AT TITUDE AND SOCIAL COGNITION

After reading this chapter, you would be able to:

understand what are attitudes, how they are formed and changed,
analyse how people interpret and explain the behaviour of others,
comprehend how the presence of others influences our behaviour,
explain why people help or do not help others in distress, and
understand the concept of pro-social behaviour and factors affecting it.

Introduction
Explaining Social Behaviour
Nature and Components of Attitudes
A ‘Green Environment’ : The A-B-C Components of an
Attitude (Box 6.1)
Attitude Formation and Change
Attitude Formation
Attitude Change
Telling a Lie for Twenty Dollars (Box 6.2)
Attitude-Behaviour Relationship
CONTENTS Prejudice and Discrimination
Strategies for Handling Prejudice
Social Cognition
Schemas and Stereotypes
Key Terms
Impression Formation and Explaining
Summary
Behaviour of Others through Attributions
Impression Formation Review Questions
Attribution of Causality Project Ideas
Behaviour in the Presence of Others Weblinks
Pro-social Behaviour Pedagogical Hints
Factors Affecting Pro-social Behaviour

106
Psychology

2020-21
 Social psychology is that branch of psychology which investigates how the
behaviour of individuals is affected by others and the social environment.
All of us form attitudes, or ways of thinking about specific topics and people.
We also form impressions about persons we meet, and assign causes to
Introduction their behaviour. Besides, our own behaviour gets influenced by other
individuals and groups. In some situations, people show pro-social
behaviour, that is, helping the needy and the distressed, without expecting
anything in return. Many of these social behaviours seem to be simple. Yet,
explaining the processes that lie behind these behaviours is a complex matter.
This chapter will describe the basic ideas related to attitudes, social cognition
and pro-social behaviour as explained by social psychologists.

the ways they do — that is, we assign causes

EXPLAINING SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
to the behaviour shown in specific social
Social behaviour is a necessary part of situations. This pr ocess is called
human life, and being social means much attribution. Very often, impression
more than merely being in the company of formation and attributions are influenced
others. You may recall from what you by attitudes. These three processes are
studied in Class XI that social psychology examples of mental activities related to the
deals with all behaviour that takes place in gathering and interpretation of information
the actual, imagined, or implied presence about the social world, collectively called
of others. Take this simple example: if you social cognition. Moreover, social cognition
have to memorise a poem and recite it, you is activated by cognitive units called
may have no problem in doing this when schemas. Cognitive processes cannot be
you are by yourself. But if you have to recite directly seen; they have to be inferred on
this poem to an audience, your performance the basis of externally shown behaviour.
might get influenced, because you are now There are other examples of social influence
in a social situation. Even imagining that that are in the form of observable behaviour.
people are listening to your recitation Two such examples are social facilitation/
(although they may not be physically inhibition, i.e. the improvement/decline in
present) may change your performance. performance in the presence of others, and
This is just one example that demonstrates helping, or pro-social behaviour, i.e.
how our social environment influences our responding to others who are in need or
thoughts, emotions and behaviour in distress. In order to understand completely
complex ways. Social psychologists examine how the social context influences the
various forms of social behaviour, and try individual, it is necessary to study both
to explain their basis. Because of social social-cognitive processes and social
influences, people form views, or attitudes behaviour. Social psychologists have shown
about people, and about different issues in that one must go beyond common sense
life, that exist in the form of behavioural and folk wisdom in order to explain how
tendencies. When we meet people, we make people observe and make sense of their own
inferences about their personal qualities. and others’ diverse behaviours. Through
This is called impression formation. We systematic and objective observations, and
are also interested in why people behave in by adopting scientific methods, it is possible

