obsessive-compulsive disorder, always wanting to keep things clean.
He screams at the dog and hits her when she barks. All through Christmas, it
was one thing after another. In addition, my grandmother made repeated ver-
bal attacks on my individuality and my interests, all of which made me feel
worthless and misguided. I left midway through dinner one night, and went for
a walk with the dog. We walked over to a church and I found a courtyard with a
statue of the Virgin Mary in the corner. She had her hands across her chest and
she looked up into the heavens with a slight smile. She was feeling the grace of
God and the expression on her face was one of peace and compassion. I pre-
tended to be her, and looked up at the heavens in a similar pose. I returned and
finished off the night with the family, but found I had nothing to say. Later on
in the evening, after all the company had left, I went out to have a drink with
Tom. Tom is a wonderful man, and he has many positive qualities. He's smart,
interesting to talk with, and is friendly, warm, and humorous. I came home
around midnight and found that my father had chained the door. I couldn't get
in. I tried waking up my sister, but she had drunk too much booze and had
passed out long ago. I was forced to ring the doorbell and woke up my father.
The dog started barking, and I heard my father scream, "Shut up!" It was al-
most wicked and demonic in its intensity. I heard him say, "What the f- is
going on?" as he came downstairs to answer the door. I stood on the doorstep
listening to this, and all I could think was just to have faith in God and in
Christ. He opened the door and let me in. I went to sleep and the next morning,
I left the house without speaking to him. During the car ride back to my apart-
ment, I happened to look at the palm of my left hand, and it looked as if I had
slammed it into a nail. I didn't remember doing anything to it, and there was no
 Stigmatic Phenomena: An Alleged Case in Brazil 223

1 rational explanation for it. One month and two weeks later, in writing this, the
1 wound still has not gone away. It was a stigmata."
1 An interview with the student indicated that he had a history of somatiza-
1 tion. The written account demonstrates a high degree of identification with a
1 religious figure. The bleeding occurred during a time of high affect. Was there
1 secondary gain derived from the stigmata? Perhaps the student's sharing of the
1 incident with me, and receiving my acceptance and interest, provided the sec-
1 ondary gain. But it is also possible that the student wounded himself in order
~1 to receive attention, and to provide psychological closure to a difficult family
situation.

1 References
Barber, T. X. (1984). Changing "unchangeable" bodily processes by (hypnotic) suggestions: A
new look at hypnosis, Cognitions, imagining, and the mind-body problem. In Sheikh, A.A.
(Ed.), Imagination and Healing (pp. 69-1 27). Farmingdale, NY: Baywood Publishing.
Berger, A. S., & Berger, J. (1991). The Encyclopedia of Parapsychology and Psychical Research.
New York: Paragon House.
Dienstfrey, H. (1 99 1). Where the Mind Meets the Body. New York: HarperCol lins.
Early, L. F., & Lifschutz, L. E. (1974). A case of stigmata. Archives of General Psychiatry, 30,
197-200.
Fisher, J., & Kollar, E. (1980). Investigation of a stigmatic. Southern Medical Journal, 73,
1461-1466.
Gardner, F. H., & Diamond, L. E. (1955). Autoerythrocyte sensitization: A form of purpura pro-
ducing painful bruising following autosensitization to red cells in certain women. Blood, 10,
675-690.
Gergen, K. J. (1991). The Saturated Self: Dilemmas of Identity of Contemporary Life. New York:
Basic Books.
Hadley, E. (1930). Axillary "menstruation" in a male. American Journal of Psychiatry, 9,
1101-111 1.
Harrison, T. (1994). Stigmata: A Medieval Mystery in a Modern Age. New York: St. Martins Press.
Kidd, C. B. (1966). Congenial ichthyosiform erythrodermia treated by hypnosis. British Journal
of Dermatology, 78, 10 1-1 05.
Krippner, S., Bergquist, C., Bristow, J., de Carvalho, M., Gold, L., Helgeson, A., Helgeson, D.,
Lane, J., Petty, C., Petty, W., Ramsey, G., Raushenbush, M., Reed, H., & Robinson, S. (1994).
The Magenta Phenomena. Part I: Lunch and dinner in Brasilia. E.xceptioncl1 Humcin Experi-
ence, 12, 194-206.
Krippner, S., Winkler, M., Amiden, A., Crema, R., Kelson, R., La1 Arora, H., & Weil, P. (1996).
Physiological and geomagnetic correlates of apparent anomalous phenomena observed in the
presence of a Brazilian "sensitive." Journal of Scientific Exploration. 10. 281-298.
Kroker, A., Kroker, M., & Cook, D. (1989). Panic Encyclopedia: The Definitive Guide to the Post-
modern Scene. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Lechler, A. (1933). Das Ratsel von Konnersreuth im Lichte eines neuen Fulles von Stigmatisation
[The Riddle of Konnersreuth in the Light of New Cases qf Stigmatization]. Elberfeld, Ger-
many: Licht und Leben Verlag.
Lord, R. A. (1957). A note on stigmata. American Imago, 14, 299-30 1.
Murphy, M. (1992). The Future of the Body. Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher.
Myers, F. W. H. (1903). Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death (Vol. 1). New York:
Longmans, Green.
Nickell, J. (1996). "Miraculous" phenomena. In Stein, G. (Ed.), The Encylopedicz of the Paranor-
mal (pp. 41 6-424). Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
Nickell, J. (1999). Thumbs down on Fox's "Signs from God." Skeptical Inquirer, 23(6),61.
Nickell, J. (2000). Stigmata: In imitation of Christ. Skeptical Inquirer, 24 (6),24-28.
Panati, C. (1996). Sacred Origins of Profound Things. Baltimore: PenguinIArkana.
224 Krippner

Ratnoff, 0 . D. (1969). Stigmata: Where the mind and body meet: A study of autoerythrocyte sen-
sitization. Medical Times, 97, 150-163.
Ratnoff, 0 . D., & Agle, D. P. (1968). Psychogenic purpura: A re-evaluation of the syndrome of
autoerythrocyte sensitization. Medicine, 17, 475-500.
Samek, J. (193 1). Zum Wesen der Suggestiven Warzenheilund [The effects of suggestion on heal-
ing warts]. Dermatologische Wochenschrift, 93, 1853-1857.
Silverman, A. J., & McGough, W. E. (1971). Personality, stress and venous flow rates. Journal of
Psychosomatic Research, 15, 3 15.
Snyder, C., & Nobel, M. (1 968). Operant conditioning of vasoconstriction. Journal of Experimen-
tal Psychology, 77, 263-268.
Spiegel, D., & Vermutten, E. (1994). Physiological correlates of hypnosis and dissociation. In
Spiegel, D. (Ed.), Dissociation: Culture, Mind, and Body (pp. 185-209). Washington, DC:
American Psychiatric Press.
Summers, M. (1950). The Physical Phenomena of Mysticism. New York: Barnes and Noble.
Thurston, H. (1952). The Physical Phenomena of Mysticism. Chicago: Henry Regnery.
Wickramasekera, I. (1995). Somatization: Concepts, data, and prediction from the high risk model
of threat perception. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 183, 15-30.
Wilson, I. (1989). The Bleeding Mind. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
Journal of Scientific Exploration, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 225-246,2002 0892-33 10102
02002 Society for Scientific Exploration

The Case for the Loch Ness "Monster":

The Scientific Evidence

1306 Highland Circle

Blacksburg, VA 24060-5623
e-mail: hhbauer@ vt.edu

Abstract- Loch Ness Monsters (Nessies) are-if they exist-animals of a

species either not yet known to science or known but thought to have been
long extinct. Much controversy has concerned eyewitness testimonies and
photographs whose relevance and validity are uncertain. However, there also
exists a body of objective evidence that critics have been unable to gainsay:
the Dinsdale film; numerous sonar echoes obtained over many years by dif-
ferent investigators; and underwater photography in 1972 coincident with
sonar detection of large targets.
It is suggested that the natural habitat of Nessies is at significant depths, in
sea fjords as well as in "monster" lochs.

Keywords: Loch Ness Monster-Nessies-eyewitness testimony

Introduction
Claims of a Loch Ness Monster, a.k.a. Nessie, have arisen because people
persistently (albeit infrequently) see, at Loch Ness:
1. some things whose identity remains to be established; or
2. animals whose identity remains to be established; or
3. animals belonging to a known species-sea lions, say, or sturgeon-
whose identity is not recognized by the observers; or
4. animals belonging either to a presently unknown species or to a species
thought long extinct, in particular some species looking like or related to
plesiosaurs.
The first claim is not controversial. Many accept the second. One or more of
the first three are accepted by most "disbelievers", namely those who reject
the fourth possibility. The fourth defines Nessie "believers" (and thereby also
Nessies) for the purpose of this discussion. Thus, evidence required to estab-
lish the existence of Nessies is evidence for claim 4 as against claim 3.
There is general agreement that some of the purported evidence stems from
fakes, hoaxes, and misperceptions on the part of eyewitnesses. Is there any
other evidence? More particularly, is there any scientific evidence? For, in-
226 Bauer

evitably, the arbiter of this evidence must be science, in this case marine biolo-
gy and perhaps also palaeontology.

Eyewitness Testimony
Among believers, a common aphorism holds that the testimony of eyewit-
nesses to the existence of Nessies is so strong that its equal, in the case of a trial
for murder in a court of law, would unquestionably lead to a conviction and
subsequent hanging. (The aphorism has not been re-worded since abolition of
the death penalty.)
However, in a murder trial the witnesses are testifying to observation of rec-
ognized, identified things. Claims 3 and 4 concern unidentified, unrecognized
things; eyewitness testimony alone cannot authoritatively establish either one
of them, nor distinguish between them. Therefore the case for Nessies must be
made on a different basis, namely whatever objective evidence can be ad-
duced.
There is also a quite general, pragmatic reason why science can make only
the most limited use of eyewitness reports. The purpose of science is to expand
knowledge. Therefore, to be useful a report (or a method, or a theory) must in-
dicate how investigation can be taken further. Even seven decades of eyewit-
ness reports of Nessies, however, offer no guidance as to how further informa-
tion about the creatures might be obtained. Indeed, the sightings have been so
irregular and unpredictable that the cumulative record constitutes an argument
against attempting a program of intensive scientific surveillance for appear-
ances of Nessies at the surface; as Adrian Shine once remarked, that would be
a war of attrition against the laws of chance.

Accumulation of Evidence
For the reasons just given, "evidence" in the following will imply objective
evidence of film and sonar, records of which can be permanent and available
for re-analysis in the light of fresh data or new ideas.
The Loch Ness Monster first garnered wide attention in the public media in
the 1930s (Bauer, 1982, 1987a, 1988). For several years during that decade,
photographic evidence as well as eyewitness testimony made news, and a book
was written about the Monster (Gould, 1934). Neither then nor since, howev-
er, has mainstream scientific activity attended to the matter (Bauer, 1986).
From the mid- 1930s until 1960, sightings continued, but little fresh scientif-
ic evidence was uncovered. However, between 1960 and 1975 a significant
amount of new data was gained from organized group activities as well as indi-
vidual initiatives. That flurry of activity had been set off by a magisterial book
(Whyte, 1957), reinforced by Dinsdale's filming of a Nessie (Dinsdale, 1961)
and culminating in successful underwater photography (Rines et a]., 1976) by
the Academy of Applied Science (AAS). Nessies were assigned the taxonomic
identity Nessiteras rhombopteryx (Anonymous, 1975).
 Case Sor Loch Ncss "Monster" 227

I - ~ g1. . 'The Sulgeorr'\ ~ ~ l l o tu111c.h

o, Ii,r\ h c ~ o ~ l ircollrc
c. 101 N e \ \ ~ e \ .It wa\ fir\t publ14ked in the
I ) a i l ~Mnrl
, olr 2 1 A1111 1 1034.

It seemed rea\onable to expect that f'~1rt11e1- d e p l o y n ~ e of

~ ~the
t methods that
had achieved the\e guccesseg woulci \eon tlclivcr scientifically definitive proof
of the existence ol' Ne\\ic\ and in\ig11t illto their n;itiire. Instead, the last quar-
ter century ha\ produced little evidence beyond further w n a r echoes, notably
those obtained by the Loch Nc\\ &L Morar F'rcqect in 1980 (LN&MP, 1983) and
duriilg Operation I)eep\can in 1 987 (Bauer, 1987b; Dash, 1988).
A pessimistic cxplanation fijs the dearth ol'recent re\ults is that the creatures
may have become extinct, perl.iap\ :I\ a re\ult of increa\ing pollution (Rines,
2001 ). An altel-native explanation icl that much of the earlier success was fortu-
itous and that the best search techniyuecl remain to be identif'ied. This es\ay
\eeks to inake that argument. In addition, i t will corlsider recent efforts to dis-
credit ear lie^ data, namely allegations that
1 ) the ~ I I I If'iI1111ed
~ by Din\dale was a boat;
2 ) u~~clerwater photographs were retouched or ol'inanirnate objects;
3) the iconic Surgeon's photo (Figure 1 ) was a hoax.

The Strongest Evidence

The stronge\t objective evidence i'or Nessiecl comprise\ the Dinsdale fi1111,
ilurnerous soniir sc\ult\, and ~ ~ ~ l d e r w aphotographs
ter obtained at the same
time as str011g\011;11. echoecl.

In 1960 Tim Dinsdale filmed a Neasie moving at or rlear the surface of the
water, using a l(l-t11n1 Rolex a n d telephoto len\ at a range of about a mile
(Dinsdale, 1961). The 1111~1was shown on British television and featured in in-
numerable lectures given by Dinsdale over the years. Bits of the film appear in
228 Bauer

Fig. 2. Keprod~icedby kind permission of Wendy Ilinsdale. 'I he or iginals aie in Dinsdalc ( 1961).
I C 1s 01l1y In the 31d and 4th c d r t ~ o na~).atr r~~ngul~tr
birt F I ~ L I 2g d , ~ ~l i ku ~ ~Ii\ pmovlng dway,
leaving a broad wake. b) A boat (shown at the same dlst,tnce) le'i~e, 1' cle,\i ptopeller
wash as well as a bow wake. c ) The litrrrip swerve\ to thc i rghi and :I smallel scconit hump
is visible behind the first, o n the right-hand s ~ d 01 e the w,~he.d ) The w'the nal tows abrupt-
ly 2nd the hump 15 no longer vrslble (the 'lilow above points to a sea gull) e ) 'l'he wake is
movlng rrght to left, parallel to the lar shore, with notlung else vrslble ' l b o ~ ethe water-
Irne. t ) The boat at the same drstuncc shows ~ t o\~tlrnc s and the heli~ismatiat tliu back g)
Several Irarnes co~xip~iter-enharlced: the control boat upper left and sever,ll vlews of the
hump, ~ n c l u d ~ ntwog that show the smaller wcond hur-np.
 Case for Loch Ness "Monster" 229

a number of videos and TV documentaries (Bauer, in press). Most of it is in-

cluded in the video shown regularly (beginning in 2001) at the Original Loch
Ness Monster Exhibition at the Loch Ness Lodge Hotel in Drumnadrochit,
Scotland. Stills from it (Figure 2) are reproduced in all editions of Dinsdale's
book, Loch Ness Monster, as well as in Bauer (1986).
Figure 2a shows the dark hump of the supposed Nessie at the beginning of
the Dinsdale film. The Joint Air Reconnaissance Intelligence Centre (JARIC)
in Britain later concluded that the hump projected about 3 feet out of the water
and was 5 ?hfeet wide at the water-line (James, n.d.)'.
The wide, heavy wake produced is sensibly different from that left by a boat
(Figure 2b): the boat leaves not only a broad bow-wave but also a distinct trail
from the propeller. The hump produced only bow-wake.
In Figure 2c, the hump swings to the right and a smaller hump appears
briefly behind it and toward the right side of the wake; see also the computer
enhancement in Figure 2g.
In Figure 2d, the wake narrows abruptly and the hump disappears but the
wake continues: something large is evidently now moving just below the sur-
face. JARIC commented (James, n.d.) that, unless there had been a submarine
in the loch, the hump was probably an animate creature moving at up to 10
mph. There was no submarine in the loch at that time (nor has there ever been,
to the present time, a submarine in Loch Ness capable of such speeds; several
mini-subs have been deployed at various times, but they are considerably
slower).
Having swung to the right, the wake then curved left and proceeded roughly
parallel to the shore, from right to left in the film (Figure 2e). Only the wake is
visible above the water-line, whereas a boat at the same distance is clearly rec-
ognizable (Figure 2f).
This last sequence of the film also shows "a definite paddling action,
swirling the water back in the manner of a breast stroke swimmer" (Dinsdale,
196 1: 115). I have a copy of the film, given to me by Dinsdale in 1975, includ-
ing this right-to-left sequence that had been magnified 2x and 4 x for the BBC-
TV program, Panorama. I have had the film transferred to video and have
watched it innumerable times. The wake in this right-to-left sequence is made
by something projecting a foot or two above the water but hidden by the trail of
white foam it throws up. Periodic splashes originate at the side of the wake, in-
dicating that they are paddle strokes and not any effect of the wake cutting
across prevailing waves on the loch-the latter would produce splashes at the
head of the wake and not at its side. These splashes are rather clearly visible in
several television programs or videos: in In Search Of... (1976) (albeit the
film is reversed, the hump moves from left to right instead of from right to
left!); in Secrets & Mysteries (ABC video, 1987), The Loch Ness Monster
Story (North Scene, 1991), and Great Mysteries of the 20th Century (TLC,
1996); there is only one such splash, but a very clear one, in The Beast of Loch
Ness (NOVA, 1998). It is also noteworthy that the front of the wake shows no
230 Bauer

vertical movement. The bow of a boat riding along the surface would show
some rocking movement up and down if it encountered waves; in contrast, the
steadiness of the front of this wake marks it as being caused by something pro-
jecting from a massive submerged object. A similarly steady progression is
shown by the wake recorded in the summer of 2001 and broadcast on network
television in December (CBS, 200 1 ).
Figure 2b and f are available because Dinsdale, having filmed the hump,
persuaded the host at his hotel to steer a motorboat over the same path as the
hump had taken2. The camera was then sealed and the film developed at the
Kodak laboratories (Dinsdale, 1961: 105 ff.). Since then, it has been comput-
er-enhanced several times by different people3, without defining the hump's
shape better than approximately triangular in cross-section; but the brief ap-
pearance of the second, smaller hump showed up more clearly in an enhance-
ment (Figure 2g).
The Dinsdale film demonstrates that, in April 1960" there was in Loch Ness
a large, fast-moving creature unlike any species known by science to inhabit
the loch. The boat filmed by Dinsdale as a control and the several computer
enhancements, as well as examination of the original film by Kodak experts
and by JARIC, all seem to disprove conclusively any notion that the hump
could actually have been a boat. Yet that is the only suggestion that Nessie-dis-
believers have made in their attempts to explain away the Dinsdale film
(Binns, 1983; Burton, 1961; S. Campbell, 1986a; see below, The burden of
prooj).

Sonar
Sonar detects objects in the water by the echoes of sound waves reflected
from them. Since the speed of sound in water is known, sonar enables accurate
calculation of how far away the reflecting object is. The strength of the echoes
depends not only on the size of the target but also on what it is made of: a small
bubble of air may give as strong a signal as a large piece of water-logged wood.
For that reason, and also for reasons of inherent lack of definition, sonar does
not give useful information about shape or size, especially not with fast-mov-
ing targets5.
Sonar echoes stronger than from fish and often from moving objects have
been obtained in Loch Ness on many occasions since the 1950s. In 1968 engi-
neers from Birmingham University testing a new digital sonar detected large
objects rising apparently from the bottom, coming swiftly up hundreds of feet
and then returning to the bottom (Braithwaite, 1968). In 1969 a big object
moved parallel to the sonar-equipped boat at several miles per hour, then
turned back and moved away (LNI, 1969). During the summer of 1980, sever-
al dozen large echoes were obtained over deep water by the Loch Ness &
Morar Project (LN&MP, 1983). During Operation DeepScan in 1987, three
substantial contacts were fleetingly made in deep water (Bauer, 1987b; Dash,
1988).
 Case for Loch Ness "Monster"

AbOve The arrangemen! of camera-slrabe end sdnar appsralvs

lor me 1972 vxpsdi~ion10 ~ o c nNers AI !he n g h ~ mem a r trace
Obtamed On August 9 1972 ahowing tWO large mOmg 0bl8ct8 8"
the h a m The lam1 vert8cal lanes marl ofl d!slmces 01 a x teet
Du(Io4 1hrs lime mriod lh IIloOer ohato4ra~hswere obtaned
l a were unaware ol the p-hotographe e r i a l m e .
~ o n ~ a x p s r who
Idnac*a hbm *I W h es a m m d h g wpsndsg. The
sonu s r p r l s concludsd lhal two large creatures were show
hall wsvun In lhs record saDsralsdbv about 12 feet IAcsdamv 01

Fig. 3. Reproduced by permission from Rines et al. (1976). a) Sonar chart shows thin black traces
of echoes from moving fish and massive reflections from one or two larger objects. b, c)
Simultaneous with the sonar echoes, two film frames showed a paddle or flipper.
232 Bauer

The best listing of all sonar results and attempts at Loch Ness, up to the early
1970s, is in Roy Mackal's The Monsters of Loch Ness (in fact that book com-
prises the best survey of all data-films, photos, sightings-up to that time).
Between 1954 and 1972, Mackal lists sixteen occasions when sonar watches
were active, on one of them using two different search modes (Mackal, 1976:
Appendix E, Table 3, pp. 296-97). Of these seventeen sets of observations,
nine gave positive results, three were inconclusive, and five yielded no con-
tacts. This success rate of at least 50%, supplemented by the 1980 and 1987 re-
sults, approaches scientifically respectable reproducibility.
The most auspicious results came in 1972 when sonar detected large objects
that were captured at the same time by underwater photography.

Sonar with Simultaneous Photography

In August 1972, the AAS obtained strong echoes from what appeared to be
two discrete objects (Rines et al., 1976).
In Figure 3a, the relatively thin, oblique traces on the sonar chart are typical
of fish, say salmon of a foot or two in length, but there are also thick traces
from much larger objects, consistent with fish fleeing from predators. At the
same time, an underwater camera equipped with a strobe light was exposing
film about every 45 seconds in the same direction as the sonar beam pointed.
Three frames of the developed film showed faint outlines of something in the
water; computer enhancement revealed more clearly on two of them the out-
lines of a flipper or fin or paddle (Figure 3b, c). The axis of the flipper changes
just as one might expect of a moving limb; or perhaps one was a front limb and
the other a hind limb. Since the sonar gave an accurate measure of how distant
the objects were, it was possible to convert the dimensions in the photo into
the actual size of the object shown: the length of the flipper(s) was about 6 to 8
feet and the width about 4 feet. Monster indeed!

Retouched?
Some critics have alleged that these photos were retouched (Anonymous,
1984), which would mean having something added or subtracted that was not
in the originals. Again in a television program (TLC, 2001), Adrian Shine was
shown as supposedly revealing "for the first time" a flipper print with the distal
edges indicated as not having been visible in the original, according to a signed
statement by Charles Wyckoff, dated 7/7/89. Actually, this allegation-that
Wyckoff believed some retouching had been done by persons unknown-had
already been made a decade earlier in the commercial video, The Loch Ness
Monster Story (North Scene, 1991), albeit without the signed statement being
shown. Why had the producers of that video not asked for Wyckoff's first-
hand statement about it? Wyckoff died in 1998, before the TLC program was
made, but he had been available in 1991. Why wait until now to make this
1989 document public for the first time?
 Case for Loch Ness "Monster" 233

I suggest that the reason for the delay is that Wyckoff might have pointed out
that his signed statement of 1989 is not inconsistent with a letter he wrote in
1984 denying allegations of re-touching: "When the original 1972 film was de-
veloped by Kodak under bond, the transparencies in original form and without
any enhancement, were examined by me and various authorities, including
those at the Smithsonian, and were responsible for the published descriptions
of the appendage shown therein"; "the Academy of Applied Science has never
produced or released a single 'JPL [Jet Propulsion Laboratory] computer en-
hanced photograph' with the slightest bit of 'retouching' or change"; the flipper
photos published by the Academy (Rines et a]., 1976) were composites super-
imposing several computer enhancements in order to optimize edge sharpness
as well as contrast, "a recognized and proper procedure" (Wyckoff, 1984).
The originals of the flipper photographs are transparencies; therefore any
reproduction of them in print involves some choice of enhancement in the en-
deavor to make clear what the transparency shows6. When film is developed
and printed, some "enhancement" is inevitable: choices of developer and of
development time influence the resulting degree of contrast. To query comput-
er enhancement is no more soundly based than to query the printing of a nega-
tive, it is just that computer software offers a greater subtlety of relevant
choices for clarification.
The computer enhancing of the flipper photos was carried out at the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California (where early photographs of
the moon had also been computer-enhanced) by Alan Gillespie, who wrote
(1980): "Something unusual was in the image, and it was not an artifact of pro-
cessing, and it had flippers of some sort". "Computer-enhanced" means en-
hanced, not altered. Photos or negatives are scanned-the light intensity mea-
sured at every point-and then computer software examines the stored data. It
may look for edges, change the contrast, remove "speckle", compensate for the
gradient of light created by the photographic strobe-light, or apply various
color filters.
The television program, The Beast oj'Loch Ness (NOVA, 1998), reproduces
( I ) the original transparencies which show the medial "spine" and adjoining
portions of the flippers; (2) a computer enhancement in which these portions
of the flipper are seen to form a connected surface with clear proximal edges
but only indistinct distal ones; and (3) a supposedly retouched version similar
to commonly published ones, in which the distal edges of the flipper are sharp-
er and more distinct. The indubitably not retouched versions (I ) and (2), which
Wyckoff's letter supports as genuine, are sufficient to make the case that it is a
flipper. Moreover nothing in (3) is inconsistent with ( I ) or (2). It is therefore ir-
relevant to the main question of the existence of a large creature, whether the
distal edges are straight or webbed or ragged: the significant fact is that at least
one and possibly two large flippers were photographed with simultaneous
sonar confirmation of the presence of one or two large moving objects.
234 B auer

Collateral Evidence
Surely the Dinsdale film, the variety of sonar results, and the flipper photos
with concomitant sonar establish the existence of Nessies beyond any reason-
able doubt: these are not seals, sturgeon, eels, water birds, otters or any of the
other known species that have been suggested over the years as responsible for
sightings at Loch Ness. The various disbelievers' attempts to explain this evi-
dence under claims l to 3 (above) have been unsuccessful.
Much other evidence has been displayed in books and in public media. In
another article (Bauer, in press) I discuss the television and video coverage of
Nessies that has largely ignored the strongest evidence while featuring contro-
versies over the more doubtful material. There remain some significant but
often ignored points to be made about the less conclusive evidence.

Eyewitnesses
Many descriptions by eyewitnesses can be read in several books: the earliest
in Gould's The Loch Ness Monster and Others (Gould, 1934); a convincing
collection from local residents, people personally known to Constance Whyte,
in More Than a Legend (Whyte, 1957); and some fascinating anecdotes in Tim
Dinsdale's classic Loch Ness Monster (Dinsdale, 1961). Nicholas Witchell's
The Loch Ness Story (1974) is the most recent7 as well as comprehensive book
that recounts the story of searching for Nessies. By themselves, eyewitness re-
ports may mean next to nothing in science. Still, it is difficult to discount such
reports as those of police officers Cameron and Fraser on one side of the loch,
whose sighting was corroborated by quite independent eyewitnesses on the op-
posite shore (Holiday, 1970: 1 15-1 22).
The most common description is of a hump, often said to look like an up-
turned boat. Sometimes much splashing or roiling of the water is reported,
sometimes not. A long protrusion, usually described as a neck, sometimes as a
tail, is seen less often than humps or wakes. Even when necks are reported,
rarely is a clearly defined head noted (although a few people have described
protrusions that could be horns or antennae or ears). The color is almost al-
ways called dark gray or brown or black. The texture of the surface is never de-
scribed as fish-like-in other words, with scales-but rather as rough or knob-
by or warty, reminiscent of an elephant's hide. Quite often, the creatures are
described as submerging by sinking vertically.

Other Locales
Disbelievers point to the implausibility that a single creature-a Jurassic
plesiosaur, no less-should have survived in this one spot. However, Nessie
fans envisage not that unlikely scenario but rather a breeding population of
creatures that became landlocked after the last Ice Age (Whyte, 1957). This is
consonant with reports of similar creatures from a number of other lakes in the
 Case for Loch Ness "Monster" 235

northern temperate zone (e.g., Dinsdale, 1961: chapter 9), as well as hundreds
of sightings from the oceans (Heuvelmans, 1968).

The Burden of Proof

A common aphorism about anomalous phenomena is that extraordinary
claims demand extraordinary proof. One needs to be clear, therefore, about
what is being claimed. The assertion that Nessies exist (claim 4 above) does not
specify that they are necessarily plesiosaurs, zeuglodons, giant invertebrates,
giant amphibians, or any of the other suggestions made over the decades; it is
simply the claim of an unspecified type of creature not currently known by sci-
ence to be extant. I suggest that the objective evidence detailed above is suffi-
cient to sustain this claim and that "skeptical" counter-arguments should ad-
dress this claim and the objective evidence for it.
Disbelievers have offered any number of arguments that are, in this light, ir-
relevant. No one denies that hoaxes have been perpetrated or that mispercep-
tions have been widespread. I accept that there are good reasons why one
would not expect to find plesiosaurs, zeuglodons, or the like in Loch Ness. The
case for Nessies is not that they are a particular kind of Jurassic reptile or even
that their existence is likely; it is just that the objective evidence of film and
sonar shows them to be there.
In considering this objective evidence, then, the burden of proof comes to
rest on the disbelievers. In the following, I argue that their responses have been
inadequate, an instance of "pathological skepticism", to use Edmund Storms'
nice phrase (Chubb, 2000).

The Dinsdale Film

The only explanation offered by disbelievers is that Dinsdale filmed a boat. I
have already pointed out that the hump shows no propeller wash. It also re-
mains to be explained how a boat could display the additional feature of a sec-
ond hump; the pronounced narrowing of the wake as the hump disappears,
midway in the loch, while continuing to produce a wake; or the oar-like
splashes to the side of the wake.
Maurice Burton (1961: 73) wrote that the hump took "precisely the route
frequently taken by the local boats in crossing over from Foyers"; but he fails
to specify where those boats might be heading. Opposite Foyers the ground
slopes steeply (and even the stills from the Dinsdale film, Figure 2, show this
rather clearly). The nearest jetties are several miles north in Urquhart Bay, sev-
eral miles south at Tnvermoriston, or even further south at Fort Augustus. Why
would boats heading south "frequently" go first half way into the loch and
then turn north before swinging south?
Many years later, Burton (1969) offered further detail: "a local farmer, Jock
Forbes, was, to quote a local resident, 'in the habit of going across with cargo
about nine on a Saturday"'. What sort of cargo? Who is the cited "local resi-
236 Bauer

dent"? Why had Burton not obtained confirmation from Forbes himself? Why
had this not been reported in Burton's book?
Much later again, Burton (1982) said that the narrowing of the hump's wake
in the Dinsdale film occurred "at the spot where the boats I watched crossing
over, in 1960, shut off their motor, turned hard towards the beach and disap-
peared suddenly under the over-hanging branches of trees". But there is no
beach opposite that spot (and why would the boats then run south, parallel to
the shore?), nor are there overhanging branches on trees near the middle of the
loch, which is about a mile wide.
Were a Nessie believer to make and revise ad hoe such undocumented
claims as Burton's, moreover contradicting easily verifiable geographical
facts, the skeptics would rightly rule the claims as unworthy of consideration.
Yet S. Campbell (1986a: 60, 1986b) relies on Burton's implausible claims
about local dinghies and the local farmer to discount the Dinsdale film8. (He
had never seen the film himself, he told me in May 1985.)
Binns, unlike Burton or S. Campbell, had spent a significant amount of time
actually watching at Loch Ness, as a member of the LNI. He is clear that "Bur-
ton was undoubtedly wrong in identifying the mystery object in Dinsdale's
film as a local fishing boat" (Binns, 1983: 117). Those are dinghies with out-
board motors. By contrast, Binns insists, motor boats can leave a wake with no
central propeller-wash, just like the Dinsdale hump. As evidence he offers a
photograph (Binns, 1983: 1 17, Plate 14) of a boat, whose wake bears no obvi-
ous resemblance to that of the hump in Dinsdale's film, heading towards the
camera (whereas the hump was moving away), and on Loch Morar rather than
Loch Ness.
Adrian Shine claims to discern a boat in a frame of the film captured from a
commercial video; some other people fail to detect a boat in that frame (Hep-
ple, 2001). Together with Richard Raynor and Richard Carter, Shine attempted
to duplicate the Dinsdale film by photographing a boat using the same type of
camera equipment as Dinsdale had used. The result looks just like the film of a
clearly recognizable boat (G. Campbell, 1998, 1999; Hepple, 2001). One still
from the Carter-Raynor-Shine attempt was shown in a television program
(TDC, 1999); it looks nothing like Dinsdale's hump, not least in being motion-
less without a wake, and proves at best only that unfocused photographs of a
distant object may be indistinct and hard to identify.
Thus, attempts to explain the Dinsdale hump as a boat have failed individu-
ally, have contradicted one another, and therefore have also failed collectively.

Sonar
Disbelievers have failed to offer an explanation for the fact that sonar search-
es in Loch Ness frequently (Mackal, 1976; LN&MP, 1983) obtain echoes that
are stronger than those obtained from fish9, echoes typically from moving tar-
gets. Of the 17 sonar watches up to 1972 listed by Mackal, Binns (1983:
147-53) mentions only six. S. Campbell (1986a: Chapter 6, Table 6) lists 11
 Case for Loch Ness "Monster" 237

claimed contacts between 1954 and 1972 and a further 7 up to 1982. Camp-
bell's descriptions are detailed (pp. 75-96), but his dismissive summary (pp.
11 3-14) fails to address those details in any substantive way. Thus, one chart
accepted by sonar experts as showing intrusion of large objects into the sound
beam is countered by Campbell with "The marks on the chart.. . are entirely and
necessarily explicable as signals from the boats involved and parts of the bot-
tom of Urquhart Bay" (p. 90). Campbell himself is appropriately caustic about
dogmatic hand-waving of that sort when indulged in by Nessie fans.
Critics have dismissed the sonar data as possibly reflections from the steep
sides of the loch, artefacts owing to thermoclines or seiches, or large fish such
as sturgeon, always without any specific evidentiary support. Echoes from ap-
parently large and moving objects have been obtained from a great variety of
types of sonar instruments: fixed as well as moving, side-scanning as well as
fish-finding, scanning-and-tracking mounted on boats. It seems unlikely that
all those modes would produce artefacts that similarly mimic large, moving
objects.

~ Sonar with Simultaneous Photography

Disbelievers have offered no explanation for these photographs other than
allegations of incompetent methodology (Steuart Campbell, cited in ABC
video, 1987) or retouching (Anonymous, 1984). What exactly was supposedly
incompetent about the methodology has not been explained; the AAS team in-
cluded sonar engineer Martin Klein, photographic expert Charles Wyckoff,
and Harold Edgerton, inventor of the strobe, recipient of the U.S. Medal of
Freedom, and underwater photography advisor to Jacques Cousteau.
Binns (1983: 154 ff.) has no counter to the flipper photographs other than
innuendo as to retouching or a possible hoax. S. Campbell (1986a: 113) sim-
ply chooses not to believe Gillespie or Wyckoff as to the allegation of retouch-
ing: "there is mystery regarding the provenance of U112 [the flipper pho-
tographs] and suspicion that an artist has been at work on them. One is not
reassured by Wyckoff's explanation... Nevertheless there is a high probability
that U112 show bottom debris".
The only significant point as to retouching is, do the original transparencies
show the outline of a flipper? As Wyckoff (1 984) and Gillespie ( 1 980) have
both testified, the flipper outline can be seen in the original negatives, a print
of which has also been published independently (Sitwell, 1976); see also
above under Retouched?

I Eyewitnesses
Some people-and not only disbelievers-have questioned whether persist-
ing reports of a long neck might not be based more on entrenched expectation
of a prehistoric plesiosaur-like creature than on untutored raw observation. But
the observations preceded the identification. Rupert Gould, who interviewed
238 Bauer

eyewitnesses just as the Monster was making news, in November 1933, found
that about one quarter of the 40-odd witnesses reported a neck (Gould, 1934:
42, 63-65, 67, 68-69, 72, 83-84, 90-92, 93, 95, 151). It was these accounts
that led Gould to his identification of Nessie as a plesiosaur-like sea-serpent
(Gould thought it a single specimen that had somehow become landlocked).
It is worth noting the near unanimity as to dark brown, gray, or black; as to
hide versus scales; as to the head being little distinguished in shape or size
from the neck; and also the frequent mention of a vertical submerging. It is not
obvious what type of misperception would characteristically produce these
particular, commonly reported details. Admittedly, information is lacking
about what may have been already known about Nessies to the various people
over the years who have reported sightings and what therefore they may have
expected to see; but it does seem unlikely that many people besides Nessie en-
thusiast have been so familiar with the literature as to know that head and neck
are almost indistinguishable, that the surface resembles hide rather than scales,
that the color is dark brown or gray or black rather than green, and that Nessies
sink vertically and not with a diving motion. After all, the popular media, and
many postcards on sale, even around Loch Ness, offer a variety of such quite
different descriptions as a serpentine many-humped creature with a head that
is horse-like or dragon-like with pronounced ears, eyes, and snout.