107
Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition

2020-21
to establish logical cause-and-effect these views are more than ‘opinions’; they
relationships that explain social behaviour. are examples of attitudes.
This chapter will give an account of the All definitions of attitudes agree that an
fundamental aspects of the topics attitude is a state of the mind, a set of views,
mentioned above. We will begin with a or thoughts, regarding some topic (called
description of attitudes. the ‘attitude object’), which have an
evaluative feature (positive, negative or
neutral quality). It is accompanied by an
NATURE AND COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES
emotional component, and a tendency to
For a few minutes quietly do the following act in a particular way with regard to the
mental exercise. Today, how many times did attitude object. The thought component is
you tell yourself : “In my opinion…” or referred to as the cognitive aspect, the
“Others may say so and so, but I feel…”? emotional component is known as the
What you fill in the blanks are called affective aspect, and the tendency to act
opinions. Now continue the exercise : how is called the behavioural (or conative)
important are these opinions to you? The aspect. Taken together, these three aspects
topics of some of these opinions may be only have been referred to as the A-B-C
moderately important to you; they are components (Af fective-Behavioural-
simply ways of thinking, and it does not Cognitive components) of attitude. Note that
matter much to you that others agree or attitudes are themselves not behaviour, but
disagree with your views. On the other they represent a tendency to behave or act
hand, you may find that some other topics in certain ways. They are part of cognition,
are extremely important to you. If someone along with an emotional component, and
opposes or challenges your views about cannot be observed from outside. Box 6.1
these topics, you get emotional. You may presents an example of an attitude towards
have made some of these views part of your the environment, showing the relationship
behaviour. In other words, if your views are between the three components.
not merely thoughts, but also have Attitudes have to be distinguished from
emotional and action components, then two other closely related concepts, namely,

Box
6.1 A ‘Green Environment’ : The A-B-C Components of an Attitude

Suppose a group of people in your neighbourhood start a tree plantation campaign as part
of a ‘green environment’ movement. Based on sufficient information about the environment,
your view towards a ‘green environment’ is positive (cognitive or ‘C’ component, along with
the evaluative aspect). You feel very happy when you see greenery. You feel sad and angry
when you see trees being cut down. These aspects reflect the affective (emotional), or ‘A’
component of the same attitude. Now suppose you also actively participate in the tree
plantation campaign. This shows the behavioural or ‘B’ component of your attitudes towards
a ‘green environment’. In general, we expect all three components to be consistent with
each other, that is, in the same direction. However, such consistency may not necessarily
be found in all situations. For example, it is quite possible that the cognitive aspect of your
‘green environment’ attitude is very strong, but the affective and behavioural components
may be relatively weaker. Or, the cognitive and affective components may be strong and
positive, but the behavioural component may be neutral. Therefore, predicting one
component on the basis of the other two may not always give us the correct picture about
an attitude.