The Surgeon's Photo

The Surgeon's photo (Figure I), no matter that it has become Nessie's logo,
is not among the strongest evidence that Nessies exist. The recent book by
Martin and Boyd (1 999) is devoted entirely to the allegation that this most fa-
mous photo was a hoax. But even if that is so, it does not lessen the case for
Nessie any more than do any of the numerous undoubted hoaxes perpetrated
over the years. Boyd himself continues to believe that Nessies exist (he had a
remarkable sighting in 1979). I include a discussion here because it illustrates
how disbelievers readily accept a story that discounts evidence for Nessies
even when that story gapes with holes.
The account by Martin and Boyd has been comprehensively criticized by
Shuker (1995:87) and by Smith (1995, 1999), and it was not accepted even by
Steuart Campbell (1995), who denies that Nessies exist but has a different ex-
planation for the Surgeon's photolo.The chief evidence adduced by Martin and
Boyd comprises what they heard from 89-year-old Christian Spurling, who
claimed to have been one of the hoaxers. Spurling died before his story was
published, so those who found it implausible were not able to question him on
any of the unconvincing points, which include:
1. Spurling failed to mention the second photo from the same occasion,
which had been developed and printed at the same local shop in Inver-
ness as the subsequently famous one (Whyte, 1957: 7, frontispiece).
2. Spurling described a roundabout, difficult, even farfetched method:
using a 35-mm camera and then re-photographing onto a plate, involving
 Case for Loch Ness "Monster" 239

negative to positive to negative. Why not use the plate camera in the first
place?
3. One of the alleged co-conspirators, Ian Wetherell, told a different story,
namely that the 35-mm film had been sent off for developing (Martin
and Boyd, 1999: 14). Yet it is known that Wilson had given plates for de-
veloping to an Inverness pharmacy (Whyte, 1957: 7).
4. Ian Wetherell claimed that the toy submarine used to support the faked
head-and-neck had been put in motion to make "a proper little V" wake
in the water. Figure 1 shows no such wake.
5. One of the people to whom Wilson had allegedly confessed the hoax
said Wilson related that his friend "had taken a photograph of the loch
and then at home had apparently superimposed a model of a monster on
the plate" (Martin and Boyd, 1999: 71), yet another different procedure
than that described by Spurling.
6. The motive for the hoax was said to be retribution by Marmaduke
Wetherell against the newspaper, the Daily Mail, that had dispensed
with his services. The Daily Mail had fired Wetherell after he had dis-
covered a spoor on the shore that turned out to have been faked with a
preserved hippopotamus foot. Martin and Boyd (1999: 27) now reveal
that Wetherell had himself faked that spoor. In that case, what possible
reason could he have had to feel that the Daily Mail should not have dis-
pensed with his services after the hoaxing of the spoor had come to light?
7. In any case, if the hoax were designed to embarrass the Daily Mail by in-
ducing it to publish a photograph that could then be unmasked as a fake,
why was the hoax not revealed as soon as the Daily Mail had been en-
trapped into publishing the photo?

The 1975 Underwater Photographs

In 1975, the AAS obtained more underwater photos (Figure 4), but without
simultaneous sonar (Rines et al., 1976). One of the photos appears to show a
head (Figure 4a and b) and another one the silhouette of a body with a long
neck (Figure 4c). The "gargoyle" head looks reptilian, with rather thick lips
and some teeth in the lower jaw, looking outwards from the plane of the picture
towards the right; there appear to be two short projections on top of the head.
The "body-neck" photo resembles the front of an animal with two stumpy ap-
pendages hanging down and a long neck curving away.
Critics have suggested that the gargoyle head is a pile of rocks (Bauer,
1987b) or a tree stump (Dash, 1 988) and that the body-neck is the reflection of
light from the photographic strobe by particles in the water, with a foreground
log whose shadow makes the reflected light take the shape of an animal. Those
are not implausible interpretations in themselves. However, in judging overall
plausibility, one should also consider what the probability is that underwater
photographs taken at Loch Ness would resemble eyewitness reports of ani-
240 Bauer

big. "1 Reproduced by penni\51on from l i ~ n c cl

\ al. ( 1976). '1) l'hc "gargoyle head" photo. b) S I ~
Peter Scott'\ ~ntcrprctat~on
o f the "gargoyle". c ) 'Ihe "body-ncch" photo.

~ n a l s .Of the 6 photographs obtained on several occasions, hours apart, in

1975, one looks rnuch like a sandy bottom strewn with rocks (Rines et al.,
1976: 34, B); two (Rines et al., 1976: 34, A & F) have no obvious interpreta-
tion; one (Kines et al., 1976: 34, D) looks rather like a crocodilian neck and
head; the reinaining two are the gargoyle and body-neck shown above.
 Case for Loch Ness "Monster" 24 1

If there are no Nessies, what are the chances that 3 out of 6 underwater pho-
tographs, obtained on separate occasions, would capture logs or debris that
look like various parts of a Nessie?

What Could Nessies Be?

If the descriptions of Nessies provided by photos and eyewitnesses could be
interpreted as some species of animal known from anywhere else in the world,
there would be no great fuss about it. If sharks, say, or dolphins, or some small
whales had adapted to fresh water, that would be quite interesting to biologists
but no reason for world-wide media or public interest. The trouble is, Nessies
look like nothing now known to be alive anywhere. Perhaps even worse, they
look rather dinosaur-like. The real animals that they resemble most closely are
plesiosaurs, marine creatures that once thrived in the oceans all over the globe
but that are believed to have been extinct for tens of millions of years. More-
over, plesiosaurs are believed to have been fish-hunting predators that ranged
close to the surface, not several hundred feet deep, as Nessies seem to like to be.
There are excellent reasons why Nessies should not be any of the sorts of
creatures that various people have suggested (Mackal, 1976): a huge inverte-
brate (none approaching the size of Nessies has ever been known); an amphib-
ian (again, none approaching the size of Nessies has ever been known); a rep-
tile (the water is too cold); a mammal (would need to breathe and would
therefore be often seen at the surface-as also would reptiles). So frustratingly
puzzling is this mystery of possible identity that a few people have made extra-
ordinarily far-fetched proposals, for instance, that Nessies are some sort of
psychic rather than physical phenomenon (Holiday, 1986). There is, however,
a less implausible possibility: a yet-to-be-discovered species that is deep-
dwelling in the oceans as well as in some deep lakes.
That the depths of the oceans remain largely unexplored is a simple matter
of fact. The coelacanth is illustrative: the first one was recognized in 1938, but
it was not until 1952 that a second specimen was obtained even though sub-
stantial rewards had been offered. Nowadays looking at coelacanths has be-
come almost routine, via television cameras hundreds of feet below the surface
in the little area near the Comores that was thought to be their only habitat. But
then again, more recently a new species of coelacanth has been discovered
whose home seems to be near Indonesia.
An even more striking illustration of humankind's ignorance of the depths is
the megamouth shark, caught by chance about 25 years ago and representing,
moreover, a family completely absent from the known fossil record. The re-
cent television series The Blue Planet (2001) features a number of other previ-
ously unknown and accordingly bizarre, albeit smaller, deep-ocean dwellers.
The case of the giant squid (Heuvelmans, 1968) is also instructive or sug-
gestive. Once regarded as mythical, it became accepted when sizable portions
of various large ones were washed ashore; and marine biologists have for some
242 B auer

years now attempted, so far unsuccessfully, to capture a complete and fully

grown specimen of this deep-dwelling species (Ellis, 1998; TDC, 2000).
So it is surely not too farfetched to contemplate the possibility of another
deep-living marine species that has not yet been thoroughly identified and is
known so far only through its rare appearances near the surface, in the oceans
as sea-serpents, in Loch Ness as Nessies, in Loch Morar as Morags, and per-
haps in a few other deep lakes as well. Nessies and Morags will have become
landlocked (as Constance Whyte first suggested) as the land rose following the
last Ice Age, perhaps 10,000 to 15,000 years ago. Both Loch Ness and Loch
Morar are of the order of twice as deep as the North Sea. When they were part
of the ocean for a time as the Ice Age was coming to an end, these will have
been deep as well as large sea-fjords in which the Nessies will have foraged
and eventually become trapped.
An obvious objection to this thesis is that-apart from sonar-all the data
about Nessies have been gathered from surface or near-surface appearances.
Why would habitually deep-dwelling creatures ever come up?
These objections can be answered. However, the following particular an-
swers are intended only to show that plausible answers are available; it is not
being claimed that these are necessarily correct. Air-breathing animals, even
large ones, can come up quite unobtrusively to breathe; some species of ple-
siosaurs had nostrils at the top of the skull. Increasing water traffic might well
drive the creatures to be even more reclusive and selective in their journeys to
the surface. Fish-eating creatures might well come close to the surface for par-
ticularly enticing food. The AAS underwater photography was based on the
premise that channels leading up to salmon rivers were likely places to find
Nessies at least some of the time, and the successful photos might seem to bear
that out. Less success in the last quarter century might stem from the notorious
decline in salmon runs, and perhaps also from the fact that Urquhart Bay,
where the AAS photos were obtained, has experienced considerable silting in
recent years as well as the construction of a marina not far from the observa-
tion points where the photos had been obtained.
Sightings have always been rare, except perhaps in the early 1930s, when a
large number of people were watching intently; trees along the loch had been
removed during road-building, and noisy blasting as well as ditching of much
rubbish into the water might have aroused the creatures to come up more fre-
quently and obviously. Most sightings are brief, though on rare occasions they
may last for tens of minutes. Such surfacings might bespeak illness, or perhaps
something associated with reproduction.
At any rate, there is nothing decisive about claims that deep-dwelling crea-
tures are inconsistent with occasional surface appearances. Giant squid remain
to be captured mature and whole, but significant bits are washed ashore occa-
sionally; and their existence was known at first only from incredible stories of
ships being attacked by long-armed monsters. Coelacanths live at depths of
hundreds of feet, yet the first and second ones delivered to science were caught
by commercial fishermen.
 Case for Loch Ness "Monster" 243

If the deep-dwelling hypothesis is correct, then sonar would seem to be the

prime technique to be used in searching for these creatures, but the quest might
usefully be extended to deep sea-fjords. It is intriguing that on several occa-
sions over the years, Scandinavian navy ships have reported sonar contact with
apparent foreign submarines that subsequently, however, always disappeared
before they could be identified' I.
It would be natural for deep dwellers to come to rely on senses other than
sight, possibly on sound or echo location (sonar). It is intriguing that on one
occasion, the AAS did detect an apparent sound emission from a strong under-
water target in Loch Ness (Rines & Curtis, 1979). If Nessies employ sonar,
then they might best be sought with sound of frequencies that they would be
least likely to detect. One should then begin by deploying hydrophones in the
deepest portions of Loch Ness. Recorded sounds should be examined to identi-
fy possibly favored frequencies. Subsequent sonar searches would use sound
waves of other frequencies.

Notes
' The JARIC examination had been carried out at the behest of a Member of
Parliament, David James, who had organized a decade-long systematic sur-
veillance of Loch Ness during the 1960s. (The organization was first called the
Loch Ness Phenomena Investigation Bureau, later shortened to Loch Ness In-
vestigation or LNI.)
' Inevitably this was some hours later. Lighting conditions were different
since the sun was now higher, and the water appears calmer. Nevertheless, the
dimensions and speed of the boat afford useful controls.
By the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (Martin, 1976) and for several television
documentaries (History, 1998; NOVA, 1998; TDC, 1993).
Loch Ness is joined to the sea, at the north to the Moray Firth and at the
south through a series of other lochs to the sea-loch Linnhe and the Sea of the
Hebrides. The rivers forming these connections are so shallow, and the canals
(together, the Caledonian Canal) so narrow and interspersed with locks, that
no large object could go in or out of Loch Ness without being observed.
If an object is stationary and a narrow beam of sound can be scanned across
it, a shape may be discernible. That is how the wreck of the Titanic was recog-
nized and how a submerged airplane was discovered in Loch Ness (Klein &
Finkelstein, 1976) that was later recovered and is now exhibited in a museum
(Harris, n.d.).
'1 am indebted to Bob Rines for pointing this out (phone conversation of 2
December 200 1).
' witchell's book has been brought up to date several times, most recently in
1989.
As well as relying on Burton, Campbell (1986b) tries to make a hump-as-
boat identification plausible by speculating about how JARIC might have mis-
244 Bauer

calculated. In response, Dinsdale (1990) pointed out that Campbell erred in

several respects:
Campbell's guess, that the map Dinsdale supplied JARIC was the sketch
from his book, was wrong: it was part of an Ordnance Survey map of
scale 1 inch to I mile. Campbell based some of his calculations on that
sketch, and all of them are therefore in error.
Campbell was wrong about the elevation of Observation Points on the
map, the site of filming with respect to that, and subsequent calcula-
tions.
Campbell was wrong in his speculative reconstruction of the details of
Dinsdale's filming.
Campbell stated that the type of film Dinsdale used was unknown. It was
Kodak Plus X, ASA 50, as Campbell might have discovered had he
asked.
For example, one was characterized as "larger than a shark but smaller
than a whale" (A&E, 1994).
10
Commenting on an earlier draft of this article, Campbell wrote that he now
accepts the explanation by Martin and Boyd as the most likely one. I retain ref-
erence to his earlier demurrer to illustrate that Martin and Boyd's account is
not immediately or obviously convincing even to as confirmed yet indepen-
dently thinking a disbeliever as Campbell.
' I "Swedish navy helicopters have again dropped depth charges off northern
Sweden and divers have searched the seabed for evidence of intruding sub-
marines.. . It was the third lime.. . since a hunl began on July I for suspected
foreign submarines" (Scotsman, 17 July 1987). "Every year Sweden launches
a hunt for submarines.. . which it says lurk in its neutral waters. The hunts have
been fruitless" (Aberdeen Press & Journal, 2 September 1988).

Acknowledgments
The Journal of Scientific Exploration seemed the best place to publish this
article. Since the author is also Editor of the Journal, no truly disinterested
mode of having the piece refereed seemed available. Consequently it is pub-
lished not as a Research Article but as an Essay. In lieu of formal refereeing, I
sent the MS. for comment to a number of interested people, including non-be-
lievers and disbelievers as well as fellow believers. I am most grateful for all
the responses, as a result of which the essay is greatly improved from its initial
drafts, in particular concerning the significance of eyewitness testimony.
I thank especially Ike Blonder, Dieter Britz, Gary Campbell, Steuart Camp-
bell, Loren Coleman, Wendy Dinsdale, David Heppell, Rip Hepple, Marty
Klein, Gary Mangiacopra, Martien t'Mannetje, Bob Rines, and Richard D.
Smith. Of course there is no implication that they agree with my interpreta-
tions or are responsible for any remaining errors of fact.
 Case for Loch Ness "Monster"

References

A&E (1994). Ancient Mysteries: The Loch Ness Monster. Video made by ITN for A&E, narrated
by Leonard Nimoy.
ABC [video] (1987). Secrets & Mysteries. Narrated by Edward Mulhare, broadcast on A&E Channel.
Anonymous (1975). Naming the Loch Ness Monster. Nature, 258, 466-68.
Ailoilyinous (1984). Skeptical eye-The (retouched) Loch Ness Monster. Disc~over,5, September, p. 6.
Bauer, H. H. (1982). The Loch Ness Monster: Public perception and the evidence. Cryptozoology,
1, 40-45.
Bauer, H. H. (1986). The Enigma of Loch Ness: Making Sense of LI Mystery. Urbana, IL: Universi-
ty of Illinois Press.
Bauer, H. H. (1987a). Society and scientific anomalies: Common knowledge about the Loch Ness
Monster. Journl~lqf Scientific Exploration, I , 5 1-74.
Bauer, H. H. (1 987b). Operation Deepscan (16 October). Nessletter, no. 84.
Bauer, H. H. (1988). Public perception of the Loch Ness Monster. Scottish Naturalist, 100th year,
69-93.
Bauer, H. H. (in press). Common knowledge about the Loch Ness Monster: Television, videos,
and films.
Binns, R. (1983). The Loch Ness Mystery Solved. Shepton Mallet (Somerset, United Kingdom):
Open Books.
Blue Planet (2001). Produced under the direction of David Attenborough. First shown on British
television during September and October 200 1 and on PBS in the United States in January and
May 2002.
Braithwaite, H. (1968). Sonar picks up stirrings in Loch Ness. New Scientist, 19 December, pp.
664-66.
Burton, M. (1961). The Elusive Monster. London: Rupert Hart-Davis.
Burton, M. (1 969). Verdict on Nessie [letter]. New Scientist, 23 January, p. 191.
Burton, M. (1982). Loch Ness saga: A flurry of foam and spray. New Scientist, 8 July, pp. 112-1 3.
Campbell, G. ( 1 998). Nesspaper, 2(2), July.
Campbell, G. (1999). Nesspaper, 3(1),January.
Campbell, S. (1 986a). The Loch Ness Monster: The Evidence. Wellingborough, United Kingdom:
Aquarian Press; Rev. ed. ( 1 997). Amherst, NY: Prometheus.
Campbell, S. (1986b). Monster or boat? Photographic Journal, February, 54-58.
Campbell, S. (1995). Nessie 'model' explanation suspect [letter]. Skeptical Inquirer,
March/April, 62-63.
CBS (2001). 6 0 Minutes II. 4 December. Segment about Loch Ness.
Chubb, S. R. (2000). Introduction to the special series of papers.. . dealing with 'Cold Fusion'. Ac-
countability in Research: Policies and Quality A.ssurunce, 8(1, 2 ) , 1-17; citing Edmund
Storms.
Dash, M. (1988). Operation Deepscan. Fortean Times, 50 (Summer),35-39.
Dinsdale, T. (1 961). Loch Ness Monster. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 2nd ed. ( 1972). 3rd
ed. (1976). 4th ed. (1982).
Dinsdale, T. (1990). The Loch Ness enigma. Photographic Journal, January, pp. 40-43.
Ellis, R. ( I 998). The SeurchJi)r the Giant Squid. Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot Press.
Gillespie, A. (1980). Letter (ref. 384lARG:bjw-263) to Roger W. Ehrich (Computer Science, Vir-
ginia Polytechnic Institute & State University ), 10 October. Supplied to author by Professor
Ehrich.
Gould, R. T. (1934). The Loch Ness Monster and Others. London: Geoffrey Bles.
Harris, P. I. (n.d.). The Story of 'Another' Loch Ness Monster. Edinburgh, Scotland: Loch Ness
Wellington Association.
Hepple, R. R. (2001). Ne.ssletter (ISSN 0204-7001), 140, July.
Heuveln~ans,B. (1968). In the Wake qf'the Sea-Serpents. New York: Hill & Wang.
History (1998). In Search oj'History: The Loch Ness Monster. Video produced by MPH Entertain-
ment for History Channel (also screened as Incredible but true? The Loch Ness Monster).
Holiday, F. W . (1970). The Great Orm of Loch Ness. New York: Avon (first published 1968 by
Faber & Faber).
Holiday, F. W. (1986). The Goblin Universe. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn.
In Search OJ..The Loch Ness Monster (1976). Alan Landsburg Production.
246 B auer

James, D. (n.d.). Photographic Interpretation Report-Loch Ness (Report on a film taken by Tim
Dinsdale).
Klein, M., & Finkelstein, C. (1976). Sonar serendipity in Loch Ness. Technology Review, 79(2),
44-57.
Loch Ness & Morar Project (LN&MP) (1983). Loch Ness Project Report. Loch Ness & Morar
Project.
LNI (1969). Annual Report, 1969. The Loch Ness Investigation.
Mackal, R. (1976). The Monsters of Loch Ness. Chicago: Swallow.
Martin, D., & Boyd, A. (1999). Nessie-The Surgeon's Photo Exposed. East Barnet, United King-
dom: Martin & Boyd (ISBN 0-9535708-0-0).
Martin, R. (1976). The Legend of Loch Ness (film, 105 minutes).
North Scene (199 1 ). The Loch Ness Monster Story. Script by Tony Harmsworth, produced in In-
verness, distributed (1992) by Eagle Eye Productions.
NOVA (1998). The Beust of Loch Ness. Video produced by WGBH (Boston), Channel Four,
Sveriges TV, Nine (Australia) for PBS.
Rines, R. H. (2001). Cited in Inverness Courier, 13 August.
Rines, R. H., & Curtis, H. S. (1979). Loch Ness: The big one got away-Again. Technology Re-
view, June/July, 14, 16.
Rines, R. H., Wyckoff, C. W., Edgerton, H. E., & Klein, M. (1976). Search for the Loch Ness Mon-
ster. Technology Review, 78(5),25-40.
Shuker, K. P. N. (1995). In Search ofPrehistoric Survivors. London: Blandford.
Sitwell, N. (1976). The Loch Ness Monster evidence. Wildlife, March, 102-1 11.
Smith, R. D. (1995). The classic Wilson Nessie photo: Is the hoax a hoax? Fate, 48(11),42-44.
Smith, R. D. (1999). Further considerations on the alleged Surgeon's Photo hoax. Nesspaper,
3(2), July.
TDC (The Discovery Channel) (1993). Loch Ness Discovered. Video produced by Yorkshire TV
for Discovery Channel; narrated by Roy Marsden.
TDC (The Discovery Channel) (1 999). Lake Monsters. Video produced by BBC Scienceworld for
BBC Worldwide and the Discovery Channel; narrated by Jonathan Pryce.
TDC (The Discovery Channel) (2000). Questfor the Giant Squid. Video 170019.
TLC (The Learning Channel). (1996). Great Mysteries ($the 20th Century: Loch Ness.
TLC (The Learning Channel) (2001). Loch Ness: Search for the Truth.
Whyte, C. (1957). More Than a Legend. London: Hamish Hamilton.
Witchell, N. (1974). The Loch Ness Story. Lavenham, United Kingdom: Terence Dalton.
Wyckoff, C. W. (1984). Letter, 27 August, to Henry Anatole Grunwald, editor in chief, Discover
magazine; copy supplied by Wyckoff to author.
Journal of Scientific Exploration, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 247-259,2002 0892-3310102
O 2002 Society for Scientific Exploration

LETTER TO THE EDITOR

Aspirin Study Flawed

The authors of a recent paper in JAMA on all-cause mortality according to as-

pirin use in a prospective, observational, 3. I -year study came to the conclu-
sion that aspirin use was strongly protective, cutting the death rate from 8% to
4% absolute (Gum et al., 2001). This contradicts the conclusions of a recent
review in JSE (Kauffman, 2000).
In the JAMA paper, Gum et al. continued to perpetuate the myth that the US
Physicians' Health Study (PHs) used aspirin (their Ref. l ) , when in fact it
used buffered aspirin containing magnesium and calcium. The relative risk
(RR) of both cardiovascular deaths and total mortality was 0.96 in the "as-
pirin" group of the PHs, which was considered non-significant. In a 7-year
study in the UK on male physicians (in the quintile considered to be at the
highest risk for myocardial infarction) in which plain aspirin was used, the risk
of total mortality was 1.06 in the aspirin group, which was also considered not
significant (Meade, 1998); however, the spread of 10% between the two stud-
ies is suggestive. Because Gum et al. did not have the attending physicians dis-
tinguish between plain and buffered aspirin in the subjects, the results of their
study are inadequate to make a recommendation for treatment, or to draw the
conclusions they did on the effectiveness of "aspirin". A study from the Cen-
ters for Disease Control reconfirms the inverse relationship between serum
magnesium and ischaemic heart disease, and also total death rates (Ford,
1999), as does a recent dietary trial (Klevay and Milne, 2002). Cogent argu-
ments have been made that the 52 mg of magnesium ion in a B ~ f f e r i ntablet,
'~~
which is what was actually used in the P H s study, could have been responsible
for the better results in the PHs study compared with the UK study (Kauffman,
2000).
Another flaw in their study is that Gum et al. did not match patients for use
of either supplementary magnesium or vitamins C (Enstrom et al., 1992) or E
(Stephens et al., 1996), all of which are more protective against cardiovascular
disease than real aspirin. It is quite plausible that subjects conscientious
enough to take "aspirin" might have taken any or all of these and other supple-
ments in addition. Nor were patients matched for alcohol or nut consumption;
high nut consumption in one study reduced the RR of cardiovascular death to
0.61, and all-cause death to 0.82 in a very old population (Fraser et al., 1997).
The duration of the trial by Gum et al. was much too short, at 3.1 years, to
248 Letter to the Editor

reveal long-term adverse effects, as shown by the greatly increased risk of

cataracts in subjects 255 years old who took aspirin for 210 years (Kauffman,
2000).
Gum et al. wrote that "It is less clear if aspirin reduces long-term all-cause
mortality in stable populations". This was resolved for men, at least, in the
study on 5,500 male physicians in the UK-it does not in a 7-year trial
(Meade, 1998 ).
The study was the first to include women, and the raw data for women
should not be ignored: 3.8% of "aspirin" users died vs. 3.4% of non-users. For
the study population as a whole the raw data showed that 4.5% of "aspirin"
users died vs. 4.5% of non-users. The extreme manipulation of data carried out
in the form of patient matching to produce a positive result for "aspirin" might
have been warranted if the obvious confounding variables had been consid-
ered, and a much longer time-frame adopted. As it is, this study in JAMA is too
flawed to show that the conclusions in the JSE Review (Kauffman, 2000) were
wrong.
A very recent meta-analysis by the Antithrombotic Trialists' Collaboration
in the UK came to the conclusion, on primary prevention, that "For most
healthy individuals, however, for whom the risk of a vascular event is likely to
be substantially less than 1 % a year, daily aspirin may well be inappropriate",
and that for secondary prevention, "Low dose aspirin (75-150 mg daily) is an
effective antiplatelet regimen for long-term use" (Baigent et al., 2002). This
latter conclusion was strongly disputed as being due to bias, including retro-
spective analysis resulting in "resurrection of a number of dead patients"; and
that aspirin may lead to a "cosmetic" reduction in non-fatal events and an in-
crease in sudden death (Cleland, 2002a); and to publication bias (Cleland,
2002b). No evidence exists that reducing the dose of aspirin or using slow-re-
lease formulations would reduce the incidence of gastrointestinal haemor-
rhage (Derry et al., 2000). Thus there is recent support for the conclusions in
the JSE Review.
Joel M. Kaugman, PhD
Research Professor Chemistry
University of the Sciences in Philadelphia
600 South 43rd St.
Philadelphia, PA 19104
21 5-596-8836
kauffman @ hslc.org

References
Baigent, C., Sudlow, C., Collins, R., & Peto, R. (2002). Collaborative meta-analysis of ran-
domised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and
stroke in high risk patients. British Medical Journal, 324, 71-86.
Cleland, J. G. F. (2000a). Preventing atherosclerotic events with aspirin. British Medical Journal,
324, 103-105.
 Letter to the Editor 249

Cleland, J. G. F. (2000b). No reduction in cardiovascular risk with NSATDS-Including aspirin?

Lancet, 359,92-93.
Enstrom, J. E., Kanim, L. E., & Klein, M. A. (1992). Vitamin C intake and mortality among a sam-
ple of the United States population. Epidemiolo~v,3, 189-191.
Ford, E. S. (1999). Serum magnesium and ischaemic heart disease: Findings from a national sam-
ple of US adults. International Journal qf Epidemiology, 28, 645-65 1.
Fraser, G. E., & Shavlik, D. J. (1997). Risk factors for all-cause and coronary heart disease mortal-
ity in the oldest-old. Archives of Internal Medicine, 157, 2249-2258.
Gum, P. A,, Thamilarisan, M., Watanabe, J., Blackstone, E. H., & Lauer, M.S. (200 1 ). Aspirin use
and all-cause mortality among patients being evaluated for known or suspected coronary
artery disease. Journal qf the American Medical Association, 286, 1 1 87- 1 194.
Kauffman, J . M. (2000). Should you take aspirin to prevent heart attack'? J o ~ ~ r n oj'Scientific
al E X-
ploration, 14, 623-641.
Klevay, L. M., & Milne, D. D. (2002). Low dietary magnesium increases supraventricular ectopy.
American Journal qf Clirzical Nutritiorl, 75, 550-554.
Meade, T. W., with The Medical Research Council's General Practice Research Framework
(1998). Thrombosis prevention trial: Randomised trial of low-intensity oral anticoagulation
with warfarin and low-dose aspirin in the primary prevention of ischaemic heart disease in men
at increased risk. Lancet, -3.51, 233-24 1.
Stephens, N. G., Parsons, A., Schofield, P. M., Kelly, F., Cheeseman, K., Mitchinson, M. J., &
Brown, M. J. (1996). Randomised controlled trial of vitamin E in patients with coronary dis-
ease: Cambridge Heart Antioxidant Study (CHAOS). Lancet, 347, 78 1-786.

Mitogenetic Radiation

The letter by Roger Taylor on Mitogenetic Rays (JSE 15: 522-23) strikes a
chord with me because some years ago I co-authored a paper entitled "Partial
evidence for the existence of mitogenetic radiation" (Wainwright et al., 1997).
The paper describes experiments in which we used a lux-marked bacterium to
try and demonstrate mitogenetic radiation. Such modified bacteria emit visi-
ble light in direct proportion to their metabolic activity. We took such a bac-
terium and exposed it in a special cell to an actively growing fungus. The two
were separated either by ordinary glass or by silica glass. Light emission from
the bacterium was found to be increased by the presence of the fungus, but
only when silica glass separated the two. Our conclusion was that this result
provided evidence for mitogenetic radiation; i.e. the fungus produced UV light
that could pass through silica glass but not through normal glass; this UV light
then stimulated bacterial growth. We went to considerable lengths to exclude
all other possibilities. Each experimental run was well replicated and the re-
sults were subjected to statistical analysis. As an additional safeguard against
any possible experimenter effect, our experiments were performed double
blind. We used the term "Partial Evidence" in the paper describing our work
because, while two experiments statistically demonstrated the effect, we failed
to produce the effect when the experiment was repeated on a further five occa-
sions. This "decline effect" might be explained on the basis that we did not use
synchronised cell cultures, use of which in the future might produce more re-
peatable results.
250 Letter to the Editor

Walter Gratzer (2000) described our experiments in his book The Under-
growth of Science. He begins his description of our studies by stating that
"There is also one representative of the cult in a British University. Working
with bioluminescent bacteria.. .". My O x f ~ r dDictionary defines the word cult
as "followers of a system of religious worship especially as expressed in cere-
monies". The use by Grazter of this word is clearly designed to leave the read-
er with the impression that my colleagues and I were involved in some ama-
teurish pseudo-science. The reality of course is that we are bona fide scientists
attempting to use the scientific method to examine the validity or otherwise of
a phenomenon that has long been reported (Wainwright, 1994). It is also note-
worthy that Gratzer makes no reference to the considerable number of modern
studies (which were known when he wrote his book) showing that all living
cells emit low intensity UV light (Wainwright, 1998). This fact is consistent
with the original theory, proposed long before the technology was available to
detect such radiation.
When such authors as Professor Gratzer set themselves up as high priests
and arbiters of good science, they might have the good manners to avoid using
words like "cult" when describing serious attempts, like ours, to practise this
art. They might also make the effort of providing the most up to date informa-
tion on the phenomenon they are attempting to debunk.

Milton Wainwright
Department of Molecular Biology and Bintechnology
University of ShefSield
Sheffiield, S10 ZTN, U K
e-mail: m. wainwright@Sheffield.ac. uk

References
Gratzer, W. (2000). The Undergrowth of Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Taylor, R. (200 1 ) . Mitogenetic rays. Journal of Scientific Exploration, 15, 522-523.
Wainwright, M. ( 1994). Microbiology's mysterious rays. Society for General Microbiology Quar-
terly, 2 1,3-5.
Wainwright, M. ( 1 998). Historical and more recent evidence for the existence of mitogenetic radi-
ation. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 41,565-57 1.
Wainwright, M., Killham, K., Russell, C., & Grayston, S. J . (1997). Partial evidence for the exis-
tence of mitogenetic radiation. Microbiology, 143, 1-3.

Coronary Heart Disease

As a Cardiologist for 25 years, and a JSE subscriber for 5 years, I was rather
offended at the poor quality of the book reviews by Joel Kauffman on both
"The Cholesterol Myth" and "The Arginine Solution". Clearly, as a basic sci-
entist, he has no appreciation of the complex pathophysiology of coronary
 Letter to the Editor 25 1

heart disease. His claims that cholesterol is not the cause of heart disease are
very misleading. Certainly, dietary cholesterol is broken up in the gut, and not
absorbed as such. Dietary fats, however, do contribute to the levels of blood
cholesterol, and there is ample evidence that the lipid pools which produce
atherosclerotic plaques are related to these levels.
However, cholesterol is not the whole answer. Dr. McCully is to be com-
mended for his work on Homocystine, which is felt to contribute to atheroscle-
rosis by enhancing endothelial inflammatory effects and contributing to plaque
development and rupture. Unfortunately, he is mistaken when he attributes this
as the & cause of atherosclerotic heart disease.
The bottom line is, atherosclerosis has multifactorial etiologies, and no one
can claim that any single item is the answer. Likewise, to imply that choles-
terol is not related to heart disease is ludicrous. It is a complex interaction be-
tween the development of lipid-filled plaque obstructing the arteries as well as
reduced endothelial function which restricts the compliance of the arterial sys-
tem. Multiple factors increase the risk of this, including elevated cholesterol
levels, elevated homocystine levels, high blood pressure, chronic smoking,
poor glucose metabolism (Diabetes), etc.
The Arginine debate centers more around improving endothelial function,
since it is the precursor of Nitric Oxide-one of the main chemicals involved in
dilating blood vessels. There is no evidence that it reduces the size of plaques.
The current best thinking about reducing the incidence of coronary heart dis-
ease involves a combination of reducing plaque size (cholesterol reduction), as
well as improving endothelial function (Arginine; but also exercise training,
blood pressure reduction, dietary modification, etc.). This does not even in-
clude any interventional procedures, which are basically stop-gap measures
and do nothing to affect the overall process.
Joel Kauffman was far afield in his condemnation of cardiovascular treat-
ment. JSE prides itself on being a peer-review journal, but Mr Kauffman's
comments are not reflective of peer knowledge of the subject at all.
Christopher J. Leet, M D
Fellow, American College (J'Cardiology

Reply to Christopher J. Leet

Dr. Leet is incorrect in writing that 1 have "...no appreciation of the complex
pathology of coronary heart disease [CHD] ...". Fortunately, it is not necessary
to understand the process in order to judge what the effects of various inter-
ventions are; it is enough to read the medical literature critically.
Cholesterol is not digested (Enig, 2000: 56). Dietary fats may raise or lower
blood cholesterol levels (Enig, 2000: 57), but these changes are have not been
shown to alter total death rates (Garber et al., 1996). Raised cholesterol levels
are part of the tissue repair process in atherosclerosis (Enig, 2000: 57-8). The
lipid hypothesis of atherosclerosis has no scientific basis (Stehbens, 2001), and
252 Letter to the Editor

is being supplanted by the vascular inflammation hypothesis (Libby et al., 2002;

Liu et al., 2002) in which hyperhomocysteinemia is involved (Li et al., 2002).
Dr. Leet's peers, for the most part, have recommended interventions, such as
coronary bypass operations, which do not change death rates much in the long
run, and which are superior to stenting or no surgical treatment only where the
left main coronary artery is bypassed (Dzavik et al., 2001); low-fat diets,
which do not alter total death rates (Garber et al., 1996); blood pressure reduc-
tion, which has increased total death rates in many cases, as when calcium-
channel blocker drugs are taken; the use of antiarrythmic drugs, which in-
creased total death rates; and serum cholesterol level reduction with statin
drugs, which have very little effect on total death rates, and usually cause se-
vere side-effects (Fleming et al., 1996). Opposing smoking has been an effec-
tive intervention.
My peers are to be found at <http://www.ravnskov.nu/cholesterolskeptics.htm>
along with their thoughtful interpretations of the medical literature. Some of
us think that preventing the incidence of CHD by dietary changes would be ac-
complished by lowering homocysteine levels by use of vitamins B6 and B 12
and folic acid, by using foods or supplements that contain magnesium and
potassium, by avoiding excessive omega-6 or trans fatty acids in the diet
(Enig, 2000; 1 11-1 2), by avoiding processed meats and refined and/or high-
glycemic carbohydrates, and by increasing nut consumption (Abbasi et al.,
2000; Hu et a1.,1998; Liu et al., 2002). Others among us, including Uffe Ravn-
skov, do not think diet has much significance.
Dr. Leet's statement on the lack of evidence that L-arginine reduces the size
of plaques may be true, but on pages 92-3 of "The Arginine Solution" there is
a report of a study in rabbits from the August, 1997, issue of Circulation in
which lovastatin was said to have a weaker inhibitory effect on carotid plaque
formation and intimal thickening of the aorta than L-arginine.
Joel M. Kauffman
Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry
University of the Sciences in Philadelphia
600 South 43rd St., Philadelphia, PA 19104

References
Abbasi, F., McLaughlin, T., Lamendola, C., Kim, H. S., Tanaka, A., Wang, T., Nakajima, K., &
Reaven, G. M. (2000). High carbohydrate diets, triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, and coronary
heart disease risk. American Journal of Cardiology, 85,45-48.
Dzavik, V., Ghali, W. A., Norris, C., Mitchell, L. B., Koshal, A., Saunders, L. D., Galbraith, P. D.,
Hui, W., Faris, P., & Knudtson, M. L. (2001). Long-term survival in 1 1,661 patients with mul-
tivessel coronary artery disease in the era of stenting: A report from the Alberta Provincial Pro-
ject for Outcome Assessment in Coronary Heart Disease (APPROACH) Investigators. Ameri-
can Heart Journal, 142, 119-126.
Enig, M. C. (2000). Know Your Fats. Silver Spring, MD: Bethesda Press.
Fleming, T. R., & DeMets; D. L. (1996). Surrogate end points in clinical trials: Are we being mis-
led? Annals of Internal Medicine, 125,605-613.
Garber, A. M., Browner, W. S., & Huller, S. B. (1996). Clinical guideline, Part 2. Cholesterol
screening in asymptomatic adults, revisited. Annals of Internal Medicine, 124,518-53 1.
 Letter to the Editor 253

Hu, F. B., Stampfer, M. J., Manson, J.-A., Rimm, E. B . , Colditz, G. A., Rosner, B. A., Speizer, F.
E., Hennekens, C. H., & Willett, W. C. (1998). Frequent nut consumption and risk of coronary
heart disease in women: Prospective cohort study. British Medical Journal, 3 17, 134 1- 1 345.
Li, H., Lewis, A., Brodsky, S., Rieger, R., Iden, C., & Goligorsky, M. S. (2002). Homocysteine in-
duces 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase in vascular endothelial cells: A
mechanism for development of atherosclerosis? Circulation, 105, 1037-1043.
Libby, P., Ridker, P. M., & Maseri, A. (2002). Inflammation and atherosclerosis. Circulation, 105,
11 35-1143.
Liu, S., Manson, J.-A. E., Buring, J. E., Stampfer, M. J., Willett, W. C., & Ridker, P. M. (2002).
Relation between a diet with a high glycemic load and plasma concentrations of high-sensitiv-
ity C-reactive protein in middle-aged women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 75,
492-498.
Stehbens, W. E. (2001). Coronary heart disease, hypercholesteremia, and atherosclerosis I. False
premises and 11. Misrepresented data. Experimental and Molecular Pathology 70, 103-1 19 and
120-1 39.

Precognition and Telepathic Waves

I was interested to read this paper because, when a student at Cambridge Uni-
I constructed
versity in the late 1 9 5 0 ' ~ ~ a so-called Hieronymus Machine. This
consisted of a coil of wire about 10 cm. diameter, a few hundred turns on a
plastic tube, into which various materials were inserted by the experimenter.
The two ends of the coil were taken to another room, where they were con-
7
nected across a variable 'tuning capacitor, with the input to an electronic am-
plifier (using tubes at that time). The output of the amplifier was connected to
a flat coil between two plastic plates, about 10 cm in diameter. The percipient
felt the outer surface of the upper plate with his fingertips while manipulating
the tuning capacitor, which had a calibrated scale.
At certain positions of the capacitor, the percipient felt the surface become
sticky, and the positions so determined depended on the nature of the material
placed into the input coil by the experimenter. The percipients were not in-
formed of the nature of the sensation they would receive from the plate, but
they all reported stickiness. Consistent results were obtained with different
percipients. I had obtained the design of the machine from an editorial in John
W. Campbell's Anulog/Astounding Science Fiction magazine. On leaving the
University I gave it to the Parapsychological Society.
My view is that both the Hieronymus Machine and the Vasilescus' device
work by virtue of the fact that both experimenter and percipient do not subcon-
sciously believe that parapsychological powers exist. But if an impressive-
looking electronic box is involved, they can use it as a 'scapegoat' onto which
to 'blame' their own inherent psychic powers.
George Sassoon
3 Greenhill, Sutton Veny,
Warminster, Wilts BA12 7BR England
+44 01 985-840205
geosas @ aol.com
254 Letter to the Editor

Reply to George Sassoon:

1 found very interesting the "Hieronymus Machine". But, as opposed to Mr.
Sassoon, my view is that between this device and "Patulea's prototype" there
is no fundamental resemblance. My device is an authentic radio-amplifier with
a gain of 220, which, tuned to a wavelength of 46.20 m, is able to clearly am-
plify telepathic and precognitive messages.
1 do not agree either with the somewhat strange explanation of Mr. Sassoon
that "both the experimenter and the percipient do not subconsciously believe
that parapsychological powers exist, but if an impressive-looking electronic
box is involved, they can use it as a 'scapegoat' onto which to 'blame' their
own inherent psychic powers". This explanation seems to suggest that the re-
lated manifestations would be a kind of placebo-type effect. But my numerous
control tests attested that, in blind trials (with the device in "off" position or
even in "on" position, but tuned on other wave-lengths than 46.20), the results
were negative, thus excluding any kind of self suggestion as an explanation.
Dr. Vasilescu
Bucharest, Romania

Additional Comment from Henry H. Bauer, Editor-in-Chiefi

Mention of the Hieronymus machine sparked a recollection that, years ago, it
was tried out by one of my students, Dieter Britz, who is now professor of
chemistry at Aarhus University (Denmark). I asked him whether my recollec-
tion was correct, and he replied:
"Yes I did.. . .The story is more interesting still. I had no money at the time and couldn't
have afforded the electronic components of the machine. However, based on his theory
of how it operated, Campbell [in Analog/Astounding Science Fiction] suggested that a
circuit diagram, with actual wires connecting some points, plus a bit of cardboard that
could be rotated, to represent a prism of some sort, should also do the trick, and I could
afford all that. So I made one. It amazed us right from the start, by not working; I
checked and found out that a wire had come loose, and fixed that, whereupon the ma-
chine indeed worked, producing that sticky feeling on a metal bar with most people
who tried it (except myself), at certain settings of the bit of cardboard. The metal bar
was a stick of solder, filed to a rectangular cross section. I kept the thing for some years
and threw it out at last. We never found out how it worked, of course, or what it
meant.... A small side effect of it was that those for whom it worked got a bit scared
(well, a couple of them did). They got an eerie feeling that reality was not quite as
sound as they liked. The sticky feeling was described fairly consistently too, the con-
sensus being that it was like running the fingers over a row of tiny tubes".
 Letter to the Editor 255

Weight Change at Death

"Unexplained weight gain at the moment of death" (Winter 2001, p. 495) re-
minded me of weight losses on death which were later explained as gas loss
with the pressure released by the heart stoppage.
I did a primitive simulation by standing on a bathroom scale and staying still
until the needle showed 165. Then I took a big "dying gasp" of air. The needle
shot up to 175 lbs. It settled down again when I started breathing quietly. I sug-
gest anyone looking for an explanation of "unexplained weight gain" try this
experiment. The truth shall set you free.
Frank G. Pollard, P.E.
Frank G. Pollard, P. E. and Associates
CONSULTING CHEMICAL ENGINEERS
29707 Pendleton
Farrnington Hills, M I 48636
(248)473-7832

Reply to Frank Pollard:

I thank Mr. Pollard for recounting his experiment with a bathroom scale. It is
the perfect example of the main point of my paper. I have repeated his experi-
ment with my electronic scale and a plot is shown below. Both Mr. Pollard's re-
sults and the plot below agree, as expected, with Newton's Third Law. By tak-

TIME IN SECONDS

Fig. 1. Standing on the scale taking three deep breaths. Ordinate: Weight in Kilograms; abscissa:
Time in Seconds.
256 Letter to the Editor

ing a deep breath the movement of the diaphragm induces an inertial weight
gain, which is immediately compensated by a corresponding weight loss in ac-
cordance with Newton's Law. At the moment of death in the sheep NO com-
pensating loss is observed and this is what makes the observed weight gain
transients of such interest and if verified would be a truly reproducible anom-
alous phenomena.
Lew Hollander

Resonant Circuits and Properties of Water

I found the article "Permanent changes in the physico-chemical properties of
water following exposure to resonant circuits" by C. Cardella et al. (in JSE
15(4), 200 1) interesting not for the suggested physics of water memory but be-
cause the applied physico-chemical methodology may reveal a much deeper
physical reality.
The authors found that exposure of bi-distilled water samples to a passive
resonant circuit permanently affects water, causing changes in the heat of dis-
solution of NaOH and HC1 measured in a microcalorimeter and pH, that the re-
sults of measurements are reproducible, although not quantitatively, and that
during storage of the previously "irradiated" samples the measured parameters
tend to increase.
Assuming that changes in the heat of dissolution and pH values were mea-
sured reliably and the readings were far beyond standard deviations (metrolog-
ical details could be more explicit), I suggest to extend this experiment in view
of what I call Speransky's Effect.
In the mid 70s Dr. S. V. Speransky, toxicologist with the Novosibirsk Insti-
tute of Hygiene, USSR, conducting experiments on mice observed what
seemed to be distant communication between mice separated after belonging
to a settled "social group." In his experiments two comparable groups of 20
mice (primary groups) were held in isolated containers for 10 days to establish
social bonds between individuals. Then 10 mice were taken from each primary
group, put together and fed without limitation. Remaining 10 mice from one
primary group were fed without limitation while those from another primary
group were starved. The hypothesis was that if distant communication be-
tween members of the primary groups exists, those "friends of the hungry"
would eat more and gain more weight. And this was exactly what had hap-
pened: the difference in weight between two subgroups in the combined group
was in tens of grams during the first 2-3 weeks'. According to Dr. Speransky,
three independent laboratories repeated the experiment with the same results.
Neither iron screening of the combined group nor increased distance between
"former friends" changed the effect, although the latter decreased in time.
Some three years after the beginning, on someone's suggestion, the experi-
ment was performed with the experimenter blinded regarding which remote
 Letter to the Editor 257

group is fed and which starved. And the difference in the weight gain totally
disappeared. It became clear that the effect was caused by the experimenter's
expectation and this is what I called Speransky's Effect in my taxonomy of al-
ternative medicine2.
1 am suggesting that the authors to check out the hypothesis that the ob-
served physico-chemical effects in water are caused by the experimenters' ex-
pectations while the resonant circuits and procedures are just symbols enforc-
ing their subconscious "emotional bond" with the subject substance, i.e., to
repeat the same experiments being blinded with respect to test and control
samples. If this hypothesis is correct and Speransky's Effect can be extrapolat-
ed on chemical substances like water, this would support other paradoxical
scientific observations such as W. Tiller's et al. effect of an "imprinted intent"
on pH in water3, the "miraculous" effects of Olga Worrell on poisoned bacteri-
al cultures4, Sun Chu-lin's acceleration of plants development5, Thomaz
Green's acceleration of embryonic development of chicks6 and others.

References
I. Speransky, S. V. ( 1990). Experiments on human-animal biological communication. In Proceed-
ings of the All- Utzior~Seminar "lnfurmational Interactions in Biology" (p. 53). Tbilisy.
2. Savva. S. (1998). The concept of MISAHA-The latest lesson and the next step. Townsend Let-
terfur Doctors trr~rlPatients, 175/176, 94-98.
3. Dibble, W., & Tiller, W. ( 1999). Electronic device-mediated pH changes in water. Journal oj'Sci-
entijic Explor~iriorl,13, 155-176.
4. Rubik, B. (1996). Volitional effects of healers on a bacterial system. In Rubik, B. (Ed.), Lijie at
the Edge ofSciencc. (pp. 99-1 17). Philadelphia: Institute for Frontier Science.
5. Savva, S. (2000). Ms. Sun Chu-lin-The Outstanding gift to be studied. Monterey Institute for
the Study of Alternative Healing Arts Newsletter, 28-29, 9-1 3.
6. Pulos, L., & Richman, G. (1990). Miracles and Other Realities. Omega Press.

Savely Savva
Monterey Institute for the Study of Alternative Healing Arts (MISAHA)
3855 Via Nonu Murie, Ste. 102-C
Curmel, CA 93923
831-622-7975
e-mail: misaha @aol.com

Author5 Response:
Regarding the metrological details Mr. Savva asks for, we clearly stated that
the measurements of Max excess heat reported in Table I were automatically
obtained through the microcalorimetric apparatus by subtracting from each
reading its own control value (i.e. its blank). Thus, each specimen was its own
control.
On the premise, if necessary, that the observed excess heat and the pH
changes did exist, I agree with the remark that a deeper physical reality may re-
veal in the experiments. This is true in the case where a "Speransky's Effect" is
not involved in the experiments, and it is even truer in the case that it is.
258 Letter to the Editor

To outline my point of view, let us first assume that a Speransky's Effect is

not involved in the experiments. Then, as we suggested, the energy needed to
change the properties of the water samples might either be found in the geo-
magnetic field, or in some electromagnetic wave present in the environment.
In both cases, a problem arises with the Conservation of Energy Principle, and
eventually with the Second Principle of Thermodynamics. In the sense that an
inconsistency seems to occur between the quantity (unobservable) of the
cause and the quantity (observable) of the effect produced by such a cause.
Besides that, there is a reversed time arrow with which to deal. As a conclu-
sion, the actual scientific paradigm appears at discomfort to cope with these
events.
Suppose now that a Speransky's Effect is actually involved in the experi-
ments. If so, we are dealing with living systems. Then we have to acknowledge
that the actual Physics and Chemistry can not handle living systems, as they
correctly apply only to "closed" systems. A living organism is unable to sur-
vive in a closed (control) volume. If an "emotional bond" can now be estab-
lished between the experimenters and the subject substance, this means that
the subject substance itself has an "emotionally-sensitive" attitude. Here, the
energy transfer from the experimenters to the subject substance leads to the
existence of a physical field through which that exchange takes place.
Thus, the resonant circuit acts as the receiver, through the establishment of a
suitable field, of some "mental energy", and subsequently as its transformer
into the thermodynamic energy that changes the water sample properties. Al-
ternately, we might suppose, as Mr. Savva hints, the resonant circuit and the
other procedures are just symbols. This eventuality is far more intricate and
calls for a physical explanation of the symbol's physical action on the subject
matter by the creation of a direct "emotional field" between the experimenters
and the subject matter.
If we now broaden our considerations to a general understanding of matter,
we will end up with the conclusion that while there must be some matter at the
origin of all the elementary particles, the matter is also as deep an enigma as is
life itself. When we gradually descend the path from the cells, to protoplasm,
to amino acids, to the elementary particles and finally to the unfathomed abyss
of matter, we hit a "something" that inevitably is at the origin of both the living
and of the lifeless world. Such a common origin of the organic and inorganic
world so increasingly asserts itself that we are unable to draw a sure boundary
between the two worlds. Nor may we, at the same time, establish if the basic
elements of matter may already possess, even in a rudimentary degree, the es-
sential properties of life.
The way out of this dilemma requires a new physical approach, which I have
been extensively studying. It has yielded encouraging heuristic results to ex-
plain the mechanism of action of homeopathic remedies. In that field, my co-
workers and I made several blind experiments that have confirmed the inver-
sion of the properties of the active principle and showed a change in the pH of
 Letter to the Editor 259

water samples consequent to the homeopathic treatment. We have recently

started experimenting on water samples with resonant passive circuits on a
blind procedure.
Claudio Cardella
Dipartimento di Meccanica e Aeronautics
Via Eudossiana 18
00184 Roma
Italia

A Significant Typo and a Corresponding Object Lesson

We wanted to bring the attention of the JSE readership to an important typo-
graphic error on our part in the recent article, " A Message in a Bottle: " Con-
founds in Deciphering the Ramey Memo from the Roswell UFO Case (Houran
& Randle, 2002, JSE, 16, 45-66). On page 50 of our paper, we relate Russ
Estes' opinion of the Ramey memo as, "Estes did say that he could make a
'best guess' about the images on the message. After examining an 8 X 10 en-
larged photograph of just the message area via the same techniques and equip-
ment, Estes stated that he perceived the words "Fort Work, Tex' with a limited
amount of confidence." (emphasis added). Estes' actual interpretation was,
"Fort Worth, Tex." We apologize for the error, which escaped several proof-
readings. This just illustrates that not inconsequential errors can creep into
translation and transcription efforts- processes inherent to any investigation
of the Ramey memo-even by researchers who intend to conduct careful work.
Of course if we had sent the proofs of the paper to three, independent laborato-
ries for perusal (akin to our proposed methodology for any future analyses of
the memo: pp. 62-63), then perhaps the discrepancy would have been identi-
fied sooner!

Sincerely,

James Houran
Southern Illinois University School of Medicine
Dept. of Psychiatry
Springjield, IL
jhourun @.siumed.edu

Kevin D. Rundle
Cedar Rapids, IA
 oj 5( rcr~/r/ctCiploiil/ror~Vol 16, No 2. pp 76 1 -261, 7002
lorcr r~[rl OX92 '3310102
02002 Soc~ct)f o ~S c r c n t ~ t ~Explo~at~nn
c

OBITUARY

Grover S. Krantz (1931-2002)

13Y 1,Olil N COl 1-MAN

"1 f i ~ l l yciccept llic P , ~ t l c ~ \ o Ii rl l i ~ r , " (iio\ci K ~ ' I I I [ U/ C I \ q i ~ o ~ ci nd 1999. 131g1'oot1\ loplng gall I \
"con\i\tent ~ i t ah SOO-I-)O~II~C~ l ~I rc~illy
bil?~cI.''IIC \'IICJ " / ' L C c ~ l ~ cto~I I l ~I l l r I~t C ~11. ~;tlld ~ d can't do ~t
worth a damn."

Grover S. Krant/, ztrl anthropologi\t who wit4 ncvcr afraid to take the ullpopu-
lar ~ ~ c a d e ~po4ition
nic t l ~ a tthe primate4 called Sasquatch actually exist, died
p ~ ~ e f i ~ on
l l ythe
, mornilig of February 14, 2002, in his Port Angcles, Washing-
to11Iio~iie.
114 Ihc mod err^ era'\ l'il-\t aciidcmic;illy-;aft_'ilj;ltrai phy$ia-11 ,~~athl-(\pr-\lni~i<t
to
actively involve I~im\elfi n Rigfoot/Sa\cjuatch research, Dr. K r a n t ~wa\ one of
the ~iiostql~ote(1;~iltIioritie\011 the statil\ o f the controversy. tIe began his re-
search in 1963, and i t took him 1'1.o1iithe analysis of the Patterson-Giiiilin film
of 1967 to an exatlii~lation01' the SlLoolL~~~ii body cast of 2000. He wrote o r
edited several papers of a I'ormal scholarly nature o n the Sasquatch (published
in No~-~l~tt)c.\iA I Z ~1-opologi('111
IZ N o t ~ s )and
KC\CCII-('/Z , four books, Tllr Scic~lti.st
Looks rrt the Sa,tyuclf(lh(Moscow: University Press of Idaho, 1977, with an-
thl-apologist Roderick Sprague), Tllc~ Sc.ic~rltist Looks crt tlre Scrst/lltric./i 11
(Moscow: University Press of Idaho, 1979, with Rodel-ick Spl-ague), Tlzc~
Sasy~rutcli n i ~ dOther U I I ~ ~ ~ O I ~ > I Z (Calgary: Western Publishing,
Hoi71ii10ids
1984, with archaeologist Vlaclirnir Markotic) and Rig Footpl-ilrts (Boulder:
262 Obituary

Johnson, 1992), revised as Bigfoot Sasquatch Evidence (Seattle: Hancock

House, 1999). Dr. Krantz, as an outspoken academic, was a focus of the 1999
documentary Sasquatch Odyssey (director Peter von Puttkamer), which also
profiled the late Rene Dahinden, John Green, and Peter Byrne. While these
men did not often get along, they formed the "Four Horseman of Sasquatch-
ery," the foundation of thought on these unknown hominoids in the Pacific
Northwest from the 1960s onward.
Dr. Krantz was the primary North American spokesperson for the stance of
killing a Bigfoot to prove they exist. He will most be remembered, however, as
the foremost proponent of the theory that the survival of the giant ape Gigan-
topithecus, recently thought to be extinct, is the source of modern Sasquatch
reports. He created the first reconstructions of the full skulls of Gigantopithe-
cus and Meganthropus, as well as restoring various elements of understudied
Homo erectus finds. During the late 1990s, Dr. Krantz became one of the
major supporters, in academia and in court, for the preservation for study of
the disputed Kennewick skull, which he theorized might have a non-Native
American origin.
Grover S. Krantz, born on November 5, 1931 in Salt Lake City, grew up in
Rockford, Illinois, then moved with his family to Utah when he was ten.
Krantz went on to study at the Universities of Utah, California (B.A. 1955,
M.A. 1958) and Minnesota (Ph.D. 1971), with a concentration in human evo-
lution. He had been a professor at Washington State University since 1968,
until his retirement in the 1990s. During his retirement, he still taught one an-
thropology course per year, beamed via television back to Pullman, from his
home in the Olympic Peninsula. He continued his research until his illness al-
lowed him to do no more work.
Dr. Krantz was a physical anthropologist whose teaching and research had
covered all aspects of human evolution, primarily of skeletal traits, but also
the evolution of the human capacity for culture. He had visited many museums
in Europe, China and Java to study original fossils and to make casts of some
(Java) for distribution to other scientists. He had accumulated a major collec-
tion of such casts, including his own reconstructions of many of them. Dr.
Krantz's major non-Sasquatch anthropological works were Climatic Races
and Descent Groups (1 980), The Antiquity of Race (1 98 1, 1994, 1998), The
Process of Human Evolution (1 982, 1995), and Geographical Development of
European Languages (1988). Other publications included original work on
such topics as Neanderthal winter survival, precision gripping of stone tools,
language origins, mastoid function, tooth wear, mammal extinctions, sea-level
changes, nonmigrations of hunting peoples, Neanderthal taxonomy, Ramap-
ithecus as a female form, and pelvic evolution-all illustrated by the author.
Dr. Krantz died from pancreatic cancer. The always active Grover Krantz
went into decline soon after he told cryptozoologist Loren Coleman on De-
cember 6,2001: "Medicine men differ as to whether I have months or years to
live." Such reflected the final uphill battle that Grover faced in a life of chal-
lenges. Diane Horton, his wife, was with him constantly, to the end.
 Obituary 263

Grover S. Krantz's candid assessments in hominology and towering vision

in cryptozoology will be missed by the many people who have followed his
work for decades, but his thoughts and concepts will remain to continue edu-
cating generations to come.
According to Diane Horton: "There will be no local service. Grover's body
will be sent to the 'Body Farm' at the University of Tennessee and then his
skeleton will be sent to the Smithsonian Institution along with most of his aca-
demic materials. As he helped students in life, his skeleton and materials will
be available to serious scholars in death. In lieu of flowers, people can make
memorial donations to Hospice of Clallam County, P.O. Box 20 14, Port Ange-
les, WA 98362."
Journal o f Scientific Explorution, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 265-273, 2002 0892-33 10102
O 2002 Society for Scientific Exploration

EDITORIAL ESSAY

What's an Editor to Do?

More particularly, what should the editor of a scientific journal do? And even
closer to home, what should the editor of a Journal ofscientific Exploration
do?
Consider first this context in which the issue arises: Not infrequently, scien-
tific results and theories are refused publication in scientific periodicals even
when those results or theories are later-sometimes much later-vindicated
and incorporated into the accepted paradigm. Those whose work had been
thus rejected have grounds to believe that science is not working in the manner
that it should; they are inclined to call for science to be reformed.

Science and Consensus

Among the host of suggestions for how science is best described, for how
science should be defined, I believe John Ziman (1968) has it most nearly
right: Science seeks to attain, about Nature's phenomena, a consensus of ratio-
nal opinion over the widest possible field. That takes into account some essen-
tial points:
Nature is not directly knowable. Observations and experiments do not
yield self-evidently objective facts. Results must be interpreted and judg-
ments made about them.
Opinions are not always rational.
Consensus is for science what a jury's verdict is for law and what a creed is
for religion. People sometimes call that-inappropriately, misguidedly-
"the truth".
Like any human activity, science has its institutions. Human institutions are
at the same time bureaucracies. Therefore rules and decisions inevitably suffer
from inadequacies, infelicities, and downright mistakes. How best to ensure
the progress of sound scientific knowledge despite those deficiencies?
The Society for Scientific Exploration had to come into being because a suf-
ficiently burdensome array of interesting topics was not being attended to by
the scientific community: "cryptid" animals, "psychic" phenomena, UFOs.
Those and similar matters were being investigated and discussed, to be sure,
but outside the scientific community and often in ways that lacked science's
disciplined interplay of experiment and theory, of proposition and test, of
claims made by individuals and assessment and counter-claims by competent
others. Anyone seeking to learn about these subjects had to wade through self-
 266 Editorial

I
published monographs and pamphlets, non-refereed and often short-lived and
hard-to-find magazines, and media coverage catering to the lowest common
denominators of sensationalism, "entertainment", or gossipy "human inter-
est". The Journal of Scientific Exploration has the task of bringing disciplined
consideration to bear on these matters.
The Society and its Journal have acquired an additional role that was not, I
believe, foreseen at their founding: to promote consideration of heterodox
views about matters already broached within the established scientific disci-
plines. Astronomy has been unwilling to consider seriously the indications
that redshifts may be somehow quantized, or the accumulating evidence that
the redshifts of important classes of objects are not measures of their speed
(and thereby not measures of distance either). Electrochemistry and nuclear
physics have pronounced the evidence for low-energy nuclear interactions
("cold fusion") to be a matter of "pathological science". Mainstream work on
AIDS is restricted to those who accept the dogma that HIV is its sole, neces-
sary and sufficient cause. Plate tectonics became accepted after 40 years of re-
sistance to Wegener's notion that continents could move, and has subsequent-
ly become a dogma in its own right, not to be assailed in mainstream
publications.
That last example illustrates a general point made by Bernard Barber in his
classic discussion (1 96 1 ) of resistance by scientists to scientific discovery: In
science, "objectivity is greater than it is in other social areas, resistance less.. ..
Nevertheless, some resistance remains ... As men in society, scientists are
sometimes the agents, sometimes the objects, of resistance to their own dis-
coveries".

1 Referees and Editors

Disciplined consideration means calling on competent experts to judge sub-
mitted manuscripts. But all experts have their own beliefs, strongly influenced
by the prevailing paradigms. Inevitably, novel contrarian claims will often be
judged by the experts to be unworthy of publication.
Those remarks apply to the Journal of Scientific Exploration as to any other
refereed periodical. As reviewers the Journal does try to choose people whose
minds are open-relatively speaking!-to the possibility that unorthodoxies
might be valid or useful. But as the quote from Barber recognizes, none of us
can be entirely free of bias toward what we believe to know. Moreover, as the
popular aphorism has it, a totally open mind would let the brain fall out; or, as
G. K. Chesterton (1936) understood, an open mind has the same function as an
open mouth, namely to shut itself again on something solid. Every potential
reviewer who knows anything will thereby have a bias against something. Re-
cently I was led to suggest to an author that the prime raison d'&trefor our So-
ciety and its Journal could be interpreted as providing a forum for scholarly
anomalistics-what might be called mainstream cryptozoology, ufology, and
parapsychology. There may then be unorthodoxies in those fields to which-
 Editorial 267

history may later show-we gave too short shrift.

So, what's an editor to do?

Reject It or Send It out for Review?

The Editor reads each submission and has to decide whether or not it should
be sent out for review. On what grounds might the Editor decide to reject with-
out further review?
Over the two years that I have edited the Journal of Scientific Exploration,
the ratio of rejections to acceptances has been roughly 2 to 1. Among the rejec-
tions, about 60% were by the Editor and the remainder upon advice of referees.
(In some cases, the rejection was not an outright one but rather we asked for re-
visions before bringing referees in; typically, however, those revisions were
never made.)
"But how", asked one disappointed author, "could the Editor use his person-
al judgment when the range of topics covered by the journal is so vast?"
Because the Journal is intended to be read by its subscribers, who on the
whole do not expect to find in it material that is so arcane, or so confusingly
presented, that only a few individuals (at most.. .) could make head or tail of
it'. One good suggestion for how referees should be chosen, made to me as I
was becoming Editor, is that there should be at least one specialist referee and
one generalist; the first to ensure the competence and quality of the contribu-
tion, the second to ensure that the piece would be understandable by a high
proportion of the Journal's readers. In practice, the Editor functions as the
generalist reviewer (except, of course, in the rare event that a manuscript is in
his area of technical competence).
Now of course I do not claim to be able, any more than anyone else, to judge
a manuscript without bias. But I am at least aware of my fallibility. Over the
years I have told many people of perhaps my greatest discovery as a result of
participating in the Society for Scientific Exploration: that highly competent
and intelligent people can hold views that seem to me ill-founded, and that
therefore my own opinion on those matters may be misguided.
So as far as is humanly possible, I don't judge a manuscript before I've read
it-difficult though that may be at times, given the titles that some authors
choose for their submissions. I also don't prejudge manuscripts according to
who the author is (unless, of course, I am already familiar with the work that
author produces). For example, I found fault with Velikovsky's science on its
(de)merits (Bauer, 1984), not because Velikovsky happened to be a psychia-
trist writing about planetary events (instead of being an astronomer or at least a
scientist). On an Internet discussion-group featuring geology, the article about
plate tectonics we had published (Journal of Scientific Exploration, 14, 2000,
307-52), by David Pratt, was criticized because of Pratt's views about Theo-
sophy as revealed on a Web-site; my invitation to participants in that news
group was that they send, for publication in the Journal, critiques of the con-
tents of the article instead of ad hominem remarks. To date, no such critique
268 Editorial

has been received. (Pratt's manuscript had received mixed reviews, and I so-
licited more than the usual number of informed opinions before accepting it for
publication. Those who had advised against publication were invited to have
some or all of their comments published together with the article itself, but de-
clined the opportunity.)
In other cases too I've followed my belief that this Journal should bend in
the direction of publishing controversial material so long as the evidence and
logic and literature citations seem sound. As I argue in my recently published
book, Science or Pseudoscience (2001), accomplishments in science or other
personal credentials of those who make anomalous claims are not a good guide
to the possible validity of those claims. People new to a discipline sometimes
make great advances; on the other hand, people long versed and highly accom-
plished in a field sometimes go sorely wrong, as with N-rays. For my part I ex-
pect others not to reject my opinions on other subjects just because I hold the
belief, to them absurd, that Loch Ness Monsters are real animals. Similarly, I
don't reject a manuscript just because its author is a Theosophist, a creation
scientist, or holds any other beliefs that I happen not to share.
In summary: I reject a manuscript if it does not make a plausible case about
something interesting within the purview of the Journal, or if it adds nothing to
already available discussions. For example:
Some rejected manuscripts describe the author's overarching, all-inclu-
sive, all-explaining world-view, an ontology and its set of relationships
about the material, mental, and spiritual aspects of all that exists.
While that may be genuinely useful and satisfying to the author, it is
quite unlikely to be so to others; especially in absence of discussion as to
how this world-view relates to what wise people over the ages have had to
say on these matters. Such a discussion would need to be a large book, not
an article.
Some rejected manuscripts have offered unorthodox explanations for ac-
cepted facts without demonstrating that those explanations are at least as
useful as the current paradigms, and without exposing a logical chain of
reasoning by which that explanation could be arrived at.
Long ago and in another country, one of my scientific mentors was pre-
sented by an acquaintance with the revelation that the smallest units of
matter are vortices in the shapes of prehistoric fish. The author of this in-
sight was able to explain very many chemical facts in this way-but none
that then-current atomic theory could not also explain. As to how he came
to the insight in the first place, he said he had dreamed it just as Kekuld had
dreamed that benzene molecules are rings. But Kekulk's vision, it should
be remembered, was accepted only after material support for its validity
hadbeenadduced.
Some rejected manuscripts offer novel results whose experimental or ob-
servational provenance is obscure or incomplete. The experimental ap-
proach may be described in considerable detail while its rationale remains
mysterious.
1 Edi tori a1 269

To construct a fictional example: If one takes 6 red, 5 blue, and 4 green

sticks and arranges them in a particular manner, the temperature in the
space so enclosed will rise. The manuscript includes tables of temperature
rises obtained at various times, accurate to one-hundredth of a degree, and
a statistical analysis showing that this difference from ambient tempera-
ture is significant at p > lop6.
However, no experiments are reported with different numbers of sticks,
or differently colored ones, or with different geometries. There is no expla-
nation of how the number and nature and type of arrangement of sticks was
arrived at.
Some rejected manuscripts combine novel results of doubtful provenance
with unorthodox explanations that lack logical provenance. Or, a variety
of existing unorthodoxies are brought simultaneously to bear: for exam-
ple, Kirlian photography might be used in support of self-reports of UFO
abduction and explained on the basis of Velikovsky's electromagnetic
Cosmos Without Gravitation.

It Is Not Easy
If there is any unifying thread among these classes of rejections, it is that the
submitted manuscript is the result of insufficient work, be it in gathering data
or in working out its implications or in taking into account the relevant pub-
lished results or theories of others. The fact of the matter is that creating new
knowledge is in no way easy. When it comes to scientific anomalies, it may
well be even more difficult to produce useful work than it is in mainstream sci-
ence. In the latter case one has much to build on and many colleagues to call on
for help; both are largely lacking in anomalistics.
At our 20th Annual Meeting, a panel of people with quite varied intellectual
backgrounds discussed "creativity". It struck me as worth noting that all the
speakers agreed that it is not the having of an idea that represents success, it is
the development of that idea that is crucial. One illustration of that is Stigler's
Law (1980): "eponymy is always wrong"; or, "a discovery is named after the
last person to discover it, because once a discovery has been named, no one
else claims it as a discovery" (Cohen, 1992). Those who merely mentioned or
suggested something are often forgotten whereas those who worked out its ap-
plications and implications and connections are assigned credit by posterity.
Some illustrations of the lack of impact of mere ideas are the "partly baked
ideas" (PBIs) that I. J. Good gathered in columns of the Mensa Journal and
Mensa Bulletin between 1968 and 1980 (Good, 1994), for instance:
What would be the nature of a discipline that would do for logic what logic
seems to be doing for mathematics?
A tautology can be misleading and a logical contradiction can be enlight-
ening.
Consciousness and matter are equally metaphysical.
270 Editorial

These are intriguing, provocative ideas. They raise deep questions. But
without being taken any further than that, they are frustrating more than en-
lightening; they hardly advance knowledge or understanding. (Somewhat
more developed PBIs can be found in Good's 1962 collection, A Scientist
Speculates.)
So far as the Journal of Scientific Exploration is concerned, some PBIs
might perhaps warrant publication in the form of brief letters, but certainly not
as full articles or essays.

Reject or Accept the Referees' Judgments?