108
Psychology

2020-21
beliefs and values. Beliefs refer to the allow for neutral attitudes. In this example,
cognitive component of attitudes, and form a neutral attitude towards nuclear research
the ground on which attitudes stand, such would be shown by a rating of 3 on the same
as belief in God, or belief in democracy as a scale. A neutral attitude would have neither
political ideology. Values are attitudes or positive nor negative valence.
beliefs that contain a ‘should’ or ‘ought’
Extremeness : The extremeness of an
aspect, such as moral or ethical values. One
attitude indicates how positive or negative
example of a value is the idea that one
an attitude is. T aking the nuclear
should work hard, or that one should
research example given above, a rating of
always be honest, because honesty is the
1 is as extreme as a rating of 5 : they are
best policy. Values are formed when a
only in the opposite directions (valence).
particular belief or attitude becomes an
Ratings of 2 and 4 are less extreme. A
inseparable part of the person’s outlook on
neutral attitude, of course, is lowest on
life. Consequently, values are difficult to
extremeness.
change.
What is the purpose served by an Simplicity or Complexity (multiplexity) :
attitude? We find that attitudes provide a This feature refers to how many attitudes
background that makes it easier for a there are within a broader attitude. Think
person to decide how to act in new of an attitude as a family containing several
situations. For example, our attitude ‘member’ attitudes. In case of various topics,
towards foreigners may indirectly provide such as health and world peace, people hold
a mental ‘layout’ or ‘blueprint’ for the way many attitudes instead of single attitude.
in which we should behave whenever we An attitude system is said to be ‘simple’ if it
meet one. contains only one or a few attitudes, and
In addition to the affective, cognitive and ‘complex’ if it is made up of many attitudes.
behavioural components, attitudes also Consider the example of attitude towards
have other properties. Four significant health and well-being. This attitude system
features of attitudes are : Valence (positivity is likely to consist of several ‘member’
or negativity), Extremeness, Simplicity or attitudes, such as one’s concept of physical
Complexity (multiplexity), and Centrality. and mental health, views about happiness
and well-being, and beliefs about how one
Valence (positivity or negativity) : The
should achieve health and happiness. By
valence of an attitude tells us whether an
contrast, the attitude towards a particular
attitude is positive or negative towards the
person is likely to consist of mainly one
attitude object. Suppose an attitude (say,
attitude. The multiple member-attitudes
towards nuclear research) has to be
within an attitude system should not be
expressed on a 5-point scale, ranging from
confused with the three components
1 (Very bad), 2 (Bad), 3 (Neutral — neither
described earlier. Each member attitude
good nor bad), and 4 (Good), to 5 (Very
that belongs to an attitude system also has
good). If an individual rates her/his view
A-B-C components.
towards nuclear research as 4 or 5, this is
clearly a positive attitude. This means that Centrality : This refers to the role of a
the person likes the idea of nuclear research particular attitude in the attitude system.
and thinks it is something good. On the An attitude with greater centrality would
other hand, if the rating is 1 or 2, the influence the other attitudes in the system
attitude is negative. This means that the much more than non-central (or peripheral)
person dislikes the idea of nuclear research, attitudes would. For example, in the
and thinks it is something bad. We also attitude towards world peace, a negative

109
Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition

2020-21
attitude towards high military expenditure • Learning attitudes by being rewarded or
may be present as a core or central attitude punished : If an individual is praised for
that influences all other attitudes in the showing a particular attitude, chances
multiple attitude system. are high that s/he will develop that
attitude further. For example, if a
ATTITUDE FORMATION AND CHANGE teenager does yogasanas regularly, and
gets the honour of being ‘Miss Good
Attitude Formation Health’ in her school, she may develop
a positive attitude towards yoga and
One important question that psychologists health in general. Similarly, if a child
are interested in answering is : how are constantly falls ill because s/he eats
attitudes formed? Like many other thoughts junk food instead of proper meals, then
and concepts that develop and become part the child is likely to develop a negative
of our cognitive system, attitudes towards attitude towards junk food, and also a
different topics, things and people also are positive attitude towards eating healthy
formed as we interact with others. However, food.
there are specific conditions that lead to the • Learning attitudes through modelling
formation of specific attitudes. (observing others) : Often it is not
In general, attitudes are lear ned through association, or through reward
through one’s own experiences, and and punishment, that we learn
through interaction with others. There are attitudes. Instead, we learn them by
a few research studies that show some sort observing others being rewarded or
of inborn aspect of attitudes, but such punished for expressing thoughts, or
genetic factors influence attitudes only showing behaviour of a particular kind
indirectly, along with learning. Therefore, towards the attitude object. For
most social psychologists have focused on example, children may form a respectful
the conditions which lead to the learning attitude towards elders, by observing
of attitudes. that their parents show respect for
elders, and are appreciated for it.
Process of Attitude Formation • Learning attitudes through group or
The processes and conditions of learning cultural norms : Very often, we learn
may be different, resulting in varying attitudes through the norms of our
attitudes among people. group or culture. Norms are unwritten
• Learning attitudes by association : You rules about behaviour that everyone is
might have seen that students often supposed to show under specific
develop a liking for a particular subject circumstances. Over time, these norms
because of the teacher. This is because may become part of our social cognition,
they see many positive qualities in that in the form of attitudes. Learning
teacher; these positive qualities get attitudes through group or cultural
linked to the subject that s/he teaches, norms may actually be an example of
and ultimately get expressed in the form all three forms of learning described
of liking for the subject. In other words, above — learning through association,
a positive attitude towards the subject reward or punishment, and modelling.
is lear ned thr ough the positive For example, offering money, sweets,
association between a teacher and a fruit and flowers in a place of worship is
student. a normative behaviour in some religions.