An editor's responsibility to exercise judgment does not cease when a manu-
script is sent to reviewers. There is no law that the reviewers' judgments must
be accepted. Many members of the Society for Scientific Exploration will
have in their files copious illustrations that editors should have overruled re-
viewers who got their facts wrong, offered their own interpretations as the
only legitimate ones, vented personal spleen, and so on. One of my early pa-
pers in electrochemistry was turned down because I suggested that a certain
parameter had a certain value and the referee refused to believe that possible;
he overlooked that I had cited the value from the published work of a highly re-
spected researcher, work that had never been contradicted. One of my most re-
cent papers was welcomed by the editor if only I would shorten it by a third
and meet the many comments from two referees; I did so conscientiously,
whereupon a third referee voted it unequivocally down and the editor accepted
that despite his earlier encouragement.
So I am fully aware of the need for editors to be as critical in reading refer-
ees' comments as the referees are (or should be) in reading the manuscripts.
However, referees are a valuable asset to a journal, which is the chief reason for
sending for review only those manuscripts that seem likely to be publishable; I
don't want to waste the good will of our referees by asking them to spend time
on unworthy material. For the same reason, an editor goes severely against ref-
erees' recommendations at his peril. But since in disputed cases I always offer
the referees to publish their dissenting comments simultaneously with the arti-
cle, I am able to be somewhat diplomatic even when I reject their rejection of a
manuscript. (My standing offer is that dissenting comments can be published
verbatim as coming from an anonymous referee; or disguised by paraphrase, as
an editorial comment; or, of course and ideally, under the referee's name.)
In summary: I regard the interplay between author, referees and editor to be
a conversation, with the editor as the inevitable final arbiter of which side has
made the more convincing case. No matter how felicitous the choice of re-
viewers has been, their decision is not the final one. It is similar to the use of
expert outside consultants when universities are considering someone for pro-
motion or tenure: The consultants' opinions are valuable information for those
who must make the decision, but they should not in themselves constitute that
decision.
 Editorial 27 1

The Larger Context: On Reforming Science

This editorial essay is intended to inform readers and authors about my poli-
cies and practices, and it is an invitation to comment on them (be it for publica-
tion or for the Editor's private enlightenment). The impetus to make this an
essay rather than an editorial came as I was reading a call for the reforming of
science, made urgently and convincingly by one whose competent but un-
orthodox articles have consistently been resisted by specialist mainstream sci-
entific journals. Such calls for reform are not infrequent; yet I think they are
usually misguided, because:
Hard cases make bad laws. I can conceive no system of making judgments
that could work well for both the mass of journeyman science and also for
the occasional genuinely revolutionary stuff.
No matter what institutions science evolves, mistakes will sometimes be
made. No matter what institutions unorthodox science or anomalistics
evolves, mistakes will sometimes be made.
"The consensus of rational opinion" is the best approach to objectivity,
imperfect as that approach may be. Consensus is not the same as unanimi-
ty.
It is highly desirable that science be reliable; and the reliability of science
is greater when its mistakes err on the side of conservatism. (That is per-
haps most obviously true in medical science, where drugs approved too
readily have killed some people even as proof is lacking that others' lives
have actually been prolonged. Statistics are available but not certainty.)
The occasional call to allow publication without refereeing is misguided
because there are too many incompetent would-be authors. Such journals
as practice non-refereed publication deservedly enjoy a lesser reputation.
Free publication via the Internet will, in due course, demonstrate whether
it advances science, or whether it retards it by producing an indigestible
mass of inferior material that researchers must sift individually instead of
with the aid of referees.
I am not arguing, of course, that science now is functioning in the best possi-
ble manner and that no reforms are needed. Indeed, as I noted in one of my
books (Bauer, 1992: 83-84), the state of science nowadays is comparable to
that of the Church as the Reformation was getting under way:
It seems to me not farfetched to compare the current state of science (and more general-
ly that of academe) to the situation of the Church at the time of the Reformation, which
has been described in the following way by De Lamar Jensen: "Until the middle
years.. . the actual number of clergy [read scientists] increased, but then a decline set in.
Even before the outbreak of the.. . revolt, their prestige and influence were already wan-
ing. Whether justified or not, the general population's growing disrespect for the clergy
[scientists], especially the monks [researcher-scholars], tended to weaken some of the
bonds of the Christian [scientific] community and make the church [scientific institu-
tions] as a whole more vulnerable to criticism and attack. It had not been above criti-
cism in earlier ages, but now it was becoming the practice rather than the exception to
272 Editorial

blame the institution as a whole, along with individual members of it, for infractions.. .
of law and.. . ethics. As.. . abuses increased, the recognition and condemnation of those
abuses mounted proportionally. To compensate for their declining prestige, many cler-
gymen [scientists] became even more avaricious [asking for ever lower teaching loads,
higher salaries, freedom to consult and to found business enterprises; ignoring conflicts
of interest], and the growing chasm between the priesthood [scientists] and the laity,
and between the higher and lower clergy [administrators and practising scientists],
widened ."

But the Reformation did not reform the Church: it led to schisms and smaller
competing entities where before there had been a single authority. Perhaps we
are now seeing an analogous development in science. Medicine is attending in-
creasingly to "alternative" treatments and theories. Radically extreme femi-
nists and other social activists are asserting that personal, political, and profes-
sional activities are inextricable (Bem, 1998: ix), thus ditching the very
hallmark of traditional science, its objectivity. Social constructivists taking a
similar view have gained hegemony in "cultural studies", "science studies",
and much of the social sciences. At the same time, mainstream science arro-
gantly ignores qualified members of its own community who have unorthodox
insights to offer on central issues-cold fusion, redshifts, HIVIAIDS. There
are grounds here for agreeing with Jacques Barzun's description of Western
culture as decadent: we accept futility and absurdity as normal (Barzun, 2000:
11).
Perhaps the most basic question about possible reform of science is, "How
rapidly could human understanding progress under the most favorable con-
ceivable conditions?"
The history of science offers ample illustration that the time needs to be ripe
for any given advance to carry the day. It may be that more data are needed, or
a new means for obtaining data, or a new way of looking at the data, but none
of those alone is likely to bring a great breakthrough, and so change in any of
them cannot go too far without waiting for consonant change in the others.
Somehow these three aspects of science need to advance in a somewhat coor-
dinated manner. As I've suggested elsewhere (Bauer, 2001: 9-1 l), most scien-
tific work adds detail without upsetting the existing body of data, methods,
and theories. Scientific revolutions involve something strikingly contrarian in
only one of those three aspects. When two of these aspects are brought simul-
taneously into question, as Mendel or Wegener did, the rest of the scientific
community cannot assimilate it or catch up with it for decades. And when all
three aspects are brought into question at the same time, we have questions of
the kind that this Society was founded to grapple with.
I think that the Society for Scientific Exploration is an embodied illustration
of the only feasible way in which science can in practice be reformed: through
providing forums in which disciplined discussion takes place of the issues that
are given short shrift in the mainstream disciplines because of the hidebound
but necessary conservatism of mainstream institutions. I emphasize disci-
plined discussion, which is surely what we mean by scientific exploration. The
 Editorial 273

paradox cannot be avoided, it seems to me. Disciplined discussion means gate-

keepers: peers, referees, editors. Sometimes they will make mistakes; most fre-
quently in the hardest cases. My understanding of this cannot prevent me from
making mistakes. As Editor, the most I will ever be able to do is to apologize
for my mistakes. But that could only be after the fact, when some individual
has already been damaged without redress. In the meantime, I hope this recog-
nition and admission of fallibility may serve.

Note
o ow ever, I believe that the Journal of Scientific Exploration should also
serve as a publication avenue of last resort for apparently competent work un-
able to find mainstream publication, so occasionally it publishes articles of a
highly technical or mathematical nature.

References
Barber, B. (1961). Resistance by scientists to scientific discovery. Science, 134, 596-602.
Barzun, J. (2000). From Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of Cultural Life, 1500 to the Present. New
York: HarperCollins.
Bauer, H. H. (1984). Beyond Velikovsky: The History of a Public Controversy. Urbana: University
of Illinois Press.
Bauer, H. H. (1992). Scientific Literacy and the Myth of the Scientific Method. Urbana: University
of Illinois Press.
Bauer, H. H. (2001). Science or Pseudoscience: Magnetic Healing, Psychic Phenomena and
Other Scientific Heterodoxies. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Bern, S. L. (1998). An Unconventional Family. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Chesterton, G. K. (1936). The Autobiography of G. K. Chesterton. New York: Sheed & Ward; p.
229.
Cohen, J. (1992). Science, 258, 874.
Good, I. J. (1 962). The Scientist Speculates: An Anthology of Partly-Baked Ideas. London: Heine-
mann.
Good, I. J. (1 994). Partly Baked Ideas, 28 Columns in the Mensa Journal and Bulletin (Technical
Report No. 94- 12). Department of Statistics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University,
3 October.
Stigler, S. M. (1980). Stigler's law of eponymy. Transactions of the New York Academy of Science
11, 39, 147-58.
Ziman, J. (1968). Public Knowledge: An Essay Concerning the Social Dimension of Science.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; especially Chapter 1, "What is science?"
Journal of Scientific Exploration, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 275-337,2002 0892-33 10/02
02002 Society for Scientific Exploration

BOOK REVIEWS

Children Who Remember Previous Lives: A Question of Reincarnation.

Revised Edition ($45.00, paper) By Ian Stevenson, M.D. McFarland and Compa-
ny. Box 61 1, Jefferson, NC, and London. 2000. 345 pages.
The book divides nicely into eleven sections bearing the following headings:
1. An Introduction to the Study of Reincarnation; 2. The Belief in Reincarna-
tion; 3. Types of Evidence for Reincarnation; 4. Fourteen Typical Cases of
Children Who Remember Previous Lives; 5. Characteristics of Typical Cases
of the Reincarnation Type; 6. Methods of Research; 7. The Analysis and Inter-
pretation of the Cases; 8. Variations in the Cases of Different Cultures; 9. The
Explanatory Value of the Idea of Reincarnation; 10. Some Further Questions
and Topics Related to Children Who Remember Previous Lives; 1 1. Specula-
tion About Processes Possibly Related to Reincarnation. As Ian Stevenson
notes in his preface to this revised edition, this book is an expansion and revi-
sion of the first edition bearing the same title. It differs from the latter in that it
provides two new case studies in Chapter four and it includes additional infor-
mation on the other cases discussed, particularly with respect to the phenome-
non of birth marks and defects. It updates us on the expanding case studies,
replicating case studies by different researchers around the world. It also goes
beyond the first edition by providing numerous analyses made after the publi-
cation of the first edition of the data from a larger number of cases. References
are updated, footnotes expanded and a higher level of clarity and accessibility
achieved in this revised edition. This book, like the earlier, gives a history of
the belief and of the evidence for reincarnation gleaned over a forty year peri-
od. The footnotes themselves are rich in critical evaluations of various criti-
cisms made since the publication of the first edition.
When reviewing the first edition I said it was a fascinating and compelling
book with the distinct potential for changing profoundly our understanding of
human nature and death. Insofar as the revised version is a continuation of the
first edition, I am even more enthusiastic about the implications of this re-
search. What one cannot help but find amusing is the fact that for so long so
many people in the West have dismissed this belief as simply a religious belief,
and even when traditional philosophers got close to the issue they thought it
was a philosophical thesis and not a very compelling one at that. If Stevenson
has established anything at all in these last forty or so years it is that reincarna-
tion is simply the best available explanation for the empirical facts and that the
hypothesis in any case has empirically testable implications and lends itself to
empirical falsifiability. Nor does Stevenson ever allow himself the right to ex-
tend the findings to the conclusion that all human beings reincarnate. Reincar-
nation, he says, is just the best explanation for the data in those particular cases
he calls confirmed.
276 Book Reviews

Before the appearance of the earlier edition, skeptics, who even now seldom
feel any urge simply to read closely the case studies in their original published
forms, often asserted that apart from the absurdity of the belief and the impossi-
bility of calling reincarnation an explanation of the data (because we cannot say
how it occurs), a major problem with the research is that it was taken from cul-
tures in which people are generally ignorant or already given to believing in
reincarnation as a matter of religious belief. Skeptics often claimed that there
were no such compelling cases in the West, where there is little antecedent be-
lief in reincarnation and higher standards of evidence for such claims. In reply,
Stevenson discusses in the earlier edition and in this revised edition a number of
very strong cases in the West where there is a strong disinclination to disbelieve
in reincarnation. Here is not the place to enter into the evidence Stevenson of-
fers for reincarnation and do justice to it. That is what the book does. One can
only recommend that everybody read the revised edition and, if necessary, go to
the original published papers of the cases discussed for fuller detail. If people
have not already made up their minds on this issue before inquiry, then the quiet
force of Stevenson's reason and disinterested inquiry should have a remarkable
and profound effect upon their view of human nature and death.
In the hands of all those colleagues who are now continuing the same re-
search, and replicating the same results in different cases everywhere in the
world, Stevenson's research is nothing less than Copernican in its significance.
While this book only shows part of that research, we can all be grateful for its
appearance.
Robert Almeder
Department of Philosophy
Georgia State University
Atlanta

On Science by B. K. Ridley. London & New York: Routledge, 2001. x + 225

pp. $12.95, paper. ISBN 0-415-24980-5.
Curiosity about scientific anomalies and unorthodoxies is best coupled with
a good understanding of what science is. Misconceptions about what compris-
es science are rampant, however, as are misconceptions about what role sci-
ence plays or should play in the wider society. This book sets to right matters
of this sort, about which the conventional wisdom is commonly wrong, and it
does so at a level of language and sophistication that should appeal to most
readers of this Journal.
Let me get out of the way some barbs at the publishers: for typos that are
surely unnecessary in this electronic age; for a few lapses in syntax that copy
editors ought to attend to as a matter of course; for a degree of repetitiveness;
and for an index that is too perfunctory to be very useful. However, the intel-
lectual substance of the book is so full of interest and insights, some of them
uncommon, that it is well worth overlooking those publisher's flaws.
 Book Reviews 277

Ridley is unusually sound as well as delightfully forceful in denouncing sci-

entism while appropriately praising science for achievements within its proper
domain. The book has useful things to say about reductionism, and about re-
peatability and the importance in human affairs of unique events. What it
means to be human is beyond the ken of science, and Ridley is not willing to
accept certain contemporary claims that Artificial Intelligence or physicists'
Theories of Everything (TOES)can or will change that. A TOE, the purported
aim of certain eminent or at least prominent theorists, would after all remain
just a theory about matter.
Ridley includes interesting and pertinent discussion of topics not often cov-
ered in such a succinct discussion, whose main focus is science. For instance
there is the subject of magic. Not only is the separation of science from magic
discussed but also the nature of magic itself, the variety of types of magic, and
a description of the continuing role that natural magic plays in this modern sci-
entific age (Chapter 5). The book also offers intriguing insights into connec-
tions as well as distinctions between art and science. A discussion of utopias
constitutes an intellectually fascinating and calmly logical venture into politi-
cal philosophy.
The difference between classical and non-classical physics is treated in a
particularly clear manner that will be accessible to most audiences: Ridley
points out that the distinction resides ultimately in different modes of physical
interpretation. The book is also clear and correct about the difference between
the calculational efficacy of a theory and its equations, on the one hand, and on
the other hand the physical significance (if any) of those equations. The nature
of mathematics itself comes in for attention and enlightening explanation, as
well as the relation between science and mathematics and the role of quantifi-
cation in social science.
Ridley brings to bear a thorough understanding of technical issues con-
trolled by a high degree of common sense. Each intellectual discipline has its
own theoretical stance. Inevitably that is a narrowly blinkered one, and yet
each discipline's experts have an inclination to extrapolate their approach as
though it could serve to understand all matters human. Theoretical physicists
and cosmologists, for example, sometimes lapse into implying that their TOE
would really be about everything, not just everything within the domain of the
science of matter but everything that humankind is concerned with. By con-
trast, Ridley's common sense comes back always to the realization that hu-
mankind is concerned primarily with matters of human scale and human feel-
ing and meaning. So in looking at Artificial Intelligence, Ridley points out that
no treatment of consciousness or mind can be satisfactory unless it is given in
the language of the arts and humanities. Scientists of cognition may find
chemical and mathematical equations to be satisfying, but humankind as a
whole demands that human emotions and religious aspirations and responses
to art and music be discussed in terms that are meaningful within those realms,
consonant with our knowledge of those realms by acquaintance rather than
merely by description (p. 35).
278 Book Reviews

Having myself written about science, scientism, and the role of science in
society (Bauer, 1992, 2001), I found Ridley's book a rare treat, sound in its
treatment of matters with which I was already familiar but going well beyond
those to expand my understanding in a number of pertinent and significant
ways. I recommend the book unreservedly.
Henry H. Bauer
Professor Emeritus of Chemistry & Science Studies
Dean Emeritus of Arts & Sciences
Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University
hhbauer@vt.edu
www.henryhbauer. homestead.com

References
Bauer, Henry H. 1992. Scientific Literacy and the Myth of the Scientific Method. Urbana: Univer-
sity of Illinois Press.
Bauer, Henry H. 2001. Fatal Attractions: The Troubles with Science. New York: Paraview Press.

The End of Time, by Julian Barbour. Oxford University Press, 1999. $32.50,
cloth, ISBN 0195 117298. Paperback edition 2001, New York, 384 pp., ISBN
0- 19-5 14592-5 (Pbk).
Julian Barbour states right at the beginning (p. 7) that he has written this
book for money. That is okay, and it is better to say it. I remember when I first
saw Penrose's first book', I immediately thought to inyself "aha, they all want
to be like ~ a w k i n gto
~ ,make a lot of money off a popularization". So it is in-
deed better to say it. And these books are intellectually of much greater value
than, say, another mundane long Calculus book, isomorphic to many already
written and also written for money.
The fact that well written popularization books can make money is also a
positive commentary on the general public. The general public wants to un-
derstand the world around it, more now than in the past. That is because in this
information age we surf instantly from bombing runs on Afghanistan to Enron
scandals to how we evolved from finned fish crawling onto land many millenia
ago. Everything now affects everything so we need to know everything.
When I was first asked to review this book I hesitated. Oh god, is it another
relativity nut book? I am not a relativity nut, nor even an afficionado of the
subject. On the other hand, I have recently expressed my own views on
~ime',~ . somehow I remembered vaguely hearing about the book, or the
Also
author's name rang a faint bell.. . so I said, okay, send it to me. It arrived today.
I am pleased to report that the book has a wide scope, is not nutty, and immedi-
ately caught my attention. As I browsed it this afternoon, I noticed that in Part
4: Quantum Mechanics and Quantum Cosmology, Chapter 14, The Greater
Mysteries, the author gets into the EPR Paradox and Bell's Inequalities. Re-
 Book Reviews 279

cently have given my own explanation of Bell's Inequalities and also of

Zeno's paradox8. So why not review the book?
As I continue to browse the book this first evening, I ask: how shall I review
it? The author touches many subjects. He is not afraid of personalizing his pre-
sentation, a style I more and more like, in contrast to the dry sterile scientifici-
ty in which we must write for technical journals. Should I give a long review,
almost a separate treatise, as I did in "Review of Time, Temporality, NOW^?
No. I don't have the time. So I shall give a short review, respecting and com-
menting on Barbour's style and thought, reflecting both his style and thought in
this review's style and thought.
First, the theme of the book. On p. 1 Barbour identifies himself with a phi-
losophy that all motion in the universe is an illusion. Not only does motion not
exist, but time also does not exist (p. 4). However, instants of time do exist (p.
10): the shifting from one static configuration of the universe to another.
Part 1 (Chapters 1-3) then explores the author's main ideas (shall we say:
his philosophy about time) with a minimum of technical details. An example
(p. 28): "Newtonian time is an abstract line with direction-from past to fu-
ture. Boltzmann keeps the line but not the direction. That belongs to the
'washing'. But do we need the line?" Then Barbour calls the set of all configu-
rations of the universe the Nows. They are covered by a "mist" which distrib-
utes itself over the Nows so as to make some transitions more likely than oth-
ers. This is the quantum mechanical influence on his model. Our lives are now
trajectories determined by the higher intensity connections of the mist. Parts
2-4, the bulk of the book, then pull in various scientific or philosophical parts
of astronomy (Part 2), relativity (Part 3), and quantum mechanics and cosmol-
ogy (Part 4) to support the author's philosophical views on Time. I won't try to
detail these almost 200 pages. Part 5 comes back to his take in Part 1. To quote
(p. 249) the introduction to Part 5: "If things simply are, how can history be? If
quantum cosmology is merely a static mist that enshrouds eternal Platonia,
whence the manifest appearance of motion and our conviction history is real?
This is the great question".
It seems that Barbour was greatly influenced by the Wheeler-DeWitt
equation. He describes this on pp. 241-248. The idea is that in seeking a funda-
mental equation of quantum gravity, one is led to the idea (p. 247) that it
should be a time-independent Schrodinger equation for one fixed value (zero)
of the energy of the universe. This then (p. 242) leads one to believe in a single
wave function of the universe. I remark that such is of course the holy grail:
relativity, gravity, and quantum mechanics are now reconciled and united. Part
5 then attempts to support Barbour's notion (p. 251) that "the structure of
quantum cosmology may well cause the wave function of the universe to 'seek
out' time capsules". Remember that "time capsules" is Barbour's terminology
for the high intensity mist regions which guide us through the Nows, all those
possible configurations of the universe. As Barbour points out in his final
Notes (p. 359), his "time capsules" turn out to be essentially the same as Fred
 280 Book Reviews

Hoyle's earlier "pigeonholes" and also is reminiscent of a similar John Bell

notion.
The evening transfused itself into drowsiness and I went to bed still thinking
about thoughts from the book. This morning I decided to finish the review, to
keep it short. What are my impressions? First, physicists love models, even
fantasized ones. Second, for my views on Bell's inequalities and Time, see ref-
erences 3-8. Mathematicians become the accountants of science and often we
find ourselves in the unromantic role of CPA's, trying to separate fiction from
fact, leaving only mundane consistency and what is provable. Third, I recom-
mend the book.
Karl Gustafson
Department of Mathematics
University of Colorado Boulder
Boulder, CO 80309-0395

References
1. Penrose, R. (1 989). The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds, and the Laws of
Physics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2. Hawking, S. ( 1 988). A Brief History of Time. London: Bantam Press.
3. Gustafson, K. (1999,2000). Review of Time, Temporality, Now ( H . Atmanspacher, E. Ruhnau;
Springer, 1997). Journal of Scientific Explorution, 13, 695-703; 14, 139.
4. Gustafson, K. (2002). Time-space dilations and stochastic-deterministic dynamics. In At-
manspacher, H., & Bishop, R. (Eds.), Workshop on Determinism. London: Imprint Academic.
5. Gustafson, K. (2000). Quantum trigonometry. Infinite Dimensional Analysis, Quantum Prohu-
bility, and Related Topics, 3, 33-52.
6. Gustafson, K. (2001). Probability, geometry, and irreversibility in quantum mechanics. Chaos,
Solitons and Fructul.~,12, 2849-2858.
7. Gustafson, K. (2002). Bell's inequalities. Proceedings of the Solvay 22nd Conference on
Physics, Quantum Computers and Computing. To appear.
8. Gustafson, K. (2002). A Zeno story. Proceedings of the Solvuy 22nd Conference on Physics,
Quantum Computers and Computing. To appear.

Atom and Archetype: The PauliIJung Letters 1932-1958, edited by C. A.

Meier, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001. 312 pp. $29.95, cloth.
There is something inherently appealing about reading the correspondence
, of others. That appeal is especially poignant when the correspondence is be-
tween two geniuses in their fields, two geniuses in the likes of Carl Jung, the
psychologist, and Wolfgang Pauli, the theoretical physicist whom Einstein
considered to be his spiritual son. A thought-provoking exploration into the
common ground between particle physics and analytical psychology is what
the reader is bound to discover in the book Atom and Archetype: The
Pauli/Jung Letters. You may not find any juicy relationship gossip, but you
WILL find fascinating journeys into the world of dreams, thoughts on the link
between radioactivity and the Self, and deliberations on the concept of
acausal connectedness, or synchronicity. You will also find a multitude of de-
 Book Reviews 28 1

tails which help to elucidate the thought processes, personal conflicts, revela-
tions, and tensions that drove and inspired these two remarkable men.
The preface of the book, written by Beverley Zabriskie, establishes the
background of the relationship that Jung and Pauli shared. This is very helpful
and perhaps crucial to know before reading the letters. Pauli was known in the
physics community as a logical, brilliant physicist who was the first to critique
anything that had any hint of theoretical contradictions. He had a tendency to
be up-front to the point of brutality and unafraid to offend anyone. This won
him a reputation as the 'conscience of physics'. At the age of twenty, his re-
view of the theory of relativity won the praise of Einstein himself, who called
it "mature and grandly composed" (p. xxxi). He later went on to discover the
neutrino and to frame the principle of exclusion, both of which fueled multiple
lines of research. The latter won him the Nobel Prize. In his early thirties, cir-
cumstances in his personal life led him into an intense crisis as he faced inner
conflicts which couldn't be subdued by any amount of intellectual rationaliza-
tion. He turned to Jung for help. Jung recognized that Pauli was more than just
a regular client and turned him over to one of his students so that he wouldn't
influence Pauli's dream material. The great physicist's dreams and life experi-
ences contained a wealth of meaning. For Jung, they provided evidence for the
symbolic workings of the unconscious through dreams. In fact, Jung's book,
Individual Dream Symbolism in Relation to Alchemy, is based on Pauli's
dreams, which were rich with alchemical symbols, although he had never been
exposed to much alchemy in waking life.
Atom and Archetype is unique in showing Pauli's experience of his own
dreams, dreams that haven't been documented anywhere else. The book also
includes an unpublished essay by Pauli entitled "Modern Examples of Back-
ground Physics". This essay documents part of his own individuation process.
In his dreams, he found physical parallels for the processes he was undergoing
psychologically. Initially, this was highly bothersome to him due to his ratio-
nal, scientific nature. Eventually, however, he realized the two were indeed in-
terconnected and began referring to the psychological interpretations of
physics as a 'second meaning' that was not wrong, even though it was different
from the material meaning he was used to dealing with. This second meaning is
what he refers to as background physics. He shows how, in his experience, the
use of background physics by the unconscious is a "directing of objective to-
ward a future description of nature that uniformly comprises physis and psy-
che" (p. 180). According to C. A. Meier, the editor of the book, Pauli is one of
the handful of people in science who has been able to make a clear distinction
between the conscious and the unconscious without becoming too over-
whelmed by either.
The importance of including both the physical and psychological in defini-
tions of nature seems to be one thing that Jung and Pauli agreed upon. Even be-
fore Jung had been exposed to Pauli's ideas, he was thinking about a comple-
mentarity between physics and psychology which sounds very similar to
282 Book Reviews

Pauli's 'background physics'. Influenced by William James's notion of psy-

chic fields and the idea of complementary constituents of the psyche, he once
said to Aniela Jaffe, "In physics, too, we speak of energy and its various mani-
festations.... The situation in psychology is precisely the same.... We are deal-
ing primarily with energy, with measures of intensity, with greater or lesser
quantities.... in various guises" (p. xxxii). Through his correspondence with
Pauli, he was able to develop his ideas about the complementarity and the par-
allel tracks he found in physics and psychology. Although this complementar-
ity was a point of contact between the philosophies of Jung and Pauli, their
varying perspectives of it led to differences of opinion at times. To Pauli,
Jung's notion of physical concepts had a "dreamlike nature". For Jung, due to
his psychological background, physical concepts had a purely illustrative
character (as they do in 'background physics'). For Pauli, they had a distinctly
abstract-mathematical character due to his scientific training. Nevertheless,
they were able to create a fertile meeting ground that encompassed both per-
spectives and spawned new and exciting ideas such as synchronicity.
Although Pauli and Jung didn't consistently agree, and perhaps BECAUSE
they didn't consistently agree, both were profoundly influenced by their rela-
tionship and swapping of ideas. This book reveals sides of both men that aren't
often found in the popular literature surrounding them. We find Pauli dis-
cussing theological symbolism, alchemy, and the significance of his dreams,
while Jung delves into the phenomenon of radioactivity and the relativity of
mass. Even though each one is an expert in his field, there is no sense of superi-
ority as each one plays the role of both teacher and student. This dynamic can
be very informative as we find ourselves in a time when interdisciplinary dia-
logue (within the scientific community as well as between the scientific com-
munity and fields such as philosophy, psychology, and religion) is becoming
not only desirable, but also often crucial for further development. The model
that Pauli and Jung set up is one that creates an open space that acknowledges
disagreement, but does not allow it to become an obstacle to progress and
growth.
The only obstacle I encountered in reading this book was that, at times, ei-
ther Jung or Pauli would mention an outside essay and go on to talk about
something in it or their reaction to it. I found myself eager to read the essay,
but it was often not included in the book. Of course, it wouldn't be possible to
include all the essays they mention and the positive side is that the letters in-
clude many leads to possible 'follow-up' readings. It was helpful for me to
read the letters in chunks of two or three at a time. Considering that their cor-
respondence was over the course of more than twenty years, and that each of
them went through major developments during this time, I found this to be the
most effective way to absorb the ideas and integrate them as much as I could
into my own level of development. It was also helpful to have had some expo-
sure to Jungian ideas, for the conversations sometimes used core psychologi-
cal concepts that Jung and Pauli would have taken for granted. Overall, the
 Book Reviews 283

book was intriguing, provocative, often theoretical, at times confusing, but all
in all delightful, and very informative. It will certainly be of interest to layper-
sons as well as experts interested in connections between physics and psychol-
ogy, the lives of Jung or Pauli, consciousness, dreams, symbolism in particle
physics, synchronicity, Jungian psychology, or interdisciplinary dialogue.
Vassi Toneva
985 West View
Boulder, CO 80303
the-vas @ hotmail.com

Jean-Pierre Vigier and the Stochastic Interpretation of Quantum Me-

chanics, selected and edited by Stanley Jeffers, Bo Lehnert, Nils Abramson,
and Leve Chebotarev. Montreal: Apeiron, 2000. vi + 291 pp. $25.00 (p). ISBN
0-968389-5-6.
This book serves as a useful reminder that the widespread belief that the
quantum world is irreducibly weird, indeterministic, unvisualizable, and de-
pendent on human observation is not required by experimental results, and that
a causal, more rational and intuitive interpretation is possible.
The book was compiled as a tribute to Jean-Pierre Vigier on the occasion of
his 80th birthday. It begins with a preface by Stanley Jeffers outlining Vigier's
life. He worked closely with Louis de Broglie and David Bohm, and helped to
pioneer the de Broglie-Bohm-Vigier approach to quantum physics, also
known as the causal stochastic interpretation. The main features of this ap-
proach and how it evolved are explained in an introduction by Lev Chebotarev.
The bulk of the book consists of 22 facsimile reprints of papers on quantum
mechanics authored or coauthored by J. P. Vigier. There is also a biography of
Vigier's works. Most of the papers are, at least in part, highly technical, but
much of the discussion and analysis of the contending interpretations of quan-
tum physics can be readily understood by nonspecialists.
As Chebotarev points out, while quantum mechanics works impeccably as a
mathematical tool, "the conceptual situation in quantum mechanics appears to
be the most disturbing in modern physics." Seventy years after the advent of
quantum theory, "there is still no clear idea as to what its mathematics is actu-
ally telling us" (p. 1).
A central tenet of the standard Copenhagen interpretation of quantum me-
chanics, as developed by Bohr, Heisenberg, Born, and Pauli, is that "There is
no quantum world, there is only an abstract quantum physical description."
But what does the mathematical formalism actually describe? It is hard to be-
lieve that the quantum world underlying our material, macroscopic world con-
sists of nothing but abstract "probability waves" that somehow "collapse" into
particle-like objectivity whenever a measurement is made (or, according to
some theorists, whenever a measurement is registered by a conscious human
mind).
284 Book Reviews

Each time the position of, say, an electron is measured, it is found in only
one place. In between measurements we do not know exactly where the elec-
tron is, but the wave function can be used to calculate the probability of it
being found in any particular region of space. On the assumption that the wave
function provides a complete description of quantum objects, many physicists
believe that a particle does not follow a definite trajectory in between measure-
ments, but dissolves into "superposed probability waves," which then "col-
lapse"-instantaneously, discontinuously, and quite inexplicably-when the
next measurement is made.
This probabilistic approach was strongly opposed by Einstein, Planck, and
Schrodinger, but it was de Broglie and later Bohm and Vigier who played the
main role in developing an alternative. Chebotarev writes:
The central idea of the Stochastic Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics consists in
treating a microscopic object exhibiting a dual wave-particle nature as composed of a
particle in the proper sense of the word (a small region in space with a high concentra-
tion of energy), and of an associated wave that guides the particle's motion. Both the
particle and the wave are considered to be real, physically observable, and objectively
existing entities (p. 2).

Particles are pictured as oscillators (or solitons) beating in phase with their
surrounding pilot waves, which in turn result from the superposition of super-
luminal phase waves carried by a subquantal etheric medium subject to con-
stant stochastic fluctuations. The force, or quantum potential, determining par-
ticle motions therefore carries information from the entire environment,
accounting for the "wholeness" of quantum phenomena.
The causal stochastic approach can account for all the quantum properties
of matter, including all the so-called paradoxes. It therefore disproves the
claim that the quantum formalism requires us to abandon not only the quest for
an explanation of quantum phenomena but also the concepts of causality, con-
tinuity, and the objective reality of individual microobjects. In Vigier's view,
the Copenhagen interpretation is based on "arbitrary philosophical assump-
tions," and its insistence on the absolute and final character of indeterminacy
is dogmatic.
The causal stochastic approach is "the only known interpretation of quan-
tum mechanics in terms of which all quantum effects can be explained on the
basis of causal continuous motions in space and time" (p. 142). It has no place
for the ill-defined notion of wave-packet collapse. There is only a "pseudo-
collapse," which "simply represents a change of our knowledge and does not
correspond to any real physical changes in the state of the system" (p. 147).
Vigier states that even if the quantum potential approach "is not taken as a
fully satisfactory description of quantum mechanical reality, it at least shows
in a clear way the features that such a description must entail" (p. 169).
In the causal approach, therefore, "the material world has an existence inde-
pendent of the knowledge of observers" (p. 170). Vigier does not discuss pos-
sible explanations for genuine psychokinesis ("mind over matter"). However,
invoking the abstract notion of wave-function collapse certainly contributes
 Book Reviews 285

nothing to a concrete understanding of such phenomena (see Pratt, 1997).

Bohm believed that the causal interpretation opened the door to the creative
operation of deeper, subtler, more mindlike levels of reality. Like Bohm, Vigi-
er stresses that it is by no means a return to the classical mechanistic world-
view. Some of his statements, however, seem to deny the existence of free will
(pp. 50-5 1, 99-1 OO), though he also acknowledges that, given the fundamen-
tal complexity of nature, "The ghost cannot be exorcized from the machine"
(p. 169).
Vigier shows how, in stark contrast to the Copenhagen interpretation, the
causal interpretation is able to provide an intelligible and visualizable expla-
nation of key experiments such as the double-slit experiment and neutron-in-
terferometry experiments (pp. 137-172). In the double-slit experiment, if both
slits are open an interference pattern builds up on the screen, even if electrons
approach the slits one at a time. In the Copenhagen interpretation, a single par-
ticle supposedly passes in some indefinable sense through both slits and inter-
feres with itself, whereas in the causal approach each particle passes through
only one slit, whereas the pilot wave passes through both. If a device is used to
detect through which slit each particle travels, the interference pattern disap-
pears. In the Copenhagen interpretation, the measurement collapses the wave
function, whereas in the causal approach it affects the real pilot wave. The
Copenhagen interpretation claims that any path-determining measurement
will destroy the interference pattern, whereas the causal interpretation predicts
that interference will persist if future techniques allow a sufficiently subtle,
nondemolition measurement to be performed.
Neutron-interferometry experiments reproduce the double-slit configura-
tion with massive particles and introduce new interaction possibilities through
neutron spin. In these experiments, something exchanges energy with the spin-
flip coils in the two arms of the interferometer, and this interaction almost cer-
tainly involves real neutrons rather than nebulous probability waves. Al-
though such experiments cannot yet determine the path of each individual
neutron, they prove "the incompleteness of the quantum-mechanical Copen-
hagen description because the persistence of an interference pattern is com-
bined with the existence of a definite trajectory for each particle, a fact forbid-
den in the Copenhagen interpretation" (p. 257). In other words, the wave and
particle aspects of matter can manifest simultaneously in the same experimen-
tal setup, thereby contradicting the complementarity principle.
Vigier argues that quantum entanglement (EPR-type) experiments leave no
doubt that quantum mechanics is a nonlocal theory, i.e. that quantum systems
can show correlations that cannot be explained in terms of classical forces or
signals propagating at or slower than the speed of light. However, the EPR ex-
periments conducted to date still contain loopholes, and Chebotarev puts the
probability of nonlocal connections at about 90% (for a dissident view, see
Thompson, 1998). Vigier proposes that nonlocal interactions are not absolute-
ly instantaneous but causal and superluminal; they are mediated by the quan-
tum potential, carried by superluminal phase waves in a Dirac-type ether con-
286 Book Reviews

sisting of superfluid states of particle-antiparticle pairs. (If superluminal con-

nections were brought about by individual particles rather than phase waves,
this would contradict relativity theory, which Vigier upholds.)
Vigier writes:
In my opinion the most important development to be expected in the near future con-
cerning the foundations of quantum physics is a revival, in modern covariant form, of
the ether concept of the founding fathers of the theory of light.. . [I]t now appears that
the vacuum is a real physical medium which presents some surprising properties.. . (p.
272).

In several places he refers to the "negative result" of the Michelson-Morley

ether-drift experiment of 1887 (pp. 63, 192). However, contrary to what nu-
merous textbooks and popular science books claim, this famous experiment
did not give a null result.
Vigier (1997a) himself acknowledges this in an article not included in the
book, or even mentioned in the bibliography. In it he states: "the observed ef-
fect was not zero in Michelson's famous experiment, as later confirmed by a
(presently almost forgotten) set of very detailed and very careful experiments
by Morley and Miller [Miller, 19331." He presents a brief overview of the
"long set of remarkable experiments" conducted from 188 1 to 1926, which
"are now completely ignored in the physics community." These experiments
detected a small but consistent and systematic ether drift of about 9 kmls.
Although relativity theory assumed a zero ether drift (and a constant veloci-
ty of light), Vigier (1997a) argues that a positive ether drift is compatible with
special relativity if photons are assumed to have a very small mass. He also ar-
gues (1 997b) that Sagnac's discovery in 1910 of fringe shifts in rotating inter-
ferometers (the Sagnac effect) can be reconciled with general relativity on the
same assumption. Whether the results of ether-drift experiments, including
more recent ones (e.g. Silvertooth & Whitney, 1992), are best understood in
terms of relativity theory is hotly contested (e.g. Galeczki, 1995; Hazelett &
Turner, 1979; Miinera, 1997; Spolter, 1993).
Vigier points out the radical implications of non-zero mass photons, as orig-
inally proposed by Einstein, Schrodinger, and de Broglie:
If confirmed by experiment, it would necessitate a complete revision of present cosmo-
logical views. The associated tired-light models could possibly replace the so-called
expanding Universe models. Non-velocity redshifts could explain the anomalous
quasar-galaxy associations, etc., and the Universe would possibly be infinite in time (p.
273).

Vigier's book is an important contribution to the debate on fundamental as-

pects of quantum physics.
David Pratt
Dual en Bergselaan 68
2565 AG The Hague
The Netherlands
E-mail: dp5@compusewe.com
 Book Reviews

References
Galeczki, G. (1995). From Lorentz to Einstein and then back to Newton. Physics Essays, 8,
591-593.
Hazelett, R., & Turner, D. (Eds.) (1979). The Einstein Myth and the Ives Papers: A Counter-Revo-
lution in Physics. Old Greenwich, CT: The Devin-Adair Company.
Miller, D. C . (1933). The ether-drift experiment and the determination of the absolute motion of
the earth. Reviews of Modern Physics, 5, 203-242.
Mtinera, H. A. (1997). An absolute space interpretation (with non-zero photon mass) of the non-
null results of Michelson-Morley and similar experiments: An extension of Vigier's proposal.
Apeiron, 4, 77-79.
Pratt, D. (1997). Consciousness, causality, and quantum physics. Journml of' Scic~nt~fi'c Explo-
ration, 11, 69-78.
Silvertooth, E. W., & Whitney, C. K. (1992). A new Michelson-Morley experiment. Physics Es-
says, 5, 82-89.
Spolter, P. (1993). Gravitational Force of the Sun. Granada Hills, CA: Orb Publishing.
Thompson, C. H. (1998). Behind the scenes at the EPR magic show. In Selleri, F. (Ed.), Open
Questions in Relativistic Physics (pp. 351-359). Montreal: Apeiron.
Vigier, J. P. (1997a). Relativistic interpretation (with non-zero photon mass) of the small ether
drift velocity detected by Michelson, Morley and Miller. Apeiron, 4, 7 1-76.
Vigier, J. P. (1997b). New non-zero photon mass interpretation of the Sagnac effect as direct ex-
perimental justification of the Langevin paradox. Physics Letters A, 234, 75-85.

Hauntings and Poltergeists: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, edited by

James Houran and Rense Lange. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, Inc.,
2001.336 pp. $85.00 ISBN 0786409843.
Don't let the large format of this book fool you. It is not a coffee table col-
lection of ghost stories. Editors James Houran and Rense Lange have drawn
together today's leading experts to offer a variety of thoroughly academic per-
spectives on those perennials of anomaly research, hauntings and poltergeists.
For those with a serious interest in the topic, this book will be required reading,
and it should be the bibliographic tool of choice for those contemplating field
research. For those with only a casual interest, the price alone will probably
warn them off.
Historically the basic data for both hauntings and poltergeists has always
had very different levels of quality. The high quality cases typically have mul-
tiple independent reliable witnesses who report reasonably unambiguous
events over extended periods of careful observation. For hauntings, cases like
the Cheltenham Ghost fall into this class, and for poltergeists examples would
be Bender's Rosenheim poltergeist or Roll's Miami poltergeist. As John
Beloff points out in the Foreward to this book, such high caliber cases are very
rare indeed. Far more common are what we might call "low grade" cases, in
which one or more individuals may report strange sounds, unusual smells, per-
haps fleeting observations of amorphous forms (or even more realistic images).
These might include unusual body sensations and even feelings of paralysis.
Some might include a few unusual object movements or, at least, unexplained
placements of objects. These become "cases" when the person or persons who
are noticing them decide that the event or collection of events cannot be ex-
plained by normal causes.
288 Book Reviews

Over the past few decades considerable advances have been made in under-
standing the roots and the developmental processes of the low grade cases, but
the high grade cases remain as puzzling as ever. This book provides an ex-
tremely useful update on the state of the science with regard to the former, but
leaves the latter relatively unchanged (despite what some of the more skeptical
contributors may have thought they were doing).
The book contains 14 chapters in three sections: Sociocultural Perspectives,
Physical and Physiological Perspectives, and Psychological Perspectives. The
contributors are representatively drawn from among those who believe the
phenomena still require explanation, those who think they have been ex-
plained as much as they need to be, and those who really do not have a strong
stake in the matter but nonetheless have something interesting to say about
them. The editors, who place themselves clearly in the second category, cau-
tion that debates about the reality of hauntings and poltergeists are almost al-
ways fruitless. So, rather than encourage a debate, they have provided their
contributors with the opportunity to share their latest and best understandings
of the phenomena under discussion. "We invite the reader to contemplate the
strengths and weaknesses of all the views presented here," say the editors in
the preface. The result is an excellent compendium of progress in this area and,
more importantly, of the various issues with which poltergeists and haunting
researchers of any persuasion must contend.
Before embarking upon my contemplations, perhaps I should admit to my
biases. Having worked in parapsychology for nearly three decades, much of
that at very prominent institutions, I have had a good many haunting and pol-
tergeist reports come my way. I have seen plenty of "anomalous" photographs
and done some field investigations. Although this is not my primary interest, I
have always regarded hauntings and poltergeists as some of the more challeng-
ing phenomena that parapsychology tries to understand, and, as I have often
kidded media people, I would love to find a case that "really scared the pants
off of me." Alas, pants firmly in place, I must note that everything I have in-
vestigated has admitted to mundane explanations that were uncovered without
much effort.
In the first section, Sociocultural Perspectives, Ronald C. Finucane opens
with an historical account of hauntings and poltergeists in England from
around the early 17th century to the early 20th century. This chapter is useful
to get a quick overview of the historical context for contemporary investiga-
tions and, more interestingly, the social context and function that early belief
in these phenomena served. Unfortunately, the chapter falls somewhat short of
being a scholarly treatment of the topic, as it is marred by a decided lack of ob-
jectivity and very obvious bias. For example, D. D. Home-perhaps the most
famous and most thoroughly investigated medium of the Victorian age-is
dealt with in the single sentence: "When the medium D.D. Home refused to
allow anyone to look under the table at which his wonderful powers were man-
ifested, interest in him waned." Such a claim is flatly contradicted by the histor-
 Book Reviews 289

ical record, and, when coupled with other examples, this carelessness serves to
undermine the confidence a reader would like to have in the accuracy of Finu-
cane's observations.
David J. Hufford's chapter brings a folklorist's perspective to the phenome-
na, illustrating his "experience-centered" theory of how supernatural beliefs
can arise from experiences (rather than, for example, preconceptions or a par-
ticular psychological disposition), through a very detailed analysis of a haunt-
ing case that he investigated. The case is not what I would call a "high quality"
one, but the ultimate reality of the phenomena is not essential to Hufford's
points. Using the tools of the folklorist, Hufford shows how the family's basic
experiences-the stories-are developed into the ramified beliefs that some-
thing supernatural was occurring to the family. While Hufford's ultimate inter-
pretation-that the situation was a case of sleep paralysis on the part of one
family member, with accretions-is probably what an experienced parapsy-
chologist would have concluded on first hearing; it is not his point to provide
an explanation of the case. Hufford's main interest is to show how a limited
number of very real experiences can become elaborated into a minor supernat-
ural belief system (with associated disbelief, which he regards as a type of be-
lief) within a small social group. Obviously, such a process can be extended to
other experiences and to larger societies, as Hufford has done in several publi-
cations cited in this book's reference list. I was delighted to encounter this
chapter because recently I was arguing much the same position (with admit-
tedly less in the way of supporting scholarship). In response to the frequent
charge from critics that parapsychologists are simply grasping for scientific
support to prop up pre-existing religious notions, I raised the "chicken or the
egg" question, "Which came first?" Suppose we allow that such experiences as
near-death experiences, out-of-body experiences, and even extrasensory per-
ception have been happening since humans evolved consciousness; how
would our ancient forbears have made sense of them? What beliefs would
evolve to "explain" these experiences (Broughton, 2000)?
Not too long ago, if a parapsychologist were collecting testimony on a
haunting, and the informant began talking about encountering aliens, the para-
psychologist would probably sigh, thinking to him or herself, "This person is
nuts. I'll have to toss the case." Similarly, a ufologist might have the same re-
action if an informant followed the details of an alien encounter with the re-
mark, "I've also seen a ghost." Fortunately the forums and publications of the
SSE have gone a long way to bridging the gulf between these two anomalistic
sciences, and Hilary Evans' chapter "The Ghost Experience in a Wider Con-
text" should complete the job. Evans provides a good review of the various
kinds of entity-encounter experiences that are the typical fare of psychical re-
search and parapsychology, along with some consideration of the psychologi-
cal processes thought to underlie them. Then he shows how there are close par-
allels in other types of entity encounters, ranging from those that occupy the
UFO community to those found in religious traditions (demons, saints) and
290 Book Reviews

folklore. He argues that not only do we need to look at these experiences with a
broad, interdisciplinary approach, but that we should begin by considering the
ghost experience as a "purpose-serving" event, and then consider who benefits
from it.
Continuing in the sociological vein, James McClenon's chapter begins with
a brief review of the competing interpretations of anomalous experiences of-
fered by sociologists of religion. The dominant interpretation, according to
McClenon, is the cultural source theory, which holds that religion is totally a
product of culture. Challenging that is the experiential source theory, to which
we were introduced in Hufford's chapter, and which McClenon extends to ritu-
al healing practices that may have emerged in Paleolithic cultures. With that
context, and after a review of various methods of sociological investigation,
McClenon walks us through several of his sociological case studies, including
several minor hauntings and the somewhat notorious SORRAT group, which
he has followed for some years. He concludes that these studies largely support
an experiential source perspective on religious belief and suggests a number of
hypotheses that could be tested.
The final contribution to the sociocultural perspectives section is Emily D.
Edwards' examination of ghostly themes in popular film and television. She
organizes Hollywood's prodigious output on the topic into general categories
to illustrate different consistent themes that have proven to be successful in the
media. While this chapter may not advance our understanding of the mecha-
nisms behind hauntings and poltergeists (apart from those emanating from the
silver screen), the extensive filmography that Edwards provides should cer-
tainly make it easier for ghostbusters to fill the time between haunts.
As may be deduced from the title, Physical and Physiological Perspectives,
the second section of the book, deals with the "nuts and bolts" of the hauntings
and poltergeists. The first chapter in this section, by William G. Roll and
Michael A. Persinger, is one of the more important in the book because it pro-
vides good summaries of a wide range of poltergeist and haunting cases that
have been investigated in recent years and which, in many cases, have merited
publication. Although they are not of equal quality, among the collection the
reader will find some of the most challenging cases (mostly poltergeist cases).
Sometimes even parapsychologists have to be reminded that it is these that set
the standard for explanation, not the odd bump in the night, the cold breeze,
the misplaced hairbrush, or sudden feeling of dread. Roll and Persinger offer
what is standard parapsychological interpretation, that these are recurrent
spontaneous psychokinesis (RSPK), and then add some of the recent observa-
tions suggesting that RSPK might be modulated by geomagnetic variation.
Hauntings are all represented by very recent investigations that cannot be con-
sidered very strong cases. In virtually all of the cases, technology is brought to
bear, revealing, in many instances, rather unusual geomagnetic, electromag-
netic, or other physical conditions that are thought to be the source of the re-
ported experiences. Much of what constitute haunting phenomena, the authors
 Book Reviews 291

conclude, is probably explainable by normal, but perhaps uncommon, physical

factors. The stronger aspects of RSPK cases, however, remain unexplained,
but the authors suggest even these may ultimately have a physical explanation,
though one not yet within the current understanding of physics.
In Chapter Seven, Dean I. Radin reports an experimental study of the psy-
chomanteum, a mirror-gazing apparatus devised by Raymond Moody, which
reportedly facilitates apparitional experiences. Radin constructed an elabo-
rately instrumented pyschomanteum that was designed to measure a wide
range of environmental variables as well as possibly record the "presence" of
an apparition. Seven volunteers, themselves wired for physiological monitor-
ing, each had a session in the psychomanteum. Unfortunately, for most of the
participants the device produced not much more than a feeling of a presence.
One saw brief apparitions of animals and the other a partial apparition. No ap-
paritions were recorded, and the analyses, presented in excruciating detail, re-
veal, essentially, an interaction of environmental variables probably affecting
the body, and vice versa. Radin himself writes, "At this point, some readers
may be thinking that this study discovered the obvious: the environment af-
fects the human body and mind, which in turn affect the environment." I am
one of those readers, and the fact that there was a slight deviation in a nearby
true random number generator does not dispel that thought for me. Much as I
respect Radin's work, this chapter probably could have been omitted.
Persinger returns with Stanley A. Koren to expand upon one aspect of the
earlier chapter with Roll-how haunting experiences can be induced, at least
for some people with a suitable brain sensitivity, by geomagnetic and electro-
magnetic fields. Drawing on the extensive work from Persinger's lab as well as
other neurophysiological research, Persinger and Koren identify specific areas
of the brain, particularly the limbic system, which may be influenced by such
fields, with the result being a haunting type experience. A couple of field in-
vestigations illustrate the geomagnetic/electromagnetic influences quite nice-
ly. Further support comes from a summary of Persinger's experimental re-
search applying weak, complex electromagnetic fields to the brains of
volunteers. The use of different patterns of stimulation and aiming it at differ-
ent areas of the brain can generate various aspects of the "sensed presence"
phenomenon.
Peter Brugger's chapter begins with an extended critique of "facilitated
communication," a technique that allegedly makes it possible for persons with
severe communication disorders to communicate. Though the critique may be
justified, it is not immediately clear why it is in this book. Once past that,
Brugger reviews his work, and that of others, which associates parapsycholog-
ical beliefs with various cognitive tendencies-some might say weaknesses-
that could contribute to mistaken interpretations of normal occurrences. An
example is Brugger's finding that believers of ESP, when asked to generate
random numbers, suppress repetitions more than disbelievers. Brugger sug-
gests that, at least for him, the observations from neuroscience that he sets
292 Book Reviews

forth explain the hauntinglpoltergeist phenomena reported by the German sci-

entist Ludwig Staudenmaier. Well they might, but nothing that Brugger ad-
duces explains cases like Bender's Rosenheim case or Roll's Miami case. To
think the facts of these cases, and the others of similar quality, can be ex-
plained by inadequate appreciation of normal processes compounded with
shared delusions is itself delusional. Explanatory theories have to account for
all the observations, not just the ones that fit conveniently. Only then shall we
see scientific explanations of the phenomena.
Joe Nickell opens his chapter with a brief critique of Sir Arthur Conan
Doyle's psychical beliefs, commenting, "Doyle's approach is unfortunately all
too typical of those who begin with a belief and work backward to the evi-
dence, selecting that which fits the preconceived notion and explaining away
all else." Hear, hear, Mr. Nickell, but coming from a representative of CSICOP
it is certainly an example of the pot calling the kettle black. Apart from a rocky
start, where he ridicules "self-styled parapsychologists" who bring infrared
cameras and magnetometers to haunting sites, obviously not realizing that (as
we have seen in preceding chapters) these guys are on his side, most of the
chapter is a collection of salutary examples of how the application of basic in-
vestigatory skills, along with a measure of common sense, can remove the
mystery from all sorts of poltergeist and haunting claims, both innocent and
fraudulent. I must admit, my own ghost hunting experiences are very much like
Nickell's, but, also like Nickell, I have never encountered a particularly chal-
lenging case. I would also be the first to admit that far too many would-be
ghost hunters routinely fail to apply the basic standards of investigation that
Nickel1 outlines. But, again, experienced parapsychologists are well aware of
the pitfalls that Nickell illustrates, and they simply do not account for the ob-
servations in the best of the cases.
The final section, Psychological Perspectives, begins with a chapter by FBti-
ma Regina Machado advocating a semiotic approach to haunting and polter-
geist investigations. Machado introduces the basic concepts of Peircean semi-
otics and then proceeds to apply a semiotic analysis to a selection of
poltergeists and haunting cases from her native country, Brazil. When all is
said and done, however, the semiotic analysis did not seem result in an expla-
nation of the case that would be any different than what would given by psy-
chologically informed ordinary investigation. Machado acknowledges this ap-
parently common complaint in her concluding paragraphs and attempts to
address it-unsuccessfully in my case, however.
Recent decades have seen considerable growth in the number of studies and
theories that purport to explain on psychological grounds why people believe
in the paranormal. Tony R. Lawrence's chapter helps us get that research into
perspective. Drawing upon the extensive work of Harvey Irwin (Irwin, 1993),
Lawrence adds his own insight and occasional wit to produce a very useful sur-
vey of the current literature. He groups the various efforts into three main ap-
proaches to the problem: the Social Marginality perspective, the World View
 Book Reviews 293

Hypothesis, and the Cognitive DeficitsICorrelates interpretation, which gets

the most attention. Lawrence concludes that, for a variety of reasons, the psy-
chology of paranormal belief and experience as it exists today is "largely irrel-
evant to the understanding of apparitional beliefs and experiences." Lest this
seem unexpected, one should note that he is specifically referring to the ap-
paritional experience-not the broad range of weird cxperiences that much of
the paranormal belief research generally includes-and he does offer some
suggestions on how the situation could be improved.
In the following chapter, V. K. Kumar and Ronald J. Pekala stay with the
topic of paranormal beliefs and experiences, but narrow the focus to hypnosis-
specific factors. Termed a "technical review," the authors provide a very tech-
nical survey of the considerable, mostly experimental literature that shows re-
lationships between such factors as hypnotizability, capacity for absorption,
imagery, fantasy proneness, and dissociation, on the one hand, and the tenden-
cy to hold paranormal beliefs or have paranormal experiences on the other.
Particularly interesting is the summary of their own research using their
"Anomalous Experiences Inventory," which is conveniently reproduced in an
Appendix. The authors conclude that there is a small but significant correla-
tion between hypnotizability and paranormal belief, and a slightly higher cor-
relation with paranormal experience. In varying degrees, the related phenome-
na also show generally positive correlations. While the findings aren't new for
researchers in this field, the chapter is certainly a handy summary of the work
to date.
The last chapter is contributed by the editors themselves, Rense Lange and
James Houran. They report a number of studies to support their contention that
poltergeist and haunting experiences are simply misinterpretations (perhaps
shaped by the many psychological and physical factors discussed in the fore-
going chapters) of ambiguous natural events. Where more than one observer is
involved, the process may be augmented by a form of delusion known as "con-
tagious psychogenic illness." The first factor they consider is the role of con-
textual variables, which, they find, play a large role in shaping the type of
paranormal experience people report. The role of attention effects is intro-
duced with a curious study involving a month in the life of a single married
couple who were asked to note unusual occurrences in their residence. On the
basis of this n = 1 study, which they suggest could explain haunting effects,
they embark on a study of attention effects in the Seaford poltergeist case.
Using the chronology of the case in the original report, Lange and Houran use
a number of complex analyses to show that the reports of anomalous events
fluctuates with the percipients' efforts to observe such events. As I understand
this, the authors claim that the pattern of observations by the observers in the
Seaford case conforms to what would be expected in the normal course of sev-
eral different people deploying their attention to changing stimuli in the envi-
ronment. Somehow this leads the authors to imply, at least, if not to overtly
conclude that the events themselves must not be paranormal, which would be a
294 Book Reviews

complete non sequitur. Presumably such an analysis can be applied to several

birdwatchers in the woods, but would the results tell us what causes the activi-
ties of the birds that attract the attention of the birders? No, it only describes
the way individuals react to changing sources of information in the environ-
ment. Next Lange and Houran explore how fear of the paranormal interacts
with experiences and belief in one's attempts to make sense of ambiguous
stimuli. This leads to some interesting insights as to the role of gender differ-
ences in the process. Finally the authors conclude that hauntings and polter-
geists, though valid experiences, are nonetheless delusions-the misinterpre-
tations of ambiguous events caused by the cognitive processes they have just
illustrated. They are no doubt correct, or at least on the right track, where am-
biguous stimuli are concerned. In fact, the process is often embarrassingly ob-
vious to those of us who have been on field investigations. One doesn't need
the mathematical models to see what is happening in many situations. Howev-
er, given the data that they used, the conclusion is almost a foregone one.
Apart from the curious exercise regarding the Seaford case, much of their pri-
mary poltergeist and haunting data is from questionnaires given mostly to stu-
dents-not exactly what one would consider high quality data for poltergeist
or haunting studies. Ultimately their model says nothing about those high
quality cases where the stimuli were anything but ambiguous. Copious
amounts of water cascading down the stairs from an unoccupied upper floor
with no plumbing is not exactly an ambiguous stimulus. Numerous fluorescent
tubes disconnecting themselves in an office full of people along with the elec-
trician who is there to fix them is not an ambiguous stimulus. I am convinced
that science will ultimately come to an understanding of what we now call pol-
tergeist phenomena, but as long as scientists tailor their models to explain only
the lowest grade observations, while ignoring the truly challenging observa-
tions, getting to that understanding will be a slow process.
The book ends with an afterword by Gertrude R. Schmeidler, who adds her
thoughtful perspective to the "non-debate" of the preceding chapters. As a
parapsychologist, she expresses some of the same misgivings I have had,
though with greater eloquence.
So what is my take on the state of the evidence for hauntings and polter-
geists? I think there is no question that the combined efforts of parapsycholo-
gists and skeptics have elucidated many normal physical, physiological, and
psychological factors that probably explain the vast bulk of haunting experi-
ences as well as the weak poltergeist cases. That was my opinion before read-
ing this book, but now it is a much more informed opinion. There remain, of
course, a number of haunting cases that I believe an unbiased observer would
have to say are not explained by the models and theories offered by either
camp in this book. They remain anomalous observations awaiting a more con-
vincing explanation. Oddly enough, the one explanation that is no longer seri-
ously considered even by many parapsychologists is that disembodied spirits
are behind hauntings (see, for example, Irwin, 1999). Poltergeist cases are in a
 Book Reviews 295

similar, but more sharply defined, situation to hauntings. There remain a

greater number of poltergeist cases very carefully investigated in relatively re-
cent times that, pure and simple, defy explanation by any combination of
physical fields or psychological processes. At the same time, calling them
RSPK is only renaming the observations, not explaining them. For me they re-
main anomalies in search of an explanation, and pretending we have explained
all poltergeist phenomena now only delays our eventual understanding.
Despite some misgivings here and there, let me reiterate that this is an im-
portant book for anyone seriously interested in the topic. Like me, you proba-
bly will not agree with all the contributors, but where you don't agree you will
certainly learn the state of the art for the counterarguments to your position.
R ICHARD S. BROUGHTON
Intuition Laboratories, Inc.
Durham, North Carolina
richard @ intuitionlabs. corn
www.intuitionlabs. corn

References
Broughton, R. (2000). From cavcman to thc sccond foundation: Making sense of exceptional ex-
periences. In Aque'm e Alkm do Ce'rehro Symposium (Behind and Beyond the Brain) (pp.
69-82). Porto, Portugal: FundaqBo Bial.
Irwin, H. J. (1993). Belief in the paranormal: A review of the empirical literature. Journal of the
American Societyfi)r Psychical Research, 87, 1-39.
Irwin, H. J. (1999). An Introduction to Parapsychology (3rd ed.). Jefferson, NC: McFarland &
Company.

The Encyclopedia of Ghosts and Spirits (Revised Ed.), by Rosemary Ellen

Guiley. New Haven, CT: Facts on File, 2000, 413 pp., $55.00, ISBN 0-300-
05588-9
Some reference books are boring creations, while others effortlessly invoke
fascination in the subject matter. When I was nine years old my parents bought
me The Golden Book of the Mysterious (Watson & Chaneles, 1978)-this book
captured my interest in anomalous phenomena. The most memorable section
of that book for me concerned apparitions and poltergeists. In particular, on
page 52 was a striking illustration of a ghost standing in a cemetery. That
image, to which I was first exposed twenty-three years ago, remains just as
vivid in my mind today. The desire to pursue my own research on haunts and
poltergeists was sparked to a large degree by that book.
Nowadays, there is a wealth of books on the subject of ghosts and spirits by
amateur historians, folklorists, and "ghost-hunters." These works vary tremen-
dously in quality, as there is disparity in the expertise and credibility of the re-
spective authors. Moreover, these types of books do not seem to attempt to
convey what science and scholars have come to understand about haunt and
poltergeist experiences. Instead, most general books promote sensationalism
296 Book Reviews

of the subject. Guiley's book, by contrast, stands out a bit from this genre. I
bought the original edition of her book some time ago, because I was general-
ly impressed with the scope and relevance of the entries. Furthermore, Guiley
nicely documents her sources for each entry, and most of her sources are ap-
propriate scholarly works. Now she has revised her original version to encom-
pass new and updated entries.
Unfortunately, some of these revisions significantly detract from the book.
The experienced researcher or scholar will feel the punch upon opening the
book. Individuals with no academic standing or recognition in parapsychology
give introductory remarks and are virtually touted by Guiley as noted "ex-
perts." Perhaps Guiley did not know that this is not the case, but this seems un-
likely given that she must have conducted some solid research to properly pre-
pare the entries. If she had done her homework then it should have been
obvious that the inclusion of such personalities would undermine the credibil-
ity of the entire book to the academic community or to a lay audience well read
on the topic. Thus, my suspicion is that Guiley is catering to the "ghost
groupies" market. That is a shame, because these groups and their leadership
arguably take away from genuine parapsychological research and diminish its
portrayal in the popular media. I made this point recently (Houran, 2001) and
others have voiced similar concerns, but it should be reiterated again-there is
a disturbing trend that is harmful to the field. Adrian Parker and I have dis-
cussed this at some length, and he referred to this trend as an "amateurization
of the field." His is an insightful term in my opinion.
This is not to say that amateur "ghost hunter" organizations should not be
acknowledged in a book like Guiley's. Indeed, these groups are a fascinating
sociological phenomenon associated with the subject matter. Any good refer-
ence on ghosts and spirits would do well to address this fact. It makes an ap-
propriate entry-but that is all. Lay readers and young academics (i.e., our fu-
ture scientists, who could develop an interest in pursuing parapsychology, with
the proper motivation and guidance) who read The Encyclopedia of Ghosts
and Spirits could be misguided into thinking that certain organizations and in-
dividuals are reliable sources of information on the topic and are on the same
par as such organizations as the Society for Psychical Research (UK) or the
Parapsychology Foundation, Inc. (New York).
Guiley did not start the dangerous trend of giving credence to "ghost hunter"
types, but she seems to follow it. If she treated these organizations as entries
and not as authorities, then I could easily recommend her book as a major and
welcome reference work suitable for any public or private research library.
The real authorities in the field that are profiled in the book (like Michaeleen
Maher and William Roll) are downplayed, as are their theories. It is also a dis-
service that Guiley did not include entries about the conventional theories for
haunt and poltergeist experiences, and those individuals who proposed or ac-
tively research them. I think it is accurate to say that never before in this field
has there been more excellent research conducted into the sociocultural, phys-
 Book Reviews 297

ical, and psychological variables that attend these experiences (for a review
see Houran & Lange, 2001). It could be said that, in this respect, the study of
haunts and poltergeists tells us more about the living than the dead. Reviews
of such studies of imagination, cognition, and emotion are absent from this
book. This is a severe weakness that should be corrected in future editions.
The touted features and genuine flaws unfortunately make Guiley's book
fall short of a great reference work. I am disappointed to report this. The book
is beautifully produced and contains a multitude of outstanding illustrations-
images that can easily capture and hold the interest of aspiring academics, just
like The Golden Book of the Mysterious (Watson & Chaneles, 1978) did for me
years ago. The price is a good deal for the serious researcher who wants well-
prepared summaries of some classic and modern cases, explanations of the
various terms and phenomena associated with psychical research, and infor-
mation on obscure and well-known personalities in psychical research from
the past and present. Rosemary Ellen Guiley is a gifted writer who is in the en-
viable position of being able to produce a really outstanding reference book
that is accessible to nearly all lay people. I hope there will be a third edition of
this book. Guiley can easily rectify the weaknesses and expand on the
strengths of the book. Doing so might hurt sales to the "ghost groupies," but
she would gain and educate more important audiences. In return, the field and
lay audiences would have a general book that could well be the gold standard
in its genre.
James Houran
Southern Illinois University School of Medicine
Dept. of Psychiatry
l?0. Box 5201
Springfield, IL 62705
e-mail: jhouran @ siumed.edu

References
Houran, J. (200 1). Review of The Field Guide to Ghosts and Other Apparitions. Journal of Scien-
tific Exploration, 15, 293-296.
Houran, J., & Lange, R.. (Eds.) (2001). Hauntings and Poltergeists: Multidisciplinary Perspec-
tives. Jefferson, NC: McFarland.
Watson, J. W., & Chaneles, S. (1978). The Golden Book of the Mysterious. New York: Golden
Press.

The Siren Call of Hungry Ghosts: A Riveting Investigation into Channel-

ing and Spirit Guides, by Joe Fisher (New York: Paraview Press, 2001), 313
pp. Paper. $16.95. ISBN: 1-93 1044-02-3
Freeing the Captives: The Emerging Therapy of Treating Spirit Attach-
ment, by Louise Ireland-Frey, M.D. (Charlottesville, VA: Hampton Roads
Publishing Co., 1999), 333 pp. Paper. $13.95. ISBN: 1-57 174- 136-4
298 Book Reviews

While hanging out with my friends one day during my early teens, we decid-
ed to play with a Ouija board. I declined to participate directly, since my then-
fundamentalist religious leanings told me that this was a very questionable ac-
tivity for a Christian. But I couldn't resist staying around to see what would
happen. After a series of fairly run-of-the-mill answers to others' questions,
the planchette began to move rapidly and erratically around the board. No one
could figure out why it would not respond any more, until I had a sudden flash
of insight. "Ask it if it's mad," I suggested, standing safely to the back of the
group and away from the board. The planchette moved immediately to "Yes!"
To everyone's chorus of "Why?" it responded, "Brenda won't play." A chill
moved up my spine. "Why should I play?" I told my friends to ask. The answer
came: "To avoid disaster."
Like me, Joe Fisher, author of The Siren Call of Hungry Ghosts, was offered
control over his future by a discarnate voice-this one emanating from a
woman named Aviva who had originally developed trance channeling capabil-
ities as an unexpected by-product of an effort to augment her treatment for
cancer with hypnosis and guided visualization. The entity Fisher connected
with in 1984, a female presence calling herself Filipa, claimed to be his spirit
guide and a lover from a previous lifetime. The attraction between him and
Filipa was immediate and intense. In this absorbing book, Fisher recounts his
increasing obsession with (and subtle control by) the ethereal world of these
discarnate entities-and his gradual loss of engagement with the material
world of everyday life-as he nevertheless struggled to hold on to some sem-
blance of journalistic objectivity about the phenomenon.
For some time it seemed as if objective proof of the reality of the guides
would not be hard to come by. Russell, the discarnate leader of the entities who
emerged, often encouraged the sitters to question and rationally prove what
they heard at the weekly sessions. This attitude was distinctive at a time when
other channeled entities across North America were gaining huge followings
and almost always urged their flocks not to reason with the intellect but to un-
derstand with the heart. Despite-or perhaps because of-t his refreshing ex-
hortation to question and evaluate the guides' pronouncements, it was very
7
easy for the sitters around Aviva to take their helpers reality and truthfulness
at face value. The discarnates' surprising knowledge of intimate details of the
7
sitters daily lives, coupled with their extraordinary tendency to be almost
made-to-order personality matches with the sitters, also made acceptance
seem like the most rational response. Perhaps this is why the guides also felt
free to discuss their own recent past lives as human beings, sometimes with re-
markable specificity. Names, dates, locations, events, and even snippets of
(sometimes later verified) languages came readily.
Fisher's journalistic instincts won out in the end. Having already published
one book on the case for reincarnation, he was excited at the prospect of being
able to further establish the case for continued existence after physical death
by using as evidence the information the guides so willingly provided. What
could be better, he thought, than to be able to prove that he was talking with the
 Book Reviews 299

still-existing, conscious personalities of people who could be proven to have

existed on this earth only a short time ago, but whose physical bodies had died?
The guides repeatedly insisted that they were human beings, not spirits, after
all, and in fact they had warned the sitters against getting involved with "play-
ful entities" and becoming victims of "soul entrapment."
Armed, then, with the information from the guides, Fisher made two re-
search trips to England and one to Greece. What he found left him with more
questions than answers-and profoundly disillusioned him about his beloved
Filipa and the other guides. For, as he pointed out when he later presented the
guides with his findings, it was harder to believe their metaphysical teachings
to be truthful when their verifiable statements about their lives in this world
were of very questionable certainty. Eerily, the reaction of the guides was ex-
actly what Russell had once warned the sitters against with regard to other en-
tities: "Manipulators tend either to embellish or lie outright when challenged .
. .. They will somehow explain it away." Urged by Russell to ignore the results
of his empirical research and instead to follow his heart and believe in the
guides based on his deep emotional attachment to Filipa, Fisher nevertheless
turned away from the group. In the end, ironically, the main argument the
guides used in their own defense exalted belief over reason.
The story that Fisher tells in The Siren Call of Hungry Ghosts adds plausibil-
ity to the premise of Louise Ireland-Frey's book, Freeing the Captives: The
Emerging Therapy of Treating Spirit Attachment: that conscious, non-material
energies can attach themselves to living human beings, to the detriment of
both. Where the two books differ is in the kinds of entities each deals with and
in the kinds of experiences each author claims to have had with them. In Fish-
er's case, the entities claimed to have been human once; his interactions with
them lasted three years and during that time they gave repeated evidence of
their ability to know things about him beyond what the trance channeler her-
self could have known. In Ireland-Frey's case, her earliest contact was by read-
ing about earthbound entities, rather than through any personal encounter with
them. It was perhaps her early reading, though, that prepared her for the career
she was to take up much later in her life-that of "spirit releasement" therapy.
But the spirits she has released have apparently offered no real proof that they
are who they have claimed to be.
In Freeing the Captives, Ireland-Frey outlines in a systematic but entertain-
ing manner the nature of spirit attachment, the various kinds of discarnate en-
tities that can attach, their various reasons for attaching, and her method for re-
leasing them. The "captives" referenced in the book's title refers both to the
living human individuals being attached and to the attaching entities them-
selves. In this, Ireland-Frey moves beyond traditional, religiously-mediated
rites of exorcism and into a clinical mode, where the welfare and dignity of
both parties to the attachment relationship are respected and where "treat-
ment" focuses as much on the needs of the attaching entity as on the needs of
the human client seeking releasement.
300 Book Reviews

The largest part of Ireland-Frey's book deals with the releasement of a rela-
tively less frightening class of entities, the souls of the dead (the class that
Fisher's guides claimed to belong to). The reasons these entities give her for
their decision to attach vary, but often revolve around either confusion about
their new, post-mortem condition of existence, or else a strong desire to remain
in the flesh in order to enjoy corporeal sensations. In the latter part of the book,
the author shows how the techniques used to release the souls of those who
have crossed over can be used to free a more frightening class of beings-dark
non-corporeal energies that have never incarnated before; what the Christian
tradition identifies as demons and devils. Sometimes, Ireland-Frey reveals, the
lower-level dark entities also attach because they are able to get vicarious sen-
sory pleasure from the experience. Very often they are confused and deluded,
having been told by their leaders in the non-corporeal world that the "dark-
ness" is all there is and that the "light" (more elevated levels of non-corporeal
existence) would destroy them. With all these types of entities, Ireland-Frey
works to ensure that they separate fully from their incarnate hosts, but then
she goes one better than what is claimed about the Carpenter of Galilee, who,
according to the stories, sent the demons called "Legion" into a herd of swine.
Having summoned divine beings of light and protection before beginning her
work, Ireland-Frey gently but firmly tries to persuade the now host-less enti-
ties she frees to see and go with these divine helpers, to begin life anew in the
upper etheric realms. More often than not, she claims to have been successful.
"We need to remember clearly," she says, "that the negative aspects of the psy-
chospiritual worlds are never as strong as the positive aspects, the dark forces
never ultimately as strong as the bright powers" (p. 185).
Ireland-Frey's method of releasement entails the use of a trance channeler
who provides the physical body and voice through which the discarnates are
able to communicate. Throughout the book, a cautious reader cannot help but
wonder whether the forces being contacted are truly independent entities or,
instead, just complex manifestations of the channelers' and Ireland-Frey's
own psyches. In these relatively brief encounters, there is usually very little
opportunity (or reason) to get evidence that they are truly independent ener-
gies. This kind of doubt is harder to maintain in the light of Fisher's experi-
ence, however.
On that afternoon with my friends more than 30 years ago, I remember ask-
ing the Ouija board one more question. "Who will I marry?" For years after-
ward I kept my eyes and ears pealed for one name-Alfred Bernerd (not
Bernard) Carper-determined to run away in the opposite direction if I should
ever find him, just so I could prove the Ouija board wrong. Just so I could NOT
be controlled by the destiny it had predicted for me. Joe Fisher also ran away
from the control over his destiny initially offered by the discarnates claiming to
be his spiritual guides, but not before a firm connection had been established
between him and them. In an Epilog written ten years after the book's original
publication, Fisher tells about the mysterious and very rare ailment that he de-
veloped shortly after parting company with his etheric benefactors and begin-
 Book Reviews 301

ning to write about his experiences with them. The symbolism of the illness
suggested that he had been the victim (very nearly a casualty) of a psychic at-
tack. Apparently these kinds of situations did not end with the mystery dis-
ease. Shortly after publication of the U.S. edition of his book in the spring of
2001, Joe Fisher committed suicide. Friends noted that he had been having
problems in his personal relationships and with his finances, and continuing
trouble from the discarnate entities who had once so warmly embraced him.
It's a pity Fisher never met Louise Ireland-Frey. Maybe it wouldn't have
helped, in the end. But surely it couldn't have hurt.
Brenda Denzler
Chapel Hill, NC
I? 0. Box 995
Carrboro, NC 27510
Addendum: Interestingly enough, the board's first response was "ABC," which it
elaborated into a name when pressed for specifics. Years later I briefly dated a young
man who was one of five children. The oldest's name began with "A", the second old-
est's with "B", and so on through "E." The family's last name was "Fischer." In other
words, they were A, B, C, D, and E Fischer. In another curious twist, the first name of
the man I did eventually marry began with "G."