110
Psychology

2020-21
 When individuals see that such groups. Their influence is noticeable
behaviour is shown by others, is especially during the beginning of
expected and socially approved, they adolescence, at which time it is
may ultimately develop a positive important for the individual to feel that
attitude towards such behaviour and the s/he belongs to a group. Therefore, the
associated feelings of devotion. role of reference groups in attitude
• Lear ning through exposure to formation may also be a case of learning
information : Many attitudes are learned through reward and punishment.
in a social context, but not necessarily 3. Personal Experiences : Many attitudes
in the physical presence of others. ar e for med, not in the family
T oday, with the huge amount of environment or through reference
infor mation that is being provided groups, but through direct personal
through various media, both positive experiences which bring about a drastic
and negative attitudes are being formed. change in our attitude towards people
By reading the biographies of self- and our own life. Here is a real-life
actualised persons, an individual may example. A driver in the army went
develop a positive attitude towards hard through a personal experience that
work and other aspects as the means of transformed his life. On one mission, he
achieving success in life. narrowly escaped death although all his
companions got killed. Wondering about
Factors that Influence Attitude Formation the purpose of his own life, he gave up
The following factors provide the context for his job in the army, returned to his
the learning of attitudes through the native village in Maharashtra, and
processes described above. worked actively as a community leader.
Through a purely personal experience
1. Family and School Environment : this individual evolved a strong positive
Particularly in the early years of life, attitude towards community upliftment.
parents and other family members play His efforts completely changed the face
a significant role in shaping attitude of his village.
for mation. Later, the school
environment becomes an important 4. Media-related Influences : Technological
background for attitude formation. advances in recent times have made
Learning of attitudes within the family audio-visual media and the Internet very
and school usually takes place by powerful sources of information that
association, through rewards and lead to attitude formation and change.
In addition, school level textbooks also
punishments, and through modelling.
influence attitude formation. These
2. Reference Groups : Reference groups sources first strengthen the cognitive
indicate to an individual the norms and affective components of attitudes,
regarding acceptable behaviour and and subsequently may also affect the
ways of thinking. Thus, they reflect behavioural component. The media can
learning of attitudes through group or exert both good and bad influences on
cultural nor ms. Attitudes towards attitudes. On one hand, the media and
various topics, such as political, Internet make people better informed
r eligious and social groups, than other modes of communication. On
occupations, national and other issues the other hand, there may be no check
are often developed through reference on the nature of information being