Swamp Gas Times: My Two Decades on t h e UFO Beat, by Patrick Huyghe.

New York: Paraview Press. 2001.394 pp. $17.95, paper. ISBN 1-931044-27-9.
Swamp Gas Times: M y Two Decades on the UFO Beat is a collection of articles
on the UFO subject published by science journalist Patrick Huyghe over the
last two decades. Huyghe is first to be credited with a ground-breaking New
York Times Magazine feature in 1979 p r o m ~ t ~bydthe release of the first batch
of CIA documents on unidentified flying ,ects under the Freedom of Infor-
mation Act. This success opened many doors for his future reporting. Most of
his late vies are short and ran in OMNI magazine between 1984 and 1997.
More recent ones have appeared in Science Digest or on the internet site
Space.com, and Huyghe now edits a print and web journal, The Anomalist.
Huyghe's time on the "UFO beat" certainly made an important contribution,
since most media refused to touch the subject. As a freelance journalist who
has recently covered the UFO subject for mainstream newspapers such as the
Boston Globe, I empathize wholeheartedly with Huyghe's statement that he
was not open with his colleagues about his work for fear of damaging his ca-
reer. Unfortunately, I too have felt compelled to guard my professional stand-
ing in this way. I commend him for sticking with his reporting despite the risk.
I found Huyghe's writing on a broad range of topics relating to UFOs to be
uneven. Some pieces are in-depth, well-researched and informative. Others,
especially many of the OMNI stories, are infused with a simplistic, popular
tone. Perhaps Huyghe was constricted by the requirements of his editors, and
he was certainly limited by length (many stories on complicated topics aver-
302 Book Reviews

age two pages). Some pieces also suffer due to the fact that they are dated, and
much has been learned since. This gives them an elementary feel and they can
be tedious to read for someone well versed in the subject.
A dismissive attitude is injected into his pieces from time to time. "The
video evidence for UFOs has been a waste of time," he declares in his 1997
piece "UFO Home Videos: Seduced by Venus and Other ETs." Of greatest
concern to me were the stories tinged with a hint of ridicule-sometimes sub-
tly through tone and other times overtly. In "The Strieber Show" he treats the
work of Whitley Strieber with sarcasm. However, Huyghe does apologize for
not disputing the opinion of his editor, who thought that Strieber was a cult
leader. In a very interesting analysis of the famous Linda Cortille abduction
case, he says Budd Hopkins is consumed with "bizarre tales of UFOs and the
nasty creatures who inhabit them, plucking innocents from their homes in the
middle of the night." Huyghe describes his session with a woman claiming to
channel an ET named Hwieg in a piece titled "Aliens 'R' Us." "Huyghe meets
Hweig," he chuckles, amused by the similarity between his birth name and the
alien's who "made up his from random letters."
Huyghe gives great credence to the comments of veteran debunker Philip
Klass (who he states is a good friend) in his quest for balance and objectivity,
often giving Klass the last word in a story. Perhaps Huyghe enjoyed writing
with what he calls a sense if humor, a quality he admires in Klass. But when he
pokes fun of a frightened Australian family who believed they encountered a
UFO while in their car, I could not understand the point. Even if the family
members were mistaken, what purpose does it serve to make light of the inci-
dent? I react in response to my own uphill battle to bring credibility to this
complex subject through serious reporting. The prevailing attitude in the
media is one of ridicule. Stories such as this only add to that problem.
Yet numerous pieces in the book are thoughtful and substantive. These are
well worth reading and to be respected for their balanced approach. I particu-
larly appreciated the in-depth Anomalist piece "The Best UFO Case Ever?"
about the 1964 Socorro, New Mexico sighting-the only Project Blue Book
case designated as "unidentified" that involved observation of a landed craft
and occupants, as well as physical evidence. The sighting terrified its witness,
a highly credible police officer named Lonnie Zamora. Huyghe pulls together
a detailed picture of the case based on the documentation, witness accounts
and interviews, and the work of many investigators. He provides a detailed de-
scription of Blue Book director Major Hector Quintanilla's unsuccessful at-
tempts to explain the object over a period of years, and the work of J. Allen
Hynek and Ray Sanford of the National Investigations Committee on Aerial
Phenomena (NICAP). The highlight of the piece is a powerful interview with
Zamora himself, conducted 35 years after the incident. This is investigative
journalism at its best.
Other interesting stories include coverage of Laurance Rockefeller's at-
tempt to persuade President Clinton to become active on the UFO issue, the
activities of disinformation agent Richard Doty, scientists who have seen
 Book Reviews 303

UFOs, the Phoenix Lights lawsuit against the Department of Defense, and an
analysis of what the government isn't saying about UFOs.
Huyghe touches on the current debate of media and government cover-up as
presented by Terry Hansen in The Missing Times: News Media Complicity in
the UFO Cover-up. (See review by John L. Peterson in JSE, Volume 15, Num-
ber 3.) He takes issue with Hansen's thesis that the government has directly in-
fluenced the media in its effort to maintain secrecy about UFOs, due to nation-
al security concerns. Huyghe states that if there is any deliberate "media
conspiracy" it would have been obvious to him. This strikes me as naive. There
is no way any journalist would have direct knowledge of such an undercurrent.
The lack of coverage of the subject and the persistent ridicule is open to many
interpretations. One cannot overlook the debunking campaign put into place
by the CIA'S Robertson panel and the CIA infiltration of media during the cold
war, which is well documented by Hansen.
Huyghe concludes that government secrecy is not about its knowledge of
UFOs, but about its attempt to downplay its own lack of knowledge. To ex-
plain this position he says that if it were known that these visitors were from
outer space, the Air Force would not refer people with sightings to civilian
UFO groups. This logic simply doesn't hold up. Well over 90% of sightings re-
ported by civilians are explainable. Why would the Air Force want to bother
dealing with these reports, even if they did have evidence of an ET reality? The
record shows that civilian groups have been infiltrated and surveilled by intel-
ligence for decades. The authorities would easily be aware of any cases of sig-
nificance, and in fact could make use of these groups as a filtering device.
But by and large, Huyghe draws a series of sensible conclusions in his very
fine Afterword, providing an open-minded assessment which should inspire
any journalist to recognize that the subject is worthy of investigation. "I refuse
to throw out these remaining unidentifieds," he concludes, despite the "flimsy
assumptions" of skeptics claiming that all UFOs could be explained if more in-
formation were available. He laments the lack of true investigation in today's
media and the stigma that still overlays this subject. Huyghe ends by stating
that he still has no answer to the UFO mystery, and he's not afraid to say that
even sightings of occupants by honest observers remain an open question.
Although I think it could have been shortened by inclusion of only the most
serious articles, Swamp Gas Times provides an important historical record of
media coverage on this subject and therefore has much to teach us. I hope that
Huyghe's material will inspire more journalists to engage in a fruitful debate
on points such as those I have raised above. None of us have the answers, so we
must keep asking the questions.
Leslie Kean
San Rafael, California
e-mail: lkean @ ix.netcom.corn
304 Book Reviews

FURTHER BOOKS OF NOTE

Franklin Merrell-Wolff's Experience and Philosophy: A Personal Record
of Transformation and a Discussion of Transcendental Consciousness:
Containing His Philosophy of Consciousness Without an Object and His
Pathways Through to Space, by Franklin Merrell-Wolff. Albany, NY: State
University of New York Press, 1994. 457 pp, $25.95, paperback. ISBN
079 141 9649.
Transformations in Consciousness: The Metaphysics and Epistemology,
by Franklin Merrell-Wolff. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press,
$22.95. 1 9 9 5 . 3 4 6 pp, paperback. ISBN 079 1426769.

The Transcendental Philosophy of Franklin Merrell-Wolff, by Ron

Leonard. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1999. 400 pp,
$21.95, paperback. ISBN 079 14421 60.

Mathematics, Philosophy & Yoga: A Lecture Series Presented at the Los

Olivos Conference Room in Phoenix, Arizona, in 1966, by Franklin Merrell-
Wolff. Phoenix Philosophical Press, 5825 North 12th Street, # l o , Phoenix,
AZ, 8501 4 , USA, 1 9 9 5 . 8 0 pp, paperback.
Mystical experiences are noteworthy for a scientific understanding of reality be-
cause of the apparent resolution of existential issues and provision of insight concern-
ing the nature of reality that occurs during such events. The experiences and philosophy
of Franklin Merrell-Wolff provide a good place to start a scientific study of such expe-
riences because of the profundity of the transcendental events that occurred for Wolff,
his background in mathematics, and his commitment to clarity of exposition. Wolff
wrote two monographs, one of which, Pathways Through to Space, is the diary in which
he recorded his experiences during the time of his enlightenment, and the other of
which, in two volumes, Philosophy of Consciousness Without an Object, is an account
of his understanding of transcendent states of consciousness. In addition, he wrote or
recorded on audiotape numerous lectures, many of which have never been scrutinized
or published.
State University of New York Press is to be lauded for publishing Wolff's mono-
graphs. The first book mentioned above consists of Pathways Through to Space as well
as the first volume of Philosophy of Consciousness Without an Object, both of which
had been published previously by trade publishers. The second book mentioned above
consists of the second volume of Philosophy of Consciousness Without an Object and
was edited by Ron Leonard for publication by SUNY Press. Leonard, who managed to
find Wolff and live with him before Wolff's death in 1985, has done the only compre-
hensive academic examination of Wolff's work. In fact, the third book mentioned
above is Leonard's doctoral dissertation in philosophy. The fourth book mentioned
above, also edited by Leonard, consists of a transcription of a series of six audiotaped
lectures given by Wolff.
Of all of the above, my favourite is "Part 11: Introceptualism" of Transformations in
Consciousness, in which Wolff unflinchingly takes on the tough ontological and episte-
mological questions about transcendent states of consciousness, giving us a compre-
hensive account of the manner in which he thinks knowledge concerning such states is
possible. I also like the lecture series Mathematics, Philosophy & Yoga, in which Wolff
indicates the manner in which mathematics can be used as a means of transcendence. I
 Book Reviews 305

was particularly struck by the fit that Wolff's conception of mathematics had with my
own intuitions and the psychological changes I feel that I experienced as a graduate stu-
dent in mathematics. I recommend the above four books for anyone interested in a char-
acterization of transcendence that is conducive to the scientific mindset.

Irnants Barus's
Department of Psychology
King's College, University of Western Ontario
e-mail: baruss@ uwo.ca

All Done With Mirrors: An Exploration of Measure, Proportion, Ratio

and Number, by J o h n Neal. Self-published, 2000. x + 274 pp, $38.00 in U.K.,
$45.00 in U.S.A., cloth. ISBN 0-9539000-0-2. Order f r o m www.secretacade-
rny.com.
If for no other reason, this book is "Of Note" because it has received praise from
quarters that are more commonly in opposition: the blurbs bear effusive praise from
stalwart anomalists John Michell and Colin Wilson and the book was reviewed in glow-
ing terms in Nature by Michael Vickers of the Department of Antiquities, Ashmolean
Museum, and Senior Research Fellow in Classical Studies and Reader in Archaeology
at Jesus College, Oxford. The book's author, John Neal, acknowledges works of vary-
ing degrees of unorthodoxy: those of William Petrie, Alexander Thom, Algernon Ber-
riman, Livio Stecchini, Peter Tompkins, and Hugh Harleston, Jr.
Neal reviews attempts to find commonalities among the units of measurement (pri-
marily the linear ones) used across the ancient world. He ascribes some variations to
differences in latitude, presuming that the units were derived from knowledge of the
distance subtended at the Earth's surface by a degree of arc, which varies by latitude,
since the Earth bulges toward the Equator. This justifies ratios of 1751176 and 4401441.
Neal also believes that such monuments as the Great Pyramid were models for the
Earth, consequently incorporating knowledge of pi (n).The latter was often taken as
3.125 (3 118) or as 2217 (3 117) for different applications; and the ratio of those two is,
remarkably, also 1751176.
The first half-dozen chapters of this book are an interesting review of earlier at-
tempts to discover, define, and explain ancient units. My attempt to find recent, com-
prehensive, and authoritative works covering the same ground confirms Neal's state-
ment that mainstream archaeology has sorely neglected the field of historical
metrology. I also garnered from Neal's book such fascinating snippets as the occur-
rence, especially in Scotland, of stone balls incised with the Platonic solids, something
I had not been aware of despite much reading of books about prehistoric and megalithic
remains. I enjoyed also some of Neal's charmingly witty, pointed comments about cer-
tain Establishment tendencies, for instance (p. 5 I), "To mention the words 'pyramid'
and 'megalith' in the same sentence became sufficient cause for otherwise mild man-
nered scholars to rend their garments."
As to Neal's main theme, I have no quarrel with the idea-propounded by others as
well as by Neal-that there may have existed, before the end of the last Ice Age, a quite
advanced civilization whose descendants in various parts of the world preserved vari-
ous traditions in a variety of forms. After all, sea levels now are hundreds of feet higher
than during the last Ice Age, so that many relics of human culture from between 10,000
and, say, 40,000 years ago have probably been submerged and lost. At that earlier time
there were some remarkably accomplished works of art inscribed in caves, and there
seems nothing implausible in the notion that other facets of that culture may have been
similarly remarkable. Certainly the astronomical knowledge apparently incorporated
306 Book Reviews

in monuments dating back many millennia points to considerable scientific knowledge

and technical skill.
However: the system that Neal constructs, which is so lauded by Vickers as well as
by Michell and Wilson, allows each unit to take on ten dzlfferent values. For example
the "Complete Greek tables" (p. 112) include the "Root" foot as well as the "Standard"
one, which is 44 11440 of the former. Each of these has a corresponding "Least", "Reci-
procal", Canonical", and "Geographic" version at ratios of (175/176)*, 1751176,
1761175, and (1761175)'. Elsewhere in the book there are "Royal" and "Sacred" ver-
sions greater than the corresponding "Common" units, sometimes by 117 and some-
times by 115. Moreover, the latitude variations give grounds for a ratio of 1251124 as
well as for those of 1761175 and 4411440. There are, in other words, so many parame-
ters available that any length at all could be fitted into this scheme. I might, for exam-
ple, be able to show that the dimensions of Loch Ness can be expressed, remarkably
enough, in whole numbers, by applying ratios until that is achieved-even if that in-
volved expressing the length in, say, S. Geographic versions of the German foot while
expressing the breadth in Royal Sumerian cubits. The book does that sort of thing in
several places.
Readers are assured at the beginning of the book that they need knowledge only of
simple arithmetic to follow the argument. That is true enough; but it would help if read-
ers also understand the purpose and validity of the number of significant figures in
which measurements are expressed and calculations carried out. In a few places, Neal
touches on the problem of surveying accurately the remains of ancient constructions:
width of chisel marks, say, or missing parts. On p. 155 he reproduces from Alexander
Thom, whose accurate surveying he properly acknowledges, a summary graph from
Thom that illustrates the difficulty of discerning precise values of recurring units. Yet
Neal pays no heed to this problem in carrying through his calculations: throughout the
book, numbers are given to eight significuntfigures, for example 1.0022727.
I am unwilling to follow Neal's conclusions for that reason, and for other reasons as
well. He seems not to understand that numbers and units of measurement are entirely
different sorts of things. Neal is also too certain by far that further investigation will en-
able the system to be applied to Angkor Wat, to the Sumerian pyramids, to the temples
and pyramids of China, and to the ancient monuments of South America. Perhaps the
most revealing point is reached when it turns out that the basic unit of the ancient civi-
lization was none other than the English foot; and Neal deplores that "with the dawning
of the year 2000, these ancient standards were declared illegal to use as trading stan-
dards in Britain, the nation of their preservation.. .. For it goes far beyond metrology,
into the number system which g ~ \ ~ e r nature..
ns . ."
In my view, this book is an instance of the sort of numerology that is traditionally
and properly disdained, albeit the book begins with an interesting review of the history
of metrologic investigation. To Nature, on the other hand, Neal's system is "logical, el-
egant and cohesive"; the book "gives short shrift to the 'pyramid-inchers' and 'inch-
prophesy theories"' and "is a major contribution to the history of science".
Given Nature's less than glorious record of dealing with scientific unorthodoxies, I
confess to a degree of Schadenfreude that the Journal of Scientzfic Exploration discerns
as excessively speculative something that passed muster in Nature.

Henry H. Bauer
Prqfessor Emeritus of Chemistry & Science Studies
Dean Emeritus of Arts & Sciences
Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University
e-mail: hhbauer@vt.edu
www.henryhbauer. homestead.com
 Book R e v i e w s 307

Notes
Michael Vickers, "Measuring the past", Nature, 26 April 2001.

Upheaval from the Abyss: Ocean Floor Mapping and the Earth Science
Revolution, by David M. Lawrence. N e w Brunswick: Rutgers University
Press, 2002. xvii + 2 8 4 pp, $28, cloth. ISBN 0- 81 35-3028-8.
This is an accessible account of how plate tectonics came to be the currently accept-
ed paradigm in the earth sciences. As promised in the blurbs, the account focuses on the
main actors, but the scientific side is not short-changed. Though the story is not unfa-
miliar to me, and I recall with pleasure what I learned from Walter Sullivan's Conti-
nents in Motion ( 1974), I gained fresh insight and understanding from this book. The
historical context is described well, including methods used and data gained by explo-
rations of the oceans over the last century and more. Particularly well done here is the
description of what sonar made possible.
Lawrence's focus on people makes a strong case for the "great person" view of histo-
ry and of the development of science, which has become unfashionable in elite acade-
mic circles. Maurice Ewing's drive surely made much possible that otherwise would
not have been done, or nowhere near as soon; but Lawrence does not shy from also re-
vealing some of Ewing's foibles that hindered progress. Marie Tharp is a further in-
stance of the women whose central contributions to science are only belatedly given
the recognition they deserve. A nice snippet about the methodological conservatism
that accompanies the progress of science is the comment to Tuzo Wilson in 1936, by
the chief geologist with the Geological Survey of Canada, that the use of aerial pho-
tographs in the preparation of maps was "cheating" (p. 218). I was reminded of the or-
ganic chemists at the University of Sydney who, in the decade after W.W.11, regarded as
cheating the use of infrared spectroscopy to identify molecular species, insisting that
the only real proof was the classical resort to "mixed melting points".
Anomalists will of course find familiar as well as interesting and enlightening the
7
discussion of how and why Wegener s suggestion of drifting continents was resisted for
so long. The long quote on page 54 from Willem van der Gracht is surely as eloquent a
plea as one can make, that empirical fact not be disregarded just because no plausible
theoretical explanation may seem to be available.
The book has some very nice and interesting illustrations, but especially towards the
beginning I would have appreciated more maps; you will enjoy this book more if you
have a compact world atlas close at hand.
There are a few small lapses from good taste, such as unnecessary flippancy about
people who believe the Biblical Genesis story, or reference to "perfidious Albion" (p.
50). And there are a few mis-steps of substance, for instance that Wegener's ideas met
with "unimaginable" hostility (p. 19): most anomalists will have no difficulty at all in
imagining it. But these are few and should not spoil any reader's pleasure in a well writ-
ten, even absorbing account of how some interesting people managed to expand hu-
mankind's understanding of its physical abode.

Henry H. Bauer
Professor Emeritus of Chemistry & Science Studies
Dean Emeritus of Arts & Sciences
Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University
e-mail: hhbauer@ vt-edu
www.henryhbauer. homestead.com
308 B o o k Reviews

ARTICLES OF INTEREST

Evidence for Nuclear Emissions During Acoustic Cavitation, by R . P. Tale-

yarkhan, C . D. West, J. S. C h o , R. T. Lahey, Jr., R. I. Nigmatulin, & R. C .
Block; Science, 295 (8 March 2002) 1 868-1 873.
Fusion of deuterium occasioned by implosion of bubbles in deuterated acetone leads
to emission of neutrons and generation of tritium. The bubbles are initiated by neutrons
while energy is supplied by an acoustic field. The article contrasts positive results with
deuterated acetone against null results from normal, non-deuterated acetone.
This claim is reminiscent of that of "cold fusion", the report by Fleischmann and
Pons in 1989 that deuterium fusion had been induced in palladium electrodes. Defend-
ers of the scientific status quo tried to block publication of this note. The same issue of
Science has a news item (pp. 1808-9) describing the fuss, an editorial (p. 1793) de-
fending the decision to publish, and a commentary (p. 1850) about the basic physics.
Robert Park, who is for anomalists an exemplar of ubiquitous closed-mindedness,
rushed to denounce the paper even before it was published; so did William Happer, de-
termined advocate of the traditional hot-fusion studies that have cost billions of dol-
lars over the last decades without delivering a usable product. It is rather intriguing
that news of the impending publication of an unorthodox claim spreads so rapidly in
debunkers' circles; it lends some credence to paranoid speculation about a Scientistic
Establishment.
When heterodox claims go public, relevant earlier work often goes unmentioned be-
cause the mainstream literature has forgotten it or never knew of it; at intervals there is
a recurrence of various unorthodox claims (Henry H. Bauer, Science or Pseudo-
science: Magnetic Healing, Psychic Phenomena and Other Scientific Heterodoxies,
2001). In the present case, nowhere in this issue of Science is it recalled that several
claims of deuterium fusion occasioned by cavitation or bubble implosion ("sonofu-
sion") have been made during investigations following the claims of cold fusion. Infi-
nite Energy has, from its inception, published reports of controversial sonofusion (as
well as of the widely accepted phenomenon of emission of visible light, sonolumines-
cence; see citations given in Infinite Energy, 7 [issue 42],70). The bibliography of cold
fusion (www.chem.au.dk/-db/fusion/index.html) maintained by Professor Dieter Britz
of Aarhus University, Denmark, includes the following dozen pertinent articles, whose
abstracts Britz kindly forwarded to me:
Arata, Y. (2000). Kotai Butsuri, 35(1), 67 [in Japanese]. Cited in Chem. Abstr. 132:128508
(2000). "Developmental challenge in new energy source. 'Solid state plasma fusion"'.
Belgiorno, F., Liberati, S., Visser, M., & Sciamma, D. W. (2000). Physics Letters A, 271, 308.
"Sonoluminescence: Two-photon correlations as a test of thermality".
Eberlein, C. (1996). Physical Review Letters, 76, 3842. "Sonoluminescence as quantum vacuum
radiation".
Haug, A., & Hoegaasen, H. (1996). Physics Scripta, 54, 197. "Sonoluminescence in heavy
water".
King, M. B. (1 992). Proceedings of the 27th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Confer-
ence (IEEE Cat. No. 92CH3164-I), San Diego, CA, 3-7 August 1992, Volume 4, p. 4.297.
"Progress and results in zero-point energy research".
Prevenslik, T. V. (1999). Fusion Technology, 36, 309. "Sonoluminescence: Physics of fusion at
ambient temperature in the Planck theory".
Prevenslik, T. V. (1998). Fusion Technology, 34, 128. "Sonoluminescence: Fusion at ambient tem-
perature?"
Prevenslik, T. V. (1996). Nuclear Science Techniques, 7, 157. "Sonoluminescence: An IRaser cre-
ating cold fusion neutrons?"
 Book Reviews 309

Prevenslik, T. V. (1 997). Nuclear Science Techniques, 8, 94. "Sonoluminescence: Microwaves and

cold fusion".
Prevenslik, T. V. (2000). Indian Journal of Pure and Applied Physics, 38, 155. "On the possibility
of a cavity QED cold fusion cell".
Prevenslik, T. V. (1995). Nucleur Science Techniques, 6, 198. "Ultrasound induced and laser en-
hanced cold fusion chemistry".
Seifritz, W. (1996). Aromwirtschuft und Atomtechnologie, 41, 729 [in German]. "Ein neuer Weg
zur Nut~barmachungder Kernfusion?" ["A new way oT using nuclear fusion'?"]

None of these are mentioned in the March 8 issue of Science, nor are the articles in
Infinite Energy.

cr. Henry H. Bauer

e-mail: hhbauer@ vt.edu

The following is a status report or follovv-up of tcvo articles that appeared in Articles of
Interest of issue 15-3 by the submitter of those articles: "Radical Theory Takes a Test,"
Science, 29 1, 579, and "X-Ray-emitting QSOs Ejected from Arp 220," Astrophysical
Journal Letters, 553, L l I-L13.

Proper Motion in a High-Redshift Quasar?

In a provocative abstract and presentation to the American Astronomical Society's 2002

January meeting in Washington, DC, P. T. Kondratko (e-mail: pkondrat@cfa.harvard.edu),
L. J. Greenhill, and J. M. Moran (CfA) announced early results from their measurements
looking for any possible proper (angular) motion of a high-redshift (z = 0.4) quasar near a
low-redshift (z = 0.0016) galaxy MI06 = NGC4258. They saw no motion of the quasar,
suspected in some alternative cosmologies of being ejected from the galaxy. The data set
an upper limit for the relative motion of about 5% of the speed of light (c).
From their abstract: "The discovery of two quasars with redshifts z = 0.39 and z =
0.65 symmetrically displaced by -9' from the nucleus of NGC 4258 and located ap-
proximately at the position angle of the associated maser has fueled an alternative hy-
pothesis by G. Burbidge, E. M. Burbidge, H. Arp, and others. They proposed that the
two quasars were ejected from the nucleus, are dynamically associated with the maser,
and possess redshifts which are primarily non-cosmological in origin. Using three
epochs of 20 cm VLBA [very long baseline array] images of one of the quasars and of
NGC 4258, the upper limit on the quasar proper motion is 0.4 milli-arc-seconds
(mas)/yr (0.05 c) in the putative direction of ejection. This upper limit excludes any
model in which the redshifts of the two quasars are primarily due to the transverse
Doppler effect caused by a transverse velocity of 6.6 mas/yr (0.75 c)."
Proper motion is the angular counterpart of transverse motion. One nai've theory sug-
gested that the quasar redshifts were entirely due to the speed of ejection. (This imme-
diately raises the question of why there are no blueshifts from quasars ejected in our di-
rection.) That theory is now ruled out by this data. Arp's theory is that quasar redshifts
are primarily intrinsic, with a small ejection component. When twin quasars appear on
opposite sides of a galaxy, as here, they should both have nearly the same intrinsic red-
shift. So the difference between the two redshifts is primarily due to ejection speeds.
The lower limit is always zero. If an object is too far away, its angular motion cannot be
310 Book Reviews

The ejection model expects speeds of 0.1 c along the line of sight. The transverse
component of velocity (in the plane of the sky) is unknown. However, because the red-
shift difference between the two quasars is larger than typical for quasar pairs on oppo-
site sides of galaxies, this pair may be moving more in the line of sight than is typical,
which would mean a smaller-than-average transverse component of velocity in the
ejection model. So Moran's upper limit has perhaps just reached the ejection model's
predicted proper motion, but with insufficient accuracy to confirm or reject it.
For calibration, we note that a galaxy redshift of z = 0.0016, interpreted cosmologi-
cally, corresponds to a distance of 8 megaparsecs (Mpc) for a Hubble constant of 60
km/s/Mpc, or 6 Mpc for a Hubble constant of 80 kmls. Then a transverse speed of 1000
kmls = 0.0264 maslyr at a distance of 8 Mpc, or 0.0352 maslyr at 6 Mpc. For compari-
son, the masers in the galaxy jets of M 106 are observed moving at about 0.035 masIyr.'
The cosmological distance corresponding to redshift z = 0.4 for one of the quasars is
250 times greater than that of the galaxy. So the proper motion resulting from the same
speed would be 250 times smaller, quite beyond detection with present instrumenta-
tion. If the Big Bang is correct, clearly both quasars should have zero detectable proper
motion.
A less ambitious observational goal would be to prove that the quasars are not at the
distance of M 106, and might therefore be presumed to be at their inferred cosmological
distances because no credible theory posits any intermediate distance. To accomplish
this, one would need to rule out proper motions of order 0.020 maslyr.
A still easier goal would be to falsify the Burbidge-Arp model, in which quasars
(whose redshifts are primarily intrinsic) are ejected from parent galaxies at typically
10,000 kmls. At M106, this would mean setting an upper limit of about 0.2 maslyr of
proper motion for the quasars. If one were to measure the rate of separation of two
quasars on opposite sides of the galaxy, the separation speed would be about twice as
fast as the individual speeds with respect to the galaxy, and easier to measure accurate-
ly.
Least ambitious would be to rule out models that suggest that the quasar redshifts are
entirely due to velocity, and that the transverse velocities are of the same order as the
line of sight velocities. That would produce proper motions at M106 of order 2-4
maslyr for the two quasars.
The observational results set an upper limit to the quasar proper motion of about 0.4
maslyr. That rules out the least likely model, but does not reach testing the Burbidge-
Arp ejection model. However, with another factor of 3-4 in precision, either any prop-
er motion found will start to look statistically significant, or (barring the unlikely cir-
cumstance that nearly all the motion for these particular quasars is in the line of sight,
which can be tested with other quasars near galaxies, such as Arp 220) the Burbidge-
Arp model will be effectively excluded.
However, cosmologists cannot dismiss all challenges to the Big Bang redshift-dis-
tance law unless they achieve a factor of about 30-40 better than the present result and
still see no proper motion. That would show conclusively that the quasars are not at the
distance of the galaxy and are therefore probably at their cosmological distances. But
considerable existing observational evidence strongly hints otherwise.
In early 200 1 , J. M. Moran claimed that his team would measure the proper motions
of quasars in the visual field of galaxy Arp 220 to test the Arp hypothesis within a year.2
Instead, we find him announcing inconclusive results for a different galaxy and
quasars. We can only wonder why, and hope that he and his team will be as forthright
with their future findings for all measured cases as scientific integrity demands. They
can thereby set an example for those whose models they expect to falsify, about whom
Moran has said: "a null result will probably not satisfy" the true believers. Will a non-
null result satisfy the Big Bang believers?
 Book Reviews 311

cr. Tom Van Flandern

e-mail: tomvf @metaresearch.org
www.metaresearch.org

References
1. Center for Astrophysics (2002). The disk-jet system in the heart of the active nucleus NGC
4258. <http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/cfa/hotimage/ngc4258.html~.
2. Schilling, G. (2001). Radical theory takes a test. Science, 291,579- 581.

Readers are encouraged to submit.forpossible inclusion here titles of articles in peer

reviewed journals (typically, which do not focus on topics about anomalies) that are
relevant to issues addressed in the JSE. A short commentary should accompany. The ar-
ticles may be in any language, but the title should be translated into English and the
312 Website Reviews

WEBSITE REVIEW

Alternative Medicine: Watching the Watchdogs at Quackwatch

The founder and manager of www.Quackwatch.com, Stephen Barrett, M.D.,

gave a talk at our local skeptics group early this year in which he explained
how helpful he has been to victims of quacks, including recovering their
money. He recommended his website for general medical information. He has
been a consultant for Consumers' Union. He has been co-chairman of the Al-
ternative Treatments Review Board for CSICOP since July, 1980 and has writ-
ten for their magazine The Skeptical Inquirer.
The website is available in four languages other than English, and is said to
have had 2,300,000 visitors. At first glance it seems very complete and useful,
with sections on Links to Other Web Sites, Consumer Strategy: Disease Man-
agement, Consumer Strategy: Tips for Provider Selection, Consumer Protec-
tion, Nonrecommended Sources of Health Advice, Questionable Products,
Services, and Theories, Publications for Sale, About Quackwatch, and others.
It does have a Search function. The Quackwatch Mission Statement on the
website contains the following primary activities:
Investigating questionable claims
Distributing reliable publications
Improving the quality of health information on the Internet
Attacking misleading advertising on the Internet
A number of webpages (eight) were selected arbitrarily because their topics
were familiar to this reviewer, and these were examined minutely. The findings
are used to make generalizations about the website.
The section titles below are from www.Quackwatch.com, as accessed on 3 1
Oct. 2001, each one followed by Comments based on the most reliable evi-
dence I have found.

Tips for Lowering Your Dietary Fat Content

Stephen Barrett, M.D. [No date given]

People whose blood cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol levels are undesirably high
should consume a diet that is relatively low in total fat and saturated fat. To do this sys-
tematically, it is necessary to become fully aware of what you are eating. This means
getting into the habit of checking labels to determine the amount of cholesterol and the
amount and type of fat. You should also pay attention to the "hidden" fats found in
 Website Reviews 3 13

processed foods such as cookies, crackers, and snack cakes, and the kinds of fats and
oils used in their own cooking.
The next step is to make substitutions. For example, leaner cuts of beef (select or
choice rather than prime) should be used, and consumption of fish, poultry, fresh fruits
and vegetables, beans, and other legumes should be increased. Foods high in complex
carbohydrates-such as whole grains, beans, and vegetables-can be made the "main
dish," with small amounts of red meats and cheeses becoming the "side dishes." Mixed
dishes such as stews, casseroles, and pasta and rice meals can combine small amounts
of meat with other foods, such as grains or vegetables.
Finally, evaluate your progress by having your blood cholesterol tested within a few
months and then periodically as recommended by the professional who is guiding
them. The goal should be a gradual but steady reduction in your total cholesterol and
LDL-cholesterol levels. Low-fat eating has another potential benefit. Because obesity
is often associated with a high-fat diet, some researchers suspect that low-fat eating of-
fers promise as a weight-control measure. However, research in this area is in only its
early stages. [Datillo, A. M. (1992). Dietary fat and its relationship to body weight. Nu-
trition Today, 27, 13- 1 9.1
If you have a serious cholesterol problem or want help in figuring out how to modify
your diet, consult a registered dietitian."

Later, under "Practical Tips": "Use only the egg whites or discard every
other yolk in recipes requiring eggs.. . Or try commercial cholesterol-free egg
substitutes."

Comment
The supposed relationship between eating cholesterol and fat and thereby
developing some form of cardiovascular disease (called the diet-heart theory,
I DHT) has been disproven so many times that its refusal to die cannot be due to
a true scientific dispute. There are some excellent descriptions of the erro-
neous theorizing that continues to promote the DHT to this day (McGee, 200 1 ;
Moore, 1989; Ravnskov, 2000; Smith, 1991). Based on the findings in a com-
pendium of anti-cholesterol trials, all of which were carried on long enough to
obtain relative total death rates, the advice from Dr. Barrett is not supported.
Specifically, in the American College of Physicians' 1996 Clinical Guideline,
Part 2 , 3 meta-analyses of cholesterol-lowering diet trials encompassing 2 4 tri-
als found that there was no significant effect of diet on congestive heart disease
(CHD) and total mortality (Garber et al., 1996), a finding that was confirmed
by three recent reviews (Hooper et al., 2 0 0 1 ; Ravnskov, 1998; Taubes, 2001).
Two recent studies found that the National Cholesterol Education Program
guidelines for supposedly desirable (i. e., low) cholesterol levels (as preached
by www.Quackwatch.com) were of no value in predicting the existence of cal-
cified plaques in coronary arteries, as shown by electron beam tomography
(Hecht et al., 200 1 ; Raggi et al., 200 1).
The recommendation for high-carbohydrate diets has no basis in fact. From
1955 to 1990, even as the percentage of calories declined from 4 1 % to 35% fat,
the percentage of overweight Americans increased from 24% to 34%. Many
of the recommended starches, such as those from wheat, rice and corn, have
314 Website Reviews

high glycemic indices, higher, in fact than those of some simple sugars
(http://www.mendosa.com/gilists.htm.); therefore, such foods are unhealthful
for diabetics or pre-diabetics, and are major causes of obesity (Bernstein,
1997: 112, 118, 162; Garg et al., 1994; Gutierrez et al., 1998). The result of a
small study on healthy adults 54-60 years old showed that the effect of a low-
fat diet (the corollary of high-carbohydrate diet) on serum lipids was so delete-
rious that "... it seems appropriate to question the wisdom of recommending
that all Americans should replace dietary saturated fat with ... [carbohy-
drates]" (Abbasi et al., 2000). This confirmed a study on healthy post-
menopausal women (Jeppesen et al., 1997). Two meta-analyses, one of 11 and
one of 13 studies, showed that lowering serum cholesterol through modified
diets or drugs does not reduce morbidity or mortality from stroke in middle-
aged men (Atkins et al., 1993; Hebert et al., 1995). It is possible that the health
benefits achieved by a few people on low-fat diets was due to the decrease in
the amount of toxic trans fats consumed (Oomen et al., 2001; de Roos et al.,
2001); obviously these can be avoided in high-fat diets. Describing an actual
experiment on himself, Uffe Ravnskov wrote:
Numerous studies have shown that in people who eat a normal Western diet, the effect
on blood cholesterol of eating two or three extra eggs per day over a long period of time
can hardly be measured.. .
To find out how egg consumption influenced my own blood cholesterol, I once used
myself as a human guinea pig without asking the ethics committee at my university.
Before and during the experiment I analyzed my [total serum] cholesterol. My usual
egg consumption is one or two eggs per day, and my cholesterol value at the start of the
experiment was 278 mg/dL, very close to a determination of [my] blood cholesterol
made 10 years earlier. [On day 0, Dr. Ravnskov ate one egg; on day 1, four eggs; on day
2, six eggs; and on days 3-8, eight eggs per day!] The data from my daring experiment
showed that instead of going up, my cholesterol went down a little [to 246 mg/dL].
(Ravnskov, 2000: 108-109)

The low-cholesterol advocates have us believing that eggs are evil. We know that
egg yolks contain cholesterol.. . In fresh eggs the cholesterol is protected from the oxy-
gen of the air by the eggshell and antioxidants in the yolk. Eating fresh eggs won't
damage arteries because the cholesterol is pure. But when egg yolks are spray-dried in
the process of making powdered eggs, oxycholesterol is formed. Spray-dried eggs are
everywhere. They're used in many packaged foods such as cookies, crackers, and other
commercially prepared baked goods because they are easier to handle than fresh eggs.
What's worse, the ingredients label just lists them as eggs, so we can't even tell if
they're in the foods we're eating (McCully, 2000).

An epidemiological study based on the food-frequency questionnaires used

in the Health Professionals Follow-up Study on 38,000 men and the Nurses
Health Study on 80,000 women found that consumption of up to one egg per
day (the highest level investigated) did not increase the risk of CHD or stroke
(Hu et al., 1999). Very few admitted to eating cholesterol-free egg substitutes,
so this could not have been responsible.
 Website Reviews

Low-Carbohydrate Diets
Stephen Barrett, M.D. Posted 28 April 2001

. . . Most low-carbohydrate diets do not attempt to limit the intake of proteins, fats, or
total calories. (In other words, their fat content tends to be very high.) Promoters claim
that unbalancing the diet will lead to increased metabolism of unwanted fat even if the
calories are not restricted. This is not true, but calorie reduction is likely to occur be-
cause the diet's monotony tends to discourage overeating.
The most widely used low-carbohydrate diet is the one advocated by Robert C.
Atkins, M.D., of New York City ... [as in his books, such as his] ... 1992 update Dr.
Atkins' New Diet Revolution... The dieter is permitted to eat unlimited amounts of non-
carbohydrate foods "when hungry," but ketosis [formation of ketone bodies which may
be detected in the urine with a test kit] tends to suppress appetite.. .
... many individual experts have warned that unlimited intake of saturated fats under
the Atkins food plan can increase the dieter's risk of heart disease.

Barrett then goes on to give examples of failures of the Atkins diet, undesir-
able side-effects causing dieters to drop the diet, and Atkins' failure to keep
records of his 60,000 patients.

Comment
Barrett failed to make the connection that many of the people who have be-
come obese or who react to carbohydrates in the diet with hypoglycemic de-
pressions of energy and/or mood are genetically the ones more likely to have
wide variations in blood glucose levels than normal people. In those with Type
I1 diabetes, no amount of injected insulin or oral anti-diabetic drugs will pre-
vent the spiking of glucose and insulin concentrations that does the damage to
organs such as the kidneys; only restriction of high-glycemic index foods (also
called rapid-acting carbohydrates because they are the ones that raise blood
"sugar" rapidly) will prevent this damage (Bernstein, 1997: 43-47). A study of
65,173 nurses or former nurses found a strong association between diets high
in starch, flour, and sweet foods and the development of Type 11 diabetes. Fur-
thermore, consumption of minimally refined grain (such as bran without flour)
lowered this risk. The combination of high glycemic foods and low intake of
unrefined insoluble fiber was associated with a 2.5-fold higher incidence of di-
abetes. Eskimos and other hunting populations survive almost exclusively on
protein and fat, and don't develop cardiac or circulatory diseases (Bernstein,
1997: 45-47, 322-323). Other populations almost free from coronary artery
disease include the Masai of Kenya, Africans of western Transvaal (Republic
of South Africa), natives of Vilacamba, Ecuador, natives of Degestan, Russian
Caucasus, elderly Ugandans, natives of Zaire, and semi-isolated residents of
the Loetschental Valley of Switzerland (McGee, 1979: 87); as well as Indians
in the Andes Mountains of Ecuador and the 8,000,000 residents of Hainan Is-
land, China (McGee, 2001 : 83, 89-90). What might all these disparate groups
have in common? Diets low in refined carbohydrate!
 316 Website Reviews

The www.atkinscenter.com website homepage does make a distinction be-

tween high- and low-glycemic index carbohydrates, while Barrett does not;
nor does Barrett indicate any awareness that rapid-acting carbohydrates cause
Type I1 diabetes (Zammit et al., 2001), which is a major risk-factor for early
death. Barrett writes that better health will result from minimal consumption
of animal fats, which are triglycerides and contain cholesterol. Quite the con-
trary, in the Scottish Heart Health Study on 11,629 subjects, the total death
1 rates for men were not affected by HDL-cholesterol levels, total cholesterol or
triglycerides; for women total cholesterol levels were not significant and the
I
other two factors were barely significant (Tunstall-Pedoe et al., 1997). In a
Canadian study primarily designed to compare bypass surgery with stenting,
the 5-year survival rates were distinctly better for patients with hyperlipidemia
(Dzavik et al., 2001).
The primary source of body fat for most Americans is not dietary fat but car-
bohydrate, which is converted to blood sugar (glucose) and then, with aid of
insulin, to fat by fat cells. Insulin is the primary fat-building enzyme (Bern-
stein, 1997: 112). With the aid of stable isotopes of carbon and hydrogen it was
found that 50-80% of the lipids in human liver cells formed in one week were
from synthesis de novo by the cells, not just absorbed from the nutrients pro-
vided; and that 80% of the carbon of the new lipid molecules came from glu-
cose provided (Lee et al., 1995).
Daily consumption of animal fat, which typically consists of 25-50% satu-
rated fat, in England and Wales fell about 5% absolute between 1930 and 1956,
while in the same time frame death rates from coronary heart disease increased
6-fold; even more inverse relationships occurred in Italy, Portugal, S w i t ~ e r -
land and France (Ravnskov, 2000: 24, 31). Saturated fat is not even a slight
cause of heart disease (Enig, 2000: 77-78). Human milk fat is 45-50% saturat-
ed. The shorter-chain saturated fatty acids from human milk, coconut milk,
and butter have worthwhile antimicrobial properties (Enig, 2000: 87,
109-1 12).
The vast preponderance of honest data shows that the main premise from
this page from Quackwatch is totally wrong. Low-carbohydrate diets, espe-
cially those low in refined and rapid-acting (high-glycemic index) carbohy-
drates, are particularly healthful, especially in people genetically disposed to
Type 11diabetes or hypoglycemia (Juntunen et al., 2002; Liu et al., 2002).

Chelation Therapy: Unproven Claims and Unsound Theories

Saul Green, Ph.D. Revised 14 September 2000

Chelation therapy.. . is a series of intravenous infusions containing disodium EDTA

[ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid] and various other substances. Proponents claim that
EDTA chelation therapy is effective against atherosclerosis and many other serious
health problems. Its use is widespread because patients have been led to believe that it
is a valid alternative to established medical interventions such as coronary bypass
 Website Reviews 317

surgery. However, there is no scientific evidence that this is so. It is also used to treat
nonexistent 'lead poisoning', 'mercury poisoning', and other alleged toxic states...
But later: "After EDTA was found effective in chelating and removing toxic
metals from the blood, some scientists postulated that hardened arteries could
be softened if the calcium in their walls was removed." Note the inconsisten-
cy! Green goes on to list four books he chose from the many that promote
EDTA chelation. Then: "The scientific jargon in these books may create the
false impression that chelation therapy for atherosclerosis, and a host of other
conditions, is scientifically sound. The authors allege that between 300,000
and 500,000 patients have safely benefited. However, their evidence consists
of anecdotes, testimonials, and poorly designed experiments."
Green then gives an early history of three apparent successes with chelation,
and dismisses them all. He then describes how the procedure is to be carried
out according to the main proponent organization in the USA, the American
College for Advancement in Medicine, the cost, "$75-125 per treatment," and
the fact that most medical insurance will not cover this cost. He continues with
a critique of a 1989 study that will be detailed below, 15 reports of trials that
found no benefit, and two trials in the 1980s that supposedly found no benefit.
A page that warns about the lack of safety of the treatment follows, then a refu-
tation of four theories of how the treatment works, and finally a report of a
study in Denmark in 1992 that Green considered to be of the highest quality.
Green does not cite a single study he thinks shows any success from this treat-
ment. His summary reinforces this conclusion: "The few well-designed studies
that have addressed the efficacy of chelation for atherosclerotic diseases have
been carried out by 'establishment' medical scientists. Without exception,
these found no evidence that chelation worked."

Specific Quotations and Comments

The sources used for this review [Green's] included position papers of professional so-
cieties, technical textbooks, research and review articles, newspaper articles, patient
testimonials [which Green considered inadmissible in his previous paragraph], medical
records, legal depositions, transcripts of court testimony, privately published books,
clinic brochures and personal correspondence.
Comment: Green's actual bibliography consisted of just six citations, all to
papers in peer-reviewed journals, the most recent being from 1992. There were
no reviews cited. Three of the citations lacked authors and titles, two of these
lacked page numbers, and one of these had a misspelled journal title!

Green wrote of the success of the 1963 trial by Kitchell et al., his ref. 2, and
Kitchell's denial of success. Green wrote that the "improvement" (his quotes)
was not significant because it was no better than would be expected with
proven methods, and there was no control group for comparison.
318 Website Reviews

Comment: There was no description of the diagnosis of the patients in this

trial, so one must assume that they suffered from atherosclerosis and one of its
manifestations, such as intermittent claudication (blocked arteries). There
were no "proven methods" at that time, no bypass surgery, no angioplasty.
While the double-blind, placebo-controlled trial is the gold standard for treat-
ment studies, it was not common before 1975. The patients were suffering
from circulation conditions that would not be expected to improve without
treatment, thus the patients served as their own controls. Even at present, since
it is considered unethical not to treat a number of diseases, many trials do not
utilize a placebo.
In a retrospective study of 2,870 patients treated with NaMgEDTA [sic], Olszewer and
Carter (1989) [sic] concluded that EDTA chelation therapy benefited patients with car-
diac disease, peripheral vascular disease [this is blocked arteries] and cerebrovascular
disease. These conclusions were not justified because the people who received the
treatment were not compared to people who did not.

Comment: No citation was given! The authors of this study (Olszewer &
Carter, 1988), which utilized Na,MgEDTA, address the limitations of their
study directly: "There was no placebo or control group and these studies are
not double-blinded. It is a retrospective analysis of a large number of cases
with standardized criteria for assessing improvement. Each patient served as
hislher own control.. . the clinical response rates, especially for angina and in-
termittent claudication, are too high, i. e. from 77% to 9 l % , respectively, to be
attributed to placebo-effect alone.. ."

Green then describes a study reported in 1990 by these same authors in

which he ridiculed the double-blinding, and the actual results in exercise stress
tests and blood pressure changes were not given by Green.
Comment: Since there was no citation, this sarcastic description cannot be
evaluated with certainty; but there is another description of this trial in which
10 patients with intermittent claudication were divided into two groups. The
treatment group received 10 infusions of EDTA, with the usual additives,
while the control group received all of the additives without the EDTA; this
was double-blinded. The treatment group more than doubled their walking
distance compared with no significant change in the placebo group. The differ-
ences were so striking that it was considered immoral to continue, and both
groups received EDTA from then on, resulting in an equal improvement in
what had been the control group, and further improvement in what had been
the treatment group (Cranton, 2001: 285-293).

Green wrote that a randomized, controlled, double-blind clinical trial of

chelation therapy conducted by Curt Diehm at the University of Heidelberg
Medical Clinic with Bencyclan, a blood-thinning agent, as the control (no
placebo) gave similar results in both groups, and both groups were said to re-
 Website Reviews 3 19

Comment: The citation for this was given as follows: "Zeit. Deutsch Herzs-
tiftung. Vol 10, July 1986." An online search failed to locate this paper; thus,
this study could not be evaluated from the citation as given. Assuming that this
was "The Heidelberg Study," others have interpreted the raw results to indi-
cate that the EDTA-treated group enjoyed five times the increase of walking
distance of the Bencyclan group (Cranton, 200 1 : xxiii-xxiv, 339-340).

Green wrote that a randomized, controlled, double-blind clinical trial of

chelation therapy conducted by R. Hopf at the University of Frankfurt, with
normal saline as the placebo, gave similar results in both groups, with the con-
clusion that EDTA was of no benefit.
Comment: The citation for this was given as follows: "Zeit. f. Kardiology,
76, #2, 1987." An online search of Zeitschrift fiir Kardiologie, Vol. 76, 1987,
failed to produce this paper; thus, because of this possibly spurious citation,
the work could not be evaluated.
Neither of the German studies was cited in any of the 3 major reviews in
journals on EDTA chelation (Chappell et al., 1996; Ernst, 1997; Grier et al.,
1993).

Green devotes a page to the supposed lack of safety of chelation, writing

that there is no published scientific evidence that chelation will improve poor
~ blood circulation, and that loss of zinc ion due to chelation is potentially seri-
ous. "People with coronary artery disease who need bypass surgery and
choose chelation instead place themselves at great risk." This was in the con-
text of attacking an advertisement for chelation therapy, which was reproduced
on the webpage.
Comment: While it accepted the use of EDTA chelation for treatment of
lead poisoning, the U.S. Food & Drug Administration (FDA) has been quite
hostile to its use for anything else. An official request was sent from the FDA
to state health and regulatory agencies across the USA asking that any infor-
mation relating to untoward results, poor results, or patient complaints about
EDTA chelation therapy be forwarded to the FDA; no such reports were re-
ceived (Cranton, 2001 : xv). Despite the loss of zinc to EDTA chelation, the au-
thors of the study to which Green referred (above) recommended that zinc sup-
plements be given, and that chelation be continued as both diagnosis and
treatment for heavy metal poisoning (Allain et al., 1991). Bypass surgery has
been shown in three major studies to have no significant effect on long-term
survival rates, especially if function in the left main coronary artery had been
adequate beforehand (McGee, 2001: 24-28). A recent study from Canada is
supportive in that bypass surgery improved 5-year survival rates only where
disfunction in the left main coronary artery was treated (Dzavik et al., 2001).
The immediate death rate from bypass surgery is about 6% (McGee, 2001:
28), while the immediate death rate from properly applied and administered
EDTA chelation is nonexistent, and chelation has been called one of the safest
therapies available (Cranton, 200 1: 345-351).
320 Website Reviews

The attack on the advertisement reproduced on this webpage of

www.Quackwatch.com certainly exemplified one of the activities in the Mis-
sion statement, but the attack has been shown in this review to be groundless.

Green devotes 114 of the EDTA webpage to rebutting four theories of how
chelation is supposed to work biochemically. His attempts to debunk these
theories are supposed to show that chelation cannot have any beneficial effect
because none of the theories stand up scientifically. With each of his debunk-
i n g ~is added a hypothetical scenario intended to scare the user into avoiding
chelation.
Comment: Green would appear to want to discourage the use of aspirin,
morphine, codeine, general anesthetics, and antibiotics, since the biochemical
explanation of the mode of action these and other useful drugs were not under-
stood when the drugs were adopted. For example, aspirin was used for more
than 70 years before an explanation for its effects was found (Kauffman,
2000). The clinical benefits of these medical treatments were so obvious that
double-blind studies would have been superfluous. The sad corollary is that
modern prescription drugs taken for life to treat chronic diseases often have
such weak effects, yet accompanied by such profound side-effects, that any
overall benefits can be proven only by large-scale controlled trials, and even
these are often inadequate (Cohen, 2001). All of Green's scare scenarios ig-
nore the fact that chelation has been very safe as well as effective.

As a specific example of Green's use of supposed chemical knowledge, the

following quotation is given from one of his explanations of why chelation
cannot work: "Ionic iron has two electrons in its outermost or N shell and 14
electrons in its M shell. This configuration gives ionic iron the distinct charac-
teristic of being able to accept three pairs of electrons from other ions.. . When
iron is dissolved in water at a pH of 7.0 or more, its three pairs of electrons will
be bound to three OH groups of the water."
Comment: In a transition metal such as iron the N shell is of lower energy
than the M shell, so the N shell cannot be said to be outermost, especially since
these two shells are combined to give hybrid orbitals. In elemental iron the
total number of electrons in these outer shells, said to be the valence shells
where electron transfer takes place in chemical reactions, is 2 + 6 = 8, not 16. It
follows that the unsolvated ions Fe 2+ would have six and Fe 3+ would have
five electrons. Iron ions are not unique either in their ability to form a trihy-
droxide or to share three pairs of electrons. While solvated iron ion may share
up to six pairs of electrons provided by a donor; it does not provide a unique
three pairs of its own (Holtzclaw et al., 1984).

As the clinching argument, Green saved the Danish Study for last:
In 1992, a group of cardiovascular surgeons in Denmark published results of a double-
blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled study of EDTA treatment for severe intermit-
 Website Reviews 321

tent claudication [Guldager B et al., (1992). Journal of Internal Medicine, 231,

261-2671. A total of 153 patients in two groups received 20 infusions of EDTA or a
placebo for five to nine weeks, in a clinical protocol duplicating the conditions used by
Olszewer and Carter in 1990. The changes seen in pain-free and maximal walking dis-
tances were similar for the EDTA-treated and the placebo group, and there were no
long-term therapeutic effects noted in 3-month and 6-month follow-ups. These investi-
gators concluded that chelation was not effective against intermittent claudication.
Comment: The Danish Study is the darling of the opponents of chelation,
which includes two of the three reviews cited above (Ernst, 1997; Grier et al.,
1993). This Danish study was flawed by the fact that those conducting it were
cardiovascular surgeons. It could be reasonably suspected or alleged that there
was a conflict of interest, since chelation therapy, if proved to be efficacious,
would quite conceivably reduce the demand for cardiovascular surgery. The
investigators even went so far as to pre-announce their expectation of a nega-
tive effect from their study! Instead of using the best cocktail for the purpose,
which includes magnesium, they omitted it; thus, they were not duplicating the
cocktail used by Olszewer and Carter in 1990. The Danish surgeons used iron
as part of the oral supplements, which predictably chelated more strongly with
the EDTA than either magnesium or calcium, guaranteeing a lesser effect.
Also, 70% of the patients were smokers, despite the fact that it has been shown
that smoking will neutralize the effect of chelation. The Danish surgeons were
informed by telephone and in writing that there were errors and omissions
which would invalidate the trial. Finally, they were investigated very grudg-
ingly by the Committee on Investigation into Scientific Dishonesty of the Dan-
ish Medical Association, which found that the correct cocktail was not used,
that a mineral (iron) was used that was contraindicated, that the double-blind-
ing was broken, and that the surgeons claimed they had used the correct cock-
tail even when informed they had not (Douglass, 1995). A more recent review
(Chappell, 1996) agrees with Douglass, and cites four more critical reviews of
the Danish study published in peer-reviewed journals. On top of this, the treat-
ment group was pre-selected to be much sicker than the control group, with
mean maximum walking distances of 119 meters before treatment for the
EDTA group and 157 meters for the placebo group. When the raw data were
examined the treatment group enjoyed an increase of 5 1 % and the control
group 24%, so this study was positive despite its denial by its own authors,
who candidly admitted that they undertook the study to persuade the Danish
government not to pay for chelation (Cranton, 2001: 5-6)!

General Comment
Discouraging sick people from undergoing an effective treatment is despicable,
even more so when dangerous procedures with limited applicability, such as
bypass surgery, are recommended instead. Because of the bias in mainstream
medicine against chelation, most patients who accept it do so as a last resort
after all conventional treatments have failed, although a majority would have
been better off using chelation as a first treatment. It is estimated that more
322 Website Reviews

than a million patients have received more than 20 million infusions of EDTA
with no ill effects when the procedure is correctly done, and that about 88% of
patients improve (Cranton, 2001: 4, 324). The motives of the anti-chelation
groups have been described in detail (Carter, 1992; Cranton, 200 1: 329-342).

Glucosamine for Arthritis

01997 The Medical Letter
Updated 18 May 2000

In short-term controlled trials, glucosamine has been reported to be effective in reliev-

ing pain and increasing range of motion in patients with osteoarthritis. [One 4-week
double-blind trial found that oral glucosamine sulfate (500 mg 3 Y per day) was more
effective than placebo in relieving symptoms. Two other double-blind trials, a 4-week
and an 8-week, against ibuprofen showed equal effectiveness in relieving pain.] One
Medical Letter consultant in an area where many patients are taking glucosamine has
not detected any adverse events.. .
Glucosamine appears to be safe and effective for treatment of osteoarthritis, but
most published trials of the drug lasted only four to eight weeks and Medical Letter
consultants find them unconvincing. As with other "dietary supplements", the purity of
the glucosamine products sold in pharmacies, health food stores, and supermarkets in
the USA is unknown.. .
Update.. . On March 15, 2000, the Journal of the American Medical Association
published a meta-analysis [citation given] whose authors concluded: "As with many
nutraceuticals that currently are widely touted as beneficial for common but difficult-
to-treat disorders, the promotional enthusiasm often far surpasses the scientific evi-
dence supporting clinical use."

Comment: This Quackwatch webpage, in its zeal to disparage the benefits of

glucosamine, perhaps because it is perceived as an alternative to non-steroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) such as ibuprofen and aspirin, not to men-
tion the newer COX-I1 inhibitors commonly used to treat arthritis, misses two
important points. First, some NSAIDS, while relieving pain, worsen the pro-
gression of osteoarthritis (Reginster et al., 2001). Secondly, "NSAIDS can
cause serious harm, even fatalities, from bleeding in the stomach or intestines.
Bleeding can occur at any time and without warning, and older people are
more likely to experience adverse effects from bleeding. Older adults are also
more likely to have reduced liver and kidney function" (Wolfe at al., 1999).
Patients with newly diagnosed kidney failure who used aspirin or aceta-
minophen regularly were 2.5 times as likely to proceed to chronic kidney fail-
ure as those who did not (Fored et al., 2001).
Since this webpage was written, it was shown in a double-blind placebo-
controlled trial lasting 3 years that patients on placebo suffered joint space loss
and worsening symptoms, while those on 1500 mg glucosamine sulfate per
day had minimum joint space narrowing and improvement in symptoms, with
no differences in safety or differential withdrawals from the trial (Reginster et
 Website Reviews 323

Magnet Therapy
Stephen Barrett, M . D . [Revised 26 April 20011

During the past few years, magnetic devices have been claimed to relieve pain and to
have therapeutic value against a large number of diseases and conditions. The way to
evaluate such claims is to ask whether scientific studies have been published. Pulsed
electromagnetic fields-which induce measurable electric fields-have been demon-
strated effective for treating slow-healing [bone] fractures and have shown promise for
a few other conditions. However few studies have been published on the effect on pain
of small, static magnets marketed to consumers.
The main basis for the claims is a double-blind.. . study, conducted at Baylor College
of Medicine in Houston, which compared the effects of magnets and sham magnets on
knee pain. The study involved 50 adult patients with pain related to having been infect-
ed with polio virus when they were children. A static magnetic device or a placebo de-
vice was applied to the patient's skin for 45 minutes. The patients were asked to rate
how much pain they experienced when a 'trigger point was touched'. The researchers
reported that the 29 patients exposed to the magnetic device achieved lower pain scores
than did the 21 who were exposed to the placebo device. Although this study is cited by
nearly everyone selling magnets, it provides no legitimate basis for concluding that
magnets offer any health-related benefit.
Although the groups were said to be selected randomly, the ratio of women to
men in the experimental group was twice that of the control group. If women
happen to be more responsive to placebos than men, a surplus of women in the
'treatment' group would tend to improve that group's score.
The age of the placebo group was four years higher than that of the control
group. If advanced age makes a person more difficult to treat, the "treatment"
group would again have a scoring advantage.
The investigators did not measure the exact pressure exerted by the blunt object
at the trigger point before and after the study.. .
Two better-designed, longer lasting pain studies have been negative:
Researchers at the New York College of Podiatric Medicine have reported nega-
tive results in a study of patients with heel pain. Over a 4-week period, 19 pa-
tients wore a molded insole containing a magnetic foil, while 15 patients wore
the same type of insole with no magnetic foil. In both groups, 60% reported im-
provement, which suggests that the magnetic foil conveyed no benefit.. . [Casel-
li et al., 19971
... researchers at the VA Medical Center in Prescott, Arizona conducted a ran-
domized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study involving 20 pa-
tients with chronic back pain.. . Each patient was exposed to real and sham bipo-
lar permanent magnets during alternate weeks, for 6 hours per day, 3 days per
week for a week, with a I -week period between the treatment weeks. No differ-
ence in pain or mobility was found between the treatment and sham-
treatment periods.. . [Collacott et al., 20001

~ Barrett then lists several legal cases where four companies were barred from
advertising their magnets as having any medical benefit whatsoever. Finally,
"There is no scientific basis to conclude that small, static magnets can relieve
pain or influence the course of any disease.. ."
Comment: In the Baylor trial (Valbona et al., 1997), patients who received
the magnets experienced an average pain score decrease of 4.4 + 3.1 (p <
324 Website Reviews

0.0001) on a 10-point scale vs. those on placebo, decrease 1.1 + 1.6. The pro-
portion of patients in the treatment group who reported a pain decrease greater
than the average placebo effect was 76%, so the effect was not trivial. The pro-
portion of women was higher (5:l vs. 3:l) in the placebo group, as Barrett
notes; but this does not necessarily invalidate the results; what if women hap-
pen to be less responsive to placebo than men? The ages of the treatment and
control groups had SDs of k10 years. This means that 95% of the treatment
group were 32-72 years old vs. 35-75 years old for the controls. Because of
the very large overlap in ages, the difference between the means of ages does
not mean much. And what if advanced age makes a person more responsive to
treatment? In this double-blind study one would expect that the various pres-
sures of the blunt object used to elicit pain would be randomly distributed. So
this study remains indicative of probable benefit for the type of pain and the
magnets used, and it should not be dismissed.
The New York College of Podiatric Medicine study showed that the type of
magnets used had no effect on heel pain, not that every use of magnets for pain
is useless. The foil magnets of -500 gauss at the surface were tested because
they had previously been found to increase foot temperature by improving
blood flow, to relieve muscular tension, and to alter the depolarization of C-
fibers, so there was some therapeutic effect that prompted the trial.
The VA study showed that their bipolar magnets of -300 gauss did not help
with back pain when the subjects were exposed for a total of 18 hours during
the course of one week, not that all applications are worthless. How odd that
Dr. Barrett did not mention that the ratio of women to men in this trial was
1:19.
In what the reader will now begin to realize is typical of www.Quack-
watch.com, another serious study with positive results was not cited. In a ran-
domized, placebo-controlled study, magnetic insoles significantly reduced di-
abetic neuropathy pain in the feet. One foot was used as the control, and there
was a crossover. At the end of four months improvement was still pronounced
in the diabetic patients. In the authors' own words: "The constant wearing of
magnetic devices was able to dramatically suppress the neuropathic symptoms
of burning pain and numbness and tingling in the diabetic cohort (90%) as
compared to the non-diabetic cohort (33%). This response appears to be pallia-
tive but not curative since symptoms recur when... [the magnets are removed].
Nonetheless, it is intriguing that success was achieved in a condition felt to be
'disabling, intractable, and progressive"' (Weintraub, 1999). What could be
the motivation of Stephen Barrett, M.D., who would discourage large numbers
of advanced diabetics from obtaining such a simple form of relief? Or who
 Website Reviews 325

Homeopathy: The Ultimate Fake

Stephen Barrett, M.D. Updated 25 August 2001

Homeopathic "remedies" enjoy a unique status in the health marketplace: They are the
only category of quack products legally marketable as drugs.
The "Remedies" are Placebos-Homeopathic products are made from minerals,
botanical substances, and several other sources. If the original substance is soluble, one
part is diluted with either nine or ninety-nine parts of distilled water andlor alcohol and
shaken vigorously (succussed); if insoluble, it is finely ground and pulverized in simi-
lar proportions with powdered lactose (milk sugar). One part of the diluted medicine is
then further diluted, and the process is repeated until the desired concentration is
reached. Dilutions of 1 to 10 are designated by the Roman numeral X (1 X = 1110, 3X =
111,000, 6X = 1/1,000,000). Similarly, dilutions of 1 to 100 are designated by the
Roman numeral C (1C = 11100, 3C = 111,000,000, and so on). Most remedies today
range from 6X to 30X, but products of 30C or more are marketed.. .
Actually, the laws of chemistry state that there is a limit to the dilution that can be
made without losing the original substance altogether. This limit, which is related to
Avogadro's number, corresponds to homeopathic potencies of 12C or 24X (1 part in
Hahneman himself [the originator of homeopathy] realized that there was virtu-
ally no chance that even one molecule of original substance would remain after ex-
treme dilutions. But he believed that the vigorous shaking or pulverizing with each step
of dilution leaves behind a "spirit-like" essence-"no longer perceptible to the sens-
es"-which cures by reviving the body's "vital force". This notion is unsubstantiated.. .
Since many homeopathic remedies contain no detectable amount of active ingredi-
ent, it is impossible to test whether they contain what their label says. Unlike most po-
tent drugs, they have not been proven effective against disease by double-blind clinical
testing.

Barrett goes on to cite and summarize several papers and reports of commis-
sions in which a few of many trials had positive results. "Proponents trumpet
the few 'positive' studies as proof that 'homeopathy works'." Barrett then
shows how the FDA could produce extinction of homeopathy in the USA.
Comment: Your reviewer would be the first to admit that homeopathy
should not have any beneficial effect beyond placebo for the obvious reasons.
But a 199 1 review from the University of Limburg in The Netherlands found
that: "A survey of 293 general practitioners in The Netherlands showed that
45% of them think that homeopathic remedies are efficacious in treating upper
respiratory tract infections or hay fever." These reviewers ". .. could not be-
lieve the positive result ..." found with pollen C30 in hay fever, so they did an
exhaustive search for other reports on trials in homeopathy as skeptics. As-
sessment of the methodological quality of 107 controlled trials in 96 published
reports was done using a list of predefined criteria, including proper random-
ization of patients and double-blinding. Of 105 trials with interpretable re-
sults, 81 trials indicated positive results, whereas 24 trials were negative. Of
the 22 best quality trials with controls, 15 showed positive results and seven
showed no positive effect. In all the trials, using diagnoses from conventional
medicine, certain conditions responded more than others, namely pollinosis,
pain and mental problems. ". .. there is a legitimate case for further evaluation
326 Website Reviews

Barrett did report that a later review of 184 trials found only 17 of reason-
able quality, and that positive effects were found in some. His two citations
were to non-peer-reviewed reports, of which one was from the National Coun-
cil Against Health Fraud [NCAHF], which is associated with and recommend-
ed by www.Quackwatch.com. But: "This Council, itself fraudulent, seems to
have taken over the work of the Coordinating Conference on Health Informa-
tion, the covert arm of the American Medical Association [AMA]... The
NCAHF receives money from the AMA, the National Pharmaceutical Coun-
cil, the food industry, and others." (Carter, 1992: 124-125). The NCAHF has
also been accused of forcible interference with free speech on the campus of
Loma Linda University and the defamation of character of 2,500 physicians
and others including Linus Pauling (Whitaker, 1997). It is believed that Dr.
Whitaker's letter and the actions of the California Health Freedom Movement
team were responsible for the removal of the NCAHF from the University
(http://www.savedclark.org/by~whom2.htm on 19 Jan 02).
As wrenching as the "logic" of homeopathic treatments appears to your ra-
tional reviewer, there is enough evidence of their effectiveness so as not dis-
miss the technique altogether, as Barrett has done.

Dietary Supplements: Appropriate Use

Stephen Barrett, M.D. [Revised 11 May 20011

In general, supplements are useful for individuals who are unable or unwilling to con-
sume an adequate diet.. . High (above-RDA) doses of vitamins should be regarded as
drugs rather than supplements.. . Most high-dose recommendations by the health-food
industry and its allies are not valid.

Here Barrett cites his own book in support (Barrett, 1994). He makes excep-
tions for very young children, pregnant teenagers, some vegetarians, and some
sedentary seniors-anyone who does (or might) not consume "an adequate
diet." A major exception is that:
Women should be sure that their intake of calcium is adequate to help prevent thinning
of their bones (osteoporosis). The National Academy of Sciences advises Americans
and Canadians at risk for osteoporosis to consume between 1000 and 1300 milligrams
of calcium per day.. . This can be done with adequate intake of dairy products, but some
women prefer calcium supplements. Women should discuss this matter with their
physician or a registered dietitian.

Comment: Studies exist which are quite contradictory to Dr. Barrett's posi-
tion. In research supported by the Wallace Genetic Foundation and the Ameri-
can Cancer Society it was found that among 11,348 U.S. adults of ages 25-74
years who were followed for 10 years, the 1,809 deaths were inversely related
by rate to the vitamin C intake. What makes this study especially useful is that
males and females were considered separately, and those with a daily intake of
50+ mg from diet alone were compared with those with similar dietary intake
 Website Reviews 327

plus regular supplements, which averaged 800 mg per day, far above the rec-
ommended daily allowance (RDA) of 60 mg per day. The relative risk (RR) of
all-cause death with no supplements was set to 1.00. With supplements it
dropped to 0.70 in males and 0.97 in females. Most of the gain was fewer
deaths from cardiovascular diseases rather than cancer, with slightly fewer
deaths from esophageal and stomach cancers in males (Enstrom et al., 1992).
Others have interpreted this study to mean that men taking vitamin C supple-
ments lived six years longer than those who did not, and women lived one year
longer (Cranton, 2001 : 23; McGee, 2001: 105).
In the Nurses Health Study of eight years' duration, women who took, on
average, 200 IU of vitamin E as supplements for 2-8 years had a RR of 0.59
for coronary diseases of several types and a RR of death of 0.87. Men who took
100-250 IU of vitamin E for 2-10 years had a RR for coronary diseases of sev-
eral types of 0.63 (Kauffman, 2000).
In people with severe congestive heart failure (CHF), those on conventional
therapy, including digitalis, diuretics and vasodilators, had a 3-year survival
rate of 25%. With added vitamin QIO (also called coenzyme QlO and
ubiquinone) the 3-year survival rate was 75% (Folkers, 1986). The benefits of
using this supplement in people with CHF was recently confirmed by a review
from an unrelated research group (Mongthuong et al., 200 1).
These three are sufficient examples to expose the quality of advice on this
webpage of www.Quackwatch.com.
Contrarily, the admonition for women to take calcium is not exactly sup-
ported in the simplistic form in which it was given. According to Lynne Mc-
Taggart in Medicine: What Works & What Doesn't (1995), only about 13% of
the cases of osteoporosis can be attributed to insufficient calcium intake. Lack
of absorption of calcium may be caused by insufficient phosphorus, magne-
sium or vitamin D. Lieberman and Bruning in The Real Vitamin & Mineral
Book (1990) wrote: " I advise you to take your calcium along with magnesium
in the ratio of 2:l" [by mass, this is 1: 1 in number of atoms]. Since the most
persuasive evidence is often from peer-reviewed medical journals, here are
some examples: (1) A review of published data did not support calcium mega-
dosing for the management of postmenopausal osteoporosis. When a dietary
program emphasizing magnesium instead of calcium was tested on 19 post-
menopausal women, a significant increase in bone density was observed with-
in one year in 8 of the 15 who had bone density below the spine fracture
threshold (Abraham et al., 1990). (2) In clinical studies, the efficacy of calci-
um, copper, manganese and zinc supplementation on bone mineral density of
postmenopausal women was demonstrated (Saltman et al., 1993). (3) Estro-
gen's enhancement of magnesium utilization and uptake by soft tissues and
bone may explain resistance of young women to heart disease and osteoporo-
sis, as well as increased prevalence of these diseases when estrogen production
ceases. With calcium supplementation in the face of commonly low magne-
sium intake, the risk of thrombosis increases (Seelig, 1993). (4) A total of 194
328 Website Reviews

forearm bone densitometry. The dietary intake of calcium, phosphorus and

magnesium was correlated with low bone density. Calcium and magnesium in-
takes were lower than the U.S. RDAs in this Ancona, Italy-based study. Sup-
plements were recommended before menopause (Tranquilli et al., 1994). (5)
No correlation was found between serum calcium levels and bone density in
14 subjects. Tn the five patients given magnesium supplements for two years, a
significant increase in bone density was observed (Rude et al., 1996).