111
Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition

2020-21
 gathered, and therefore no control over between the P-O attitude, O-X attitude, and
the attitudes that are being formed, or P-X attitude. This is because imbalance is
the direction of change in the existing logically uncomfortable. Therefore, the
attitudes. The media can be used to attitude changes in the direction of balance.
create consumerist attitudes where Imbalance is found when (i) all three
none existed, and can also be harnessed sides of the P-O-X triangle are negative, or
to create positive attitudes to facilitate (ii) two sides are positive, and one side is
social harmony. negative. Balance is found when (i) all three
sides are positive, or (ii) two sides are
Attitude Change negative, and one side is positive.
During the process of attitude formation, Consider the example of dowry as an
and also after this process, attitudes may attitude topic (X). Suppose a person (P) has
be changed and modified through various a positive attitude towards dowry (P-X
influences. Some attitudes change more positive). P is planning to get his son
than others do. Attitudes that are still in married to the daughter of some person (O)
the formative stage, and are more like who has a negative attitude towards dowry
opinions, are much more likely to change (O-X negative). What would be the nature
compared to attitudes that have become of the P-O attitude, and how would it
firmly established, and have become a part determine balance or imbalance in the
of the individual’s values. From a practical situation? If O initially has a positive
point of view, bringing about a change in attitude towards P, the situation would be
people’s attitudes is of interest to unbalanced. P-X is positive, O-P is positive,
community leaders, politicians, producers but O-X is negative. That is, there are two
of consumer goods, advertisers, and others. positives and one negative in the triangle.
Unless we find out how attitudes change, This is a situation of imbalance. One of the
and what conditions account for such three attitudes will therefore have to
change, it would not be possible to take change. This change could take place in the
steps to bring about attitude change. P-X relationship (P starts disliking dowry
as a custom), or in the O-X relationship (O
Process of Attitude Change starts liking dowry as a custom), or in the
O-P relationship (O starts disliking P). In
Three major concepts that draw attention short, an attitude change will have to take
to some important processes in attitude place so that there will be three positive
change are described below : relationships, or two negative and one
(a) The concept of balance, proposed by positive relationship, in the triangle.
Fritz Heider is sometimes described in the (b) The concept of cognitive dissonance
form of the ‘P-O-X’ triangle, which was proposed by Leon Festinger. It
represents the relationships between three emphasises the cognitive component. Here
aspects or components of the attitude. P is the basic idea is that the cognitive
the person whose attitude is being studied, components of an attitude must be
O is another person, and X is the topic ‘consonant’ (opposite of ‘dissonant’), i.e.,
towards which the attitude is being studied they should be logically in line with each
(attitude object). It is also possible that all other. If an individual finds that two
three are persons. cognitions in an attitude are dissonant,
The basic idea is that an attitude then one of them will be changed in
changes if there is a state of imbalance the direction of consonance. For example,

112
Psychology

2020-21
think about the following ideas attitude, or attitude system, must be in the
(‘cognitions’) : same direction. Each element should
Cognition I : Pan masala causes logically fall in line with other elements. If
mouth cancer which is fatal. this does not happen, then the person
Cognition II : I eat pan masala. experiences a kind of mental discomfort, i.e.
Holding these two ideas or cognitions the sense that ‘something is not quite right’
will make any individual feel that something in the attitude system. In such a state, some
is ‘out of tune’, or dissonant, in the attitude aspect in the attitude system changes in
towards pan masala. Therefore, one of these the direction of consistency, because our
ideas will have to be changed, so that cognitive system r equires logical
consonance can be attained. In the example consistency.
given above, in order to remove or reduce (c) The two-step concept was proposed by
the dissonance, I will stop eating pan S.M. Mohsin, an Indian psychologist.
masala (change Cognition II). This would According to him, attitude change takes
be the healthy, logical and sensible way of place in the form of two steps. In the first
reducing dissonance. step, the target of change identifies with the
Festinger and Carlsmith, two social source. The ‘target’ is the person whose
psychologists, conducted an experiment attitude is to be changed. The ‘source’ is
that showed how cognitive dissonance the person through whose influence the
works (see Box 6.2). change is to take place. Identification
Both balance and cognitive dissonance means that the target has liking and regard
are examples of cognitive consistency. for the source. S/he puts herself/himself
Cognitive consistency means that two in the place of the target, and tries to feel
components, aspects or elements of the like her/him. The source must also have a

Telling a Lie for Twenty Dollars Box

6.2
After participating in a very boring experiment, a group of students were asked to tell
another group of students waiting outside that the experiment was very interesting. For
telling this lie to the waiting students, half of the first group of students was paid $ 1, and
the other half were paid $ 20. After some weeks, the participants of the boring experiment
were asked to recall the experiment, and to say how interesting they had found that
experiment to be. The responses showed that the $ 1 group described the experiment as
more interesting than the $ 20 group. The explanation was : the $ 1 students changed
their attitude towards the experiment because they experienced cognitive dissonance.
In the $ 1 group,
The initial cognitions would be : The changed cognitions would be:
(Dissonant cognitions) (Dissonance reduced)
“The experiment was very boring” ; “The experiment was actually interesting” ;
“I told the waiting students that it “I told the waiting students that it was
was interesting”; interesting” ;
“I told a lie for only $ 1.” “I would not have told a lie for only $ 1.”