Stanislaw Burzynski and 'Antineoplastons '

By Saul Green, Ph.D.

The following short webpage is reproduced whole for accuracy and tone from:
<http://w ww.Quackwatch.com/O1 QuackeryRelatedTopics/Cancer/
burzynski 1.html>
The bold letters in brackets refer to specific Comments below.
Unlike most "alternative medicine" practitioners, Stanislaw R. Burzynski has pub-
lished profusely. The sheer volume of his publications impresses patients, but unless
they understand what they are reading, they cannot judge its validity. To a scientist,
Burzynski's literature contains clear evidence that his data do not support his claims. [A]

Burzynski's Background and Credentials

Burzynski attended the Medical Academy in Lubin [sic],[B], Poland, where he re-
ceived an M.D. degree in 1967 and an D.Msc. degree in 1968. He did not undergo spe-
cialty training in cancer or complete any other residency program. His bibliography does
not mention clinical cancer research, urine, or antineoplastons during this period. [C]
In 1970, Burzynski came to the United States and worked in the department of anes-
thesiology at Baylor University, Houston, for three years, isolating peptides from rat
brains. (Peptides are low-molecular-weight compounds composed of amino acids
bonded in a certain way.) He got a license to practice medicine in 1973 and, with others,
received a three-year grant to study the effect of urinary peptides on the growth of can-
cer cells in tissue culture. The grant was not renewed. [Dl
In 1976, with no preclinical or clinical cancer research experience [El, Burzynski
announced a theory for the cure of cancer based on his assumption that spontaneous re-
gression occurs because natural anticancer peptides, which he named antineoplastons,
"normalize" cancer cells. Since urine contains lots of peptides, he concluded that there
he would find antineoplastons [F]. Less than one year later and based only on these as-
sumptions, Burzynski used an extract from human urine ("antineoplaston A") to treat
21 cancer patients at a clinic he opened [GI. His shingle read, 'Stanislaw R. Burzynski,
M.D., Ph.D.'
Burzynski's claim to a Ph.D. is questionable. When I investigated, I found:
An official from the Ministry of Health in Warsaw informed me that when
Burzynski was in school, medical schools did not give a Ph.D. [I]. [HI
Faculty members from at the Medical Academy at Lubin [sic], [B] informed me
that Burzynski received his D.Msc. in 1968 after completing a one-year labora-
tory project and passing an exam [2] and that he had done no independent re-
search while in medical school [3]. [I]
In 1973, when Burzinski applied for a federal grant to study "antineoplaston
 Website Reviews 329

peptides from urine," he identified himself as "Stanislaw Burzynski, M.D,

D.Msc." [4]
Analysis of Antineoplaston Biochemistry
Tracing the biochemistry involved in Burzynski's synthesis of antineoplastons
shows that the substances are without value for cancer treatment. [J]
By 1985, Burzynski said he was using eight antineoplastons to treat cancer patients.
The first five, which were fractions from human urine, he called A-1 through A-5.
From A-2 he made A- 10, which was insoluble 3-N-phenylacetylamino piperidine 2,6-
dione. He said A- 10 was the anticancer peptide common to all his urine fractions. He
then treated A-10 with alkali, which yielded a soluble product he named AS-2.5. Fur-
ther treatment of AS-2.5 with alkali yielded a product he called AS-2.1. Burzynski is
currently treating patients with what he calls "AS-2.1" and "A- 10."
In reality, AS-2.1 is phenylacetic acid (PA), a potentially toxic substance [K] pro-
duced during normal metabolism. PA is detoxified in the liver to phenylacetyl gluta-
mine [sic] (PAG), which is excreted in the urine. When urine is heated after adding acid,
the PAG loses water and becomes 3-N-phenylacetylamino piperidine 2,6-dione [sic]
(PAPD), which is insoluble. Normally there is no PAPD in human urine.
What Burzynski calls "A- 10" is really PAPD treated with alkali to make it soluble.
But doing thi; does not create a soluble form of A-10. It simply reinserts water into the
molecule and regenerates the PAG (Burzynski's AS-2.5). Further treatment of this with
alkali breaks it down into a mixture of PA and PAG. Thus Burzynski's "AS-2.1" is
nothing but a mixture of the naturally occurring substances PA and PAG.
Burzynski claims that A-10 acts by fitting into indentations in DNA. But PAG is too
big a molecule to do this [L], and Burzynski himself has reported that PAG is ineffec-
tive against cancer [5,6].
PA may not be safe. In 1919, it was shown that PA can be toxic when ingested by
normal individuals. It can also reach toxic levels in patients with phenylketonuria
(PKU); and in a pregnant woman, it can cause the child in utero to suffer brain damage.
[Kl
Burzynski has never demonstrated that A-2.1 (PA) or "soluble A-10" (PA and PAG)
are effective against cancer [MI or that tumor cells from patients treated with these an-
tineoplastons have been "normalized." Tests of antineoplastons at the National Cancer
Institute have never been positive. [N] The drug company Sigma-Tau Pharmaceuticals
could not duplicate Burzynski's claims for AS-2.1 and A-10. The Japanese National
Cancer Institute has reported that antineoplastons did not work in their studies. No
Burzynski coauthors have endorsed his use of antineoplastons in cancer patients. [O]
These facts indicate to me that Burzynski's claims that his "antineoplastons" are ef-
fective against cancer are not credible. [PI
About the Author
Dr. Green is a biochemist who did cancer research at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer
Center for 23 years. He consults on scientific methodology and has a special interest in
unproven methods. He can be reached at (212) 957-8029. This article is adapted from
his presentation at the American Association for Clinical Chemistry Symposium in At-
lanta in July, 1997.

References
1. Nizanskowski R. Personal communication to Saul Green, Ph.D., Jan 15, 1992.
2. Kleinrock Z. Personal communication to Saul Green, Ph.D., Nov 22 1993.
3. Bielinski S. Personal communication to Saul Green, Ph.D., Nov 22, 1987.
4. Burzynski S. HEW grant application 1973, item 20 (credentials).
5. Burzynski SR. Purified antineoplaston fractions and methods of treating neoplastic
diseases. U.S. Patent No. 4,558,057, 1985.
6. Burzynski SR. Preclinical studies on antineoplastons AS-2.1 and AS-2.5. Drugs
330 Website Reviews

Exptl Clin Res Suppl 1 , XII, 1 1-1 6, 1986.

This article was posted on June 25, 200 1 .

Comments
[A] Green does not give any specific example to support this assertion. Ju-
lian Whitaker, M.D., for one, cites and accepts the evidence in at least one of
Burzynski's papers (Whitaker, 1999).
[B] Green means Lublin.
[C] These two sentences are merely attempts at invalidation, since lack of
experience in a sub-specialty does not disqualify a person from beginning the
sub-specialty.
[Dl Since Green did not give a reason for the non-renewal of the grant, this
omission could be regarded as another smear.
[El According to Daniel Haley, who devoted a 48-page book chapter to anti-
neoplastons, Burzynski had suspected, before he left Poland, that his peptides
had anti-cancer activity after noticing that one of them was almost absent from
the blood of a prostate cancer patient. In 1974 he co-authored an article which
reported that the peptides caused up to 97% inhibition of DNA synthesis and
cell division in cancer cells in tissue cultures (Haley, 2000: 346). Thus,
Green's innuendo that antineoplastons (the anti-cancer peptides) sprang whole
from nothing is probably false. Furthermore, Green's implication that clinical
or preclinical experience is needed is false; anyone can come up with a treat-
ment worth investigating.
[F] This innuendo is false. Burzynski had first isolated antineoplastons from
blood, and looked for them in urine in order to have a more convenient source
of them (Haley, 2000: 347), and by 1980, could synthesize them (Haley, 2000:
350).
[GI It is significant that Green did not reveal what happened to these 21 pa-
tients. It was reported that complete remission occurred in four cases, more
than 50% remission in another four cases, and some improvement in another
four cases. In two of the five patients who died, there was significant regres-
sion of the "neoplastic process," and the deaths were not due to cancer or to
any toxicity of the treatment (Burzynski, 1977).
[HI According to Daniel Haley, Burzynski earned both his M.D. and Ph.D.
at age 24. Reacting to a paper in JAMA by this same Saul Green, Burzynski
sent the JAMA a sworn statement from the President of the Medical Academy
of Lublin confirming Burzynski 's Ph.D. in Biochemistry and M.D. with hon-
ors (Haley, 20001 345, 362). Robert G. Houston, a medical writer, wrote in a
letter to JAMA that ". . . Contrary to Green, I found Burzynski's doctoral dis-
sertation in biochemistry listed in the bibliography that Green claims omits it."
(Houston, 1993).
[I] An online search turned up 11 publications on research by Burzynski
from 1964-1970, many in Polish.
 Website Reviews 331

[J] This statement smacks of one described above for EDTA chelation ther-
apy, an intimation that understanding of Burzynski's synthesis of antineoplas-
tons would somehow prove that they could not be effective treatments for can-
cer. Surely one can see that effectiveness of substances for cancer is not related
to a complete understanding of their biochemistry. Furthermore, the syntheses
were by standard in vitro reactions, not biochemical (Burzynski et al., 1986).
[K] This innuendo fails to give any actual toxicity. According to the Merck
Index, phenylacetic acid is used as an analgesic, antirheumatic and urinary an-
tiseptic. Its sodium salt has been approved for human use by the FDA for treat-
ment of hyperammonemia (Burzynski, 1993). Its LD,, i. p. in mice is 2,710
mglkg (Burzynski et al., 1986). By comparison, from the Merck Index, 9th
ed., the common antineoplastic drug vincristine has an LD,, i. v. in mice of 2
mglkg; this would extrapolate to just 100 mg as the fatal dose for a human.
[L] The structures of Antineoplaston A- 10 and the DNA-intercalating agent
Doxorubicin, "the most important anticancer drug available" (Foye et al.,
1995: 839), are shown in Figure 1 drawn to the same scale and style. It should
be obvious that A- 10 (also called PAG) is not too big to fit into (intercalate)
with DNA.

H-NwN-H
Antineoplaston A- 10 O Doxoru bicin
a'#\ , , 9%
z
-
H
NH,

Fig. 1. Structural Formulas of Antineoplaston A- 10 and Doxorubicin.

[MI Quite the contrary, Burzynski has reported promising clinical results
with AS2-1 in refractory cancer of the prostate (Burzynski et al., 1990) and
with synthetic A 10 (Liau et al., 1987), and with both in primary brain tumors
(Burzynski et al., 1999).
[N] According to Robert G. Houston, the National Cancer Institute (NCI)
saw the results of antineoplaston treatments in seven cases and concluded that
antitumor responses occurred (Houston, 1993). In a press-release the NCI
claimed that these were the only patients of about 3,000 who had benefited
(untrue), that Burzynski had sent the NCI incomplete patient information
(also untrue), and when NCI-sponsored trials were done, the patients selected
by the NCI were much more advanced and sicker than ones Burzynski had
agreed to have treated. The NCI used lower doses than Burzynski advised, and
332 Website Reviews

withdrew the two improving patients to damage the evidence (Diamond et al.,
1997: 674-685)!
[0]Since coauthorship implies endorsement, the presence of coauthors
with Burzynski in at least 1 1 papers in peer-reviewed journals on the use of an-
tineoplastons in cancer patients contradicts Green's assertion. These authors
include Burzynski, B., Conde, A. B., Daugherty, J. P., Ellithorpe, R.,
Kaltenberg, 0. P., Kubove, E., Liau, M. C., Mohabbat, M. P., Nacht, C. H., Pe-
ters, A., Saling, B., Stolzman, Z., Szopa, B., and Szopa, M.
[PI Ample evidence has been given to show that much of what Green wrote
on this webpage is questionable. To make an informed decision on the effec-
tiveness of antineoplastons, Julian Whitaker, M.D., over a 5-year period, visit-
ed the Burzynski Clinic five times, spoke with scores of patients, and evaluat-
ed their medical charts. He gave four examples of patients, three of them
children, who were offered no hope of long-term survival by conventional can-
cer practitioners and who were then successfully treated with antineoplastons,
and he calls this treatment "the most significant breakthrough in cancer re-
search ever" (Whitaker, 1999). "Antineoplastons do not work all the time-
nothing does. But there is enough data and case histories to demonstrate con-
clusively that these medicines do represent a breakthrough" (Haley, 2000:
386). "For Dr. Burzynski's 3,000 patients, antineoplaston is a lifesaver;
among.. . alternative physicians, the treatment is gaining respect and credibili-
ty" (Diamond et al., 1997: 684-685).

General Comment
The discoverer of antineoplastons, Stanislaw R. Burzynski, earned his Ph.D.
and M.D. degrees together in 1968 from the Medical Academy of Lublin,
Poland, at age 24. His research for his doctorate in Biochemistry was on pep-
tides, short chains of amino acids which are the building blocks of proteins. He
noted that people with chronic kidney failure rarely develop cancer, and that
these people have a superabundance of certain peptides in their blood. These
peptides did turn out to have anti-tumor effects; Burzynski christened them an-
tineoplastons.
Blood was an inconvenient source of antineoplastons, so Burzynski suc-
ceeded in finding them in the urine of healthy humans, and gradually identi-
fied about a dozen. These simple molecules, many related to phenylacetic
acid, were found to stimulate the activity of "human suppressor genes," that is,
ones that turn off the activity of oncogenes. Thus the antineoplastons seem to
act as a normal control mechanism for cell division, so they are not cytotoxic
and indiscriminate, as are the usual antineoplastic drugs used in cancer
chemotherapy (Foye et al., 1995). This early work was published in peer-re-
viewed journals; many of the early papers were in Polish. Mixtures of these an-
tineoplastons isolated from human urine produced up to 97% inhibition of
DNA synthesis and mitosis in neoplastic cells in tissue culture (Burzynski, 1976).
Burzynski came to the USA around 1970 and worked at Baylor College of
 Website Reviews 333

Medicine, Houston, Texas. With others he obtained, in 1974, a Research Grant

from the NCI of 3-years' duration. Individual antineoplastons were identified
and, by 1980, synthesized. By 1977 he had published on a study of the action
of antineoplaston A on 21 patients considered end-stage and untreatable by
conventional methods. It was reported that complete remission occurred in
four cases, more than 50% remission in another four cases, and some improve-
ment in another four cases. In two of the five patients who died, there was sig-
nificant regression of the "neoplastic process," and the deaths were not due to
cancer or to any toxicity of the treatment (Burzynski, 1977). Inexplicably by
normal scientific standards, the grant was not renewed.
About this time Burzynski set up the Burzynski Research Institute in which
cancer patients declared hopeless by mainstream practitioners were expected
to pay for what was honestly called experimental treatment with antineoplas-
tons. Success was considerable, especially for brain tumors in children
(Burzynski, 1999). From the late 1970s to the present, every available govern-
ment, state, and medical agency aligned with the mainstream cancer establish-
ment has done its best to shut down Dr. Burzynski's clinic. What made him a
threat to the mainstream cancer establishment from the beginning was the
prospect that antineoplaston therapy represented a successful alternative to
toxic and dangerous chemotherapy drugs, which were highly profitable (Dia-
mond, 1997). Like nutritional supplements, antineoplastons are natural prod-
ucts, and not patentable.
Attacks on Burzynski, both ad hominem and technical, have been launched
from many directions. Burzinski attempted to complete New Drug Applica-
tions for the FDA, and to have trials carried out by the NCI, as well as doing
his own with whatever approval from the FDA he could manage to obtain. On
one pretext or another the U.S. FDA brought Burzynski to trial several times,
and lost every case. The NCI is said to have faked clinical trials of antineoplas-
tons in order to produce negative results (Diamond, 1997; Haley, 2000). After
20 years of such struggle, along with publication of many more papers in peer-
reviewed journals, Burzynski was asked why he did not leave the USA. He
replied that the science would prevail in the end. Ample evidence has been
given here to show that much of what Green wrote on this webpage is ques-
tionable at best. Despite vicious attacks and distractions, such as raids by FDA
operatives on Burzynski's clinic, and confiscation of many of his records, his
research continues on what is probably an effective approach to the treatment
of many types of cancers.
*****
All eight pages from www.Quackwatch.com that were examined closely for
this review, which were chosen simply because their topics were familiar to
this reviewer, were found to be contaminated with incomplete data, obsolete
data, technical errors, unsupported opinions, and/or innuendo; no other pages
were examined. Hostility to all alternatives was expected and observed from
the website, but not repetition of groundless dogma from mainstream medi-
334 Website Reviews

cine, examples of which were exposed. As a close friend and colleague re-
minded me, the operators of this site and I may have the same motivation-to
expose fraud. It remains a mystery how they and I have interpreted the same
body of medical science and reached such divergent conclusions. While Dr.
Barrett may (or may not) have helped many victims of quacks to recover funds
and seek more effective treatment, and while some of the information on pages
of the website not examined in this review may be accurate and useful, this re-
view has shown that it is very probable that many of the 2,300,000 visitors to
the website have been misled by the trappings of scientific objectivity. At least
three of the activities in the Mission Statement (Distributing reliable publica-
tions, Improving the quality of health information on the Internet, and Attack-
ing misleading advertising on the Internet) have been shown to be flawed as ac-
tually executed, at least on the eight webpages that were examined. Medical
practitioners such as Robert Atkins, Elmer Cranton and Stanislaw Burzynski,
whom I demonstrated are not quacks, were attacked with the energy one would
hope to be focused on real quacks. The use of this website is not recommended.
It could be deleterious to your health.

Acknowledgment
Expert online searches and editorial aid were provided by Leslie Ann Bow-
man. Additional aid from other faculty at The University of the Sciences in
Philadelphia was obtained from Gina Kaiser, Robert C. Woodley and Sylvia
Tarzanin. Ted Pollard made valuable contributions.
Joel M. KaufSman
Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry
University of the Sciences in Philadelphia
600 South 43rd St., Philadelphia, PA 19104

References
Abbasi, F., McLaughlin, T., Lamendola, C., Kim, H. S., Tanaka, A., Wang, T., Nakajima, K., &
Reaven, G. M. (2000). High carbohydrate diets, triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, and coronary
heart disease risk. American Journal of Cardiology, 85, 45-48.
Abraham, G. E., & Grewal, H. (1990). A total dietary program emphasizing magnesium instead of
calcium. Effect on the mineral density of calcaneous bone in postmenopausal women on hor-
monal therapy. Journal of Reproductive Medicine, 35, 503-507.
Allain, P., Mauras, Y., Premel-Cabic, A., Islam, S., Herve, J. P., & Cledes, J. (1991). Effects of
EDTA infusion on the urinary elimination of several elements in healthy subjects. British
Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 31, 347-349.
Atkins, D., Psaty, B. M., Koepsell, T. D., Longstreth, W. T., Jr., & Larson, E. B. (1993). Choles-
terol reduction and the risk for stroke in men. Annals of Internal Medicine, I 1 9, 136-145.
Barrett, S. (1994). The Vitamin Pushers: How the "Health Food Industry is Selling Americans a
Bill ofCoods. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books.
Bernstein, R. K. (1997). Dr. Bernstein's Diabetes Solution. Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Co.,
1997.
Burzynski, S. (1 993). Letter. Journal of the American Medical Association, 269, 475.
Burzynski, S. R . , Conde, A. B., Peters, A,, Saling, B., Ellithorpe, R., Daugherty, J. P., & Nacht, C.
H. (1999). A retrospective study of antineoplastons A10 and AS2-1 in primary brain tumours.
 Website Reviews 335

Clinical Drug Investigations, 18, 1-10.

Burzynski, S. R., Kubove, E., & Burzynski, B. (1990). Treatment of hormonally refractory cancer
of the prostate with antineoplaston AS2-1. Drugs Under Experimental & Clinical Research,
16, 361-369.
Burzynski, S. R., Mohabbat, M. O., & Lee, S. S. (1986). Preclinical studies on antineoplaston
AS2-1 and antineoplaston AS2-5. Drugs Under Experimental & Clinical Research, I2(Suppl
l ) , 11-16.
Burzynski, S. R., Stolzman, Z., Szopa, B., Stolzman, E., & Kaltenberg, 0.P. (1977). Antineoplas-
ton A in cancer therapy. (I). Physiological Chemistry & Physics, 9, 485-500.
Carter, J. P. (1992). Racketeering in Medicine: The Suppression of Alternatives. Norfolk, VA:
Hampton Roads Press.
Caselli, M. A., Clark, N., Velez, Z., & Venegas, L. (1997). Evaluation of magnetic foil and PPT in-
soles in the treatment of heel pain. Journal ofthe American Podiutric Medical Association, 87,
11-16.
Chappell, L. T., & Janson, M. (1996). EDTA chelation therapy in the treatment of vascular dis-
ease. Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing, 10, 78-86.
Cohen, J. S. (2001). Overdose: The Case Against the Drug Companies. New York: TarcherIPut-
nam.
Collacott, E. A., Zimmerman, J. T., White, D. W., & Rindone, J. P. (2000). Bipolar permanent
magnets for the treatment of chronic low back pain. Journal of the American Medical A.s.sociu-
tion, 283, 1322-1325.
Cranton, E. M. (2001). A Textbook on EDTA Chelation Therapy (2nd ed.). Charlottesville, VA:
Hampton Roads Publishing Co.
Diamond, W. J., Cowden, W. L., & Goldberg, B. (1 997). An Alternative Medicine Definitive Guide
to Cancer. Tiburon, CA: Future Medicine Publishing.
Douglass, W. C., Jr. (1995). Chelation therapy-Better than ever! Second Opinion, March
(suppl), 1-4, and references therein.
Dzavik, V., Ghali, W. A., Norris, C., Mitchell, L. B., Koshal, A., Saunders, L. D., Galbraith, P. D.,
Hui, W., Faris, P., & Knudtson, M. L. (2001). Long-term survival in 11,661 patients with mul-
tivessel coronary artery disease in the era of stenting: A report from the Alberta Provincial Pro-
ject for Outcome Assessment in Coronary Heart Disease (APPROACH) Investigators. Ameri-
can Heart Journal, 142, 1 19-1 26.
Enig, M. C. (2000). Know Your Fats. Silver Spring, MD: Bethesda Press.
Ernst, E. (1 997). Chelation therapy for peripheral arterial occlusive disease: A systematic review.
Circulation, 96, 1031-1033.
Folkers, K. (1986). Contemporary therapy with vitamin B,, vitamin B,, and coenzyme Q,,. Chem-
ical & Engineering News, 21 April 1986,27-30,55-56.
Fored, C. M., Ejerblad, E., Lindblad, P., Fryzek, J. P., Dickman, P. W., Signorello, L. B., Lipworth,
L., Elinder, C. G., Blot, W. J., McLaughlin, J. K., Zack, M. M., & Nyren, 0 . (2001). Aceta-
minophen, aspirin, and chronic renal failure. New England Journul qf' Medicine, 345,
1801-1808.
Foye, W. O., Lemke, T. L., & Williams, D. A. (Eds.) (1995). Principles of Medicinal Chemistry
(4th ed.). Baltimore, MD, Williams & Wilkins.
Garber, A. M., Browner, W. S., & Huller, S. B. (1996). Clinical guideline, Part 2. Cholesterol
screening in asymptomatic adults, revisited. Annals of Internal Medicine, 124, 5 18-53 I.
Garg, A., Bantle, J. P., Henry, R. R., Coulston, A. M., Griver, R. A., Raatz, S. K., Brinkley, L.,
Chen, Y.-D. I., Grundy, S. M., Huet, B. A., & Reaven, G. M. (1994). Effects of varying carbo-
hydrate content of diet in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Journal of the
American Medical Association, 271, 1421-1428.
Crier, M. T., & Meyers, D. G. (1993). So much writing, so little science: A review of 37 years of
literature on edentate sodium chelation therapy. Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 27, 1504-1509.
Gutierrez, M . , Akhavan, M., Jovanovic, L., & Peterson, C. M. (1998). Utility of a short-term 25%
carbohydrate diet on improving glycemic control in Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Journal of the
American College of Nutrition, 17, 595-600.
Haley, D. (2000). Politics in Healing: The Suppression and Manipulation ofAmerican Medicine.
Washington, DC: Potomac Valley Press.
Hebert, P. R., Gaziano, J. M., & Hennekens, C. H. (1995). An overview of trials of cholesterol
lowering and risk of stroke. Archives of lnternal Medicine, 155, 50-55.
Hecht, H. S., & Superko, H. R. (2001). Electron beam tomography and National Cholesterol Edu-
336 Website Reviews

cation Program Guidelines in asymptomatic women. Journal of the American College of Car-
diology, 37, 1506-15 l l .
Holtzclaw, H. F., Jr., Robinson, W. R., & Nebergall, W. H. (1984). College Chemistry with Quali-
tative Analysis (7th ed.). Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath.
Hooper, L., Summerbell, C. D., Higgins, J. P. T., Thompson, R. L., Capps, N. E., Smith, G. D.,
Riemersma, R. A., & Ebrahim, S. (2001). Dietary fat intake and prevention of cardiovascular
disease: Systematic review. British Medical Journal, 322, 757-763.
Houston, R. G. (1 993). Letter. Journal o f the American Medical Association, 269, 475-476.
Hu, F. B., Stampfer, M. J., Rimm, E. B., Manson, J. E., Ascherio, A., Colditz, G. A., Rosner, B. A.,
Spiegelman, D., Speizer, F. E., Sacks, F. M., Hennekens, C. H., & Willett, W. C. (1999). A
prospective study of egg consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease in men and women.
Journal of the American Medical Association, 281, 1387-1394.
Jeppesen, J., Schaaf, P., Jones, C., Zhou, M.-Y., Chen, Y.-D., & Reaven, G. M. (1997). Effects of
low-fat, high-carbohydrate diets on risk factors for ischemic heart disease in postmenopausal
women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 65, 1027-1033.
Juntunen, K. S., Niskanen, L. K., Liukkonen, K. H., Poutanen, K. S., Holst, J. J., & Mykkanen, H.
M. (2002). Postprandial glucose, insulin, and incretin responses to grain products in healthy
subjects. American Joumul of Clinical Nutrition, 75, 254-262.
Kauffman, J. M. (2000). Should you take aspirin to prevent heart attack? Journal of ScientiJl'c Ex-
ploration, 14, 623-64 1 .
Kleijnen, J., Knipschild, P., & ter Riet, G. (1991). Clinical trials of homeopathy. British Medical
Journal, 302, 3 16-323.
Lee, W. N. P., Byerley, L. O., Bassilian, S . , Ajie, H. O., Clark, I., Edmond, J., & Bergner, E. A.
( 1 995). Isotopomer study of lipogenesis in human hepatoma cells in culture: Contribution of
carbon and hydrogen atoms from glucose. Analytical Biochemistry, 226, 100-1 12.
Liau, M. C., Szopa, M., Burzynski, B., & Burzynski, S. R. (1987). Chemo-surveillance: A novel
concept of the natural defence mechanism against cancer. Drugs Under Experimental & Clini-
cal Research, 13(Suppl l ) , 71-76.
Liu, S., Manson, J.-A. E., Baring, J. E., Stampfer, M. J., Willett, W. C., & Ridker, P. M. (2002). Re-
lation between a diet with a high glycemic load and plasma concentrations of high-sensitivity
C-reactive protein in middle-aged women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 75,
492-498.
McCully, K. S., & McCully, M. (2000). The Heart Revolution: The extra or dinar.^ Discovery that
Finally Laid the Cholesterol Myth to Rest. New York: Harper Perennial.
McGee, C. T. (1979). How to Survive Modern Technology. New Canaan, CT: Keats Publishing.
McGee, C. T. (2001). Heart Frauds: Uncovering the Biggest Health Scam in History. Colorado
Springs, CO: Healthwise Publications.
Mongthuong, T. T., Mitchell, T. M., Kennedy, D. T., & Giles, J. T. (2001). Role of coenzyme Q,, in
chronic heart failure, angina, and hypertension. Pharmacotherapy, 21, 797-806.
Moore, T. J. (1989). Heart Failure. New York: Random House.
Olszewer, E., & Carter, J. P. (1988). EDTA chelation therapy in chronic degenerative disease.
Medical Hypotheses, 27, 4 1-49.
Oomen, C. M., Ockk, M. C., Feskens, E. J. M., van Erp-Baart, M.-A. J., Kok, F. J., & Kromhout,
D. (2001). Association between trans fatty acid intake and 10-year risk of coronary heart dis-
ease in the Zutphen Elderly Study: A prospective population-based study. Lancet, 357,
746-751.
Raggi, P., Cooil, B., & Callister, T. Q. (2001). Use of electron beam tomography to develop mod-
els for prediction of hard coronary events. American Heart Journal, 141, 375-382.
Ravnskov, U . (1998). The questionable role of saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids in cardio-
vascular disease. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 51, 443-460.
Ravnskov, U . (2000). The Cholesterol Myths: Exposing the Fallacy that Saturated Fat and Cho-
lesterol Cause Heart Disease. Washington, DC: New Trends Publishing.
Reginster, J. Y., Deroisy, R., Rovati, L. C., Lee, R. L., Lejeune, E., Bruyere, O., Giacovelli, G.,
Henrotain, Y., Dacre, J. E., & Gossett, C. (2001). Long-term effects of glucosamine sulphate
on osteoarthritis progression: A randomised, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Lancet, 357,
25 1-256.
de Roos, N. M., Bots, M. L., & Katan, M. B. ( 2001 ). Replacement of dietary saturated fatty acids
by trans fatty acids lowers serum HDL cholesterol and impairs endothelial function in healthy
 Website Reviews 337

men and women. Arteriosclerosis and Thrombosis in Vascular Biology, 21, 1233-1237.
Rude, R. K., & Olerich, M. (1996). Magnesium deficiency: Possible role in osteoporosis associat-
ed with gluten-sensitive enteropathy. Osteoporosis Internatiorlal ( U K ) ,6, 453-461.
Saltman, P. D., & Strause, L. G. (1993). The role of trace minerals in osteoporosis. Journal of the
American College of Nutrition, 12, 384-389.
Seelig, M. S. (1993). Interrelationship of magnesium and estrogen in cardiovascular and bone dis-
orders, eclampsia, migraine and premenstrual syndrome. Journal of the American College of
Nutrition, 12, 442-458.
Smith, R. E., with Edward R. Pinckney, E. R. (1991). The Cholesterol Conspiracy. St. Louis, MO:
Warren H. Green, Inc.
Taubes, G . (2001). The soft science of dietary fat. Science, 291, 2536-2545.
Tranquilli, A. L., Lucino, E., Garzetti, G. G., & Romanini, C. (1994). Calcium, phosphorus and
magnesium intakes correlate with bone mineral content in postmenopausal women. Gynecolo-
gy and Endocrinolog.~,8, 55-58.
Tunstall-Pedoe, H., Woodward, M., Tavendale, R., Brook, R. A., & McCluskey, M. K. (1997).
Comparison of the prediction by 27 different factors of coronary heart disease and death in
men and women of the Scottish Heart Health Study: Cohort study. British Medical Journal,
315, 722-729.
Valbona, C., Hazlewood, C. F., & Jurida, G. (1997). Response of pain to static magnetic fields in
postpolio patients: A double-blind pilot study. Archives of Physical and Rehabilitative Medi-
cine, 78, 1200-1203.
Weintraub, M. I. (1999). Magnetic bio-stimulation in painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy: A
novel intervention-A randomized, double-placebo crossover study. American Journal of
Pain Management, 9, 8-1 7.
Whitaker, J. (1997). NCAHF Posts Names of 2,500 Physicians on Quack List. Letter to President
of Loma Linda University, 7/97. <http:llwwwlinternetwks.com/pauling/quack.html~
Whitaker, J. ( 1999). An effective cancer therapy that challenges convention. Health & Healing, 9,
1-4.
Wolfe, S. M., Sasich, L. D., &Hope, R.-E. (1999). Worst Pills Best Pills (Revised ed.). New York:
Pocket Books.
Zammit, V. A., Waterman, I. J., Topping, D., & McKay, G . (2001). lnsulin stimulation of hepatic
triacylglycerol secretion and the etiology of insulin resistance. Journal of Nutrition, 131,
2074-2077.

Disclaimer
Any recommendations herein are based on studies published in peer-reviewed scientific journals. I
am not an M.D. and cannot engage in the practice of medicine. My degrees are as follows: B.S. in
Chemistry from the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy and Science, and a Ph.D. in Organic Chem-
istry from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. My experience includes about 10 years of
exploratory drug development at the former, now called the University of the Sciences in Philadel-
phia, and 4 years at the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy, where the major effort was on syn-
thesis of potential anticancer drugs under contract with the National Cancer Institute (NCI). I also
wrote the chapter on Cancer Chemotherapy in the 2nd and 3rd editions of W. 0 . Foye (Ed.), Prin-
ciples of Medicinal Chemistry; this also appeared as Kauffman, J. M., & Foye, W. 0. (1979), The
nature and treatment of cancer, The Apothecary, May/June, 91, 7; and Kauffman, J. M., & Foye,
W. 0 . (1 979), Antineoplastic drugs, The Apothecary, July/August, 91, 7. Later I served as consul-
tant to the Franklin Research Center in Philadelphia, PA, partially in connection with their con-
tract with the NCI to develop anticancer drugs.
 Society for Scientific Exploration
Officers
Prof. Charles R. Tolbert, President Ms. Brenda J. Dunne, Education Officer
Department of Astronomy C131, School of Engineering & Applied
P. 0 . Box 3818 Science,
University of Virginia Princeton University,
Charlottesville, VA 22903-08 18 Princeton, NJ 08544-5263

Prof. Robert G. Jahn, Vice President Prof. Ezio M. Insinna, European

D334, School of Engineering & Applied Representative
Science Bioera 1 8, Allee des Freres Lumiere
Princeton University Bussy St. Georges 77600 France
Princeton, NJ 08544-5263
Prof. Peter A. Sturrock, Emeritus
Prof. Laurence W. Fredrick, Secretary President and Founder
Department of Astronomy Varian 302
P. 0 . Box3818 Stanford University
University of Virginia Stanford, CA 94305-4060
Charlottesville, VA 22903-08 18

Prof. Jim B. Tucker, Treasurer

Department of Psychiatric Medicine
P.O. Box 800152
University of Virginia
Charlottesville. VA 22908

Council
Dr. Marsha Adams Dr. Peter R. Phillips
1100 Bear Gulch Rd. Department of Physics
Woodside, CA 94062 Washington University
St. Louis, MO 63 130
Dr. Stephan Baumann
fMR1 Project Director Dr. Harold E. Puthoff
Psychology Software Tools, Inc. Institute for Advanced Studies-Austin
2050 Ardmore Blvd. 4030 W. Braker Ln., Suite 300
Pittsburgh, PA 1522 1 Austin, TX 78759-5329

Dr. John S. Derr Dr. Beverly Rubik

Albq. Seismology Center Institute for Frontier Science
Albuquerque, NM 87 1 15 6114 LaSalle Avenue, #605
Oakland, CA 946 1 1
Dr. Wayne B. Jonas
Dept. of Family Medicine Dr. Robert M. Wood
4301 Jones Bridge Road 1727 Candlestick Ln.
Bethesda, MD 208 14 Newport Beach, CA 92660

Dr. Roger D. Nelson

C 13 1, Engineering Quad.
Princeton University
Princeton, NJ 08544