The $ 20 group did not experience cognitive dissonance. So, they did not change their
attitude towards the experiment, and rated it as very boring.
The cognitions in the $ 20 (No dissonance) group would be :
“The experiment was very boring”;
“I told the waiting students that it was interesting”;
“I told a lie because I was paid $ 20.”

113
Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition

2020-21
positive attitude towards the target, and the central attitudes are more difficult to change
regard and attraction becomes mutual. In than the less extreme, and peripheral (less
the second step, the source herself/himself significant) attitudes are. Simple attitudes
shows an attitude change, by actually are easier to change than multiple
changing her/him behaviour towards the attitudes are.
attitude object. Observing the source’s In addition, one must also consider the
changed attitude and behaviour, the target direction and extent of attitude change. An
also shows an attitude change through attitude change may be congruent — it may
behaviour. This is a kind of imitation or change in the same direction as the existing
observational learning. attitude (for example, a positive attitude
Consider the following example of two- may become more positive, or a negative
step attitude change. Preeti reads in the attitude may become more negative). For
newspapers that a particular soft drink that instance, suppose a person has a somewhat
she enjoys is extremely harmful. But Preeti positive attitude towards empowerment of
sees that her favourite sportsperson has women. Reading about a successful woman
been advertising the same soft drink. She may make this attitude more positive. This
has identified herself with the sportsperson, would be a congruent change. On the other
and would like to imitate her/him. Now, hand, an attitude change may be
suppose the sportsperson wishes to change incongruent — it may change in a direction
people’s attitude towards this soft drink opposite to the existing attitude (for example,
from positive to negative. The sportsperson a positive attitude becomes less positive, or
must first show positive feelings for her/ negative, or a negative attitude becomes less
his fans, and then actually change her/his negative, or positive). In the example just
own habit of consuming that soft drink given, after reading about successful women,
(Step I) — perhaps by substituting it with a a person may think that women might soon
health drink. If the sportsperson actually become too powerful, and neglect their
changes her/his behaviour, it is very likely family responsibilities. This may make the
that now Preeti will also change her attitude person’s existing positive attitude towards
and behaviour, and stop consuming the empowerment of women, less positive, or
harmful soft drink (Step II). even negative. If this happens, then it would
be a case of incongruent change. It has been
Factors that Influence Attitude Change found that, in general, congruent changes
Whether attitudes will change, and if so, to are easier to bring about than are the
what extent, is a question that puzzles many incongruent changes in attitudes.
Moreover, an attitude may change in the
psychologists. However, most of them agree
direction of the infor mation that is
upon the following major factors that
presented, or in a direction opposite to that
influence attitude change :
of the information presented. Posters
• Characteristics of the existing attitude : describing the importance of brushing one’s
All four properties of attitudes mentioned teeth would strengthen a positive attitude
earlier, namely, valence (positivity or towards dental care. But if people are shown
negativity), extremeness, simplicity or frightening pictures of dental cavities, they
complexity (multiplexity), and centrality may not believe the pictures, and may
or significance of the attitude, determine become less positive about dental care.
attitude change. In general, positive Research has found that fear sometimes
attitudes are easier to change than negative works well in convincing people but if a
attitudes are. Extreme attitudes, and message generates too much fear, it turns

114
Psychology

2020-21
off the receiver and has little persuasive • Message characteristics : The message
effect. is the information that is presented in order
• Source characteristics : Source to bring about an attitude change. Attitudes
credibility and attractiveness are two will change when the amount of information
features that affect attitude change. that is given about the topic is just enough,
Attitudes are more likely to change when neither too much nor too little. Whether the
the message comes from a highly credible message contains a rational or an
source rather than from a low-credible emotional appeal, also makes a difference.
source. For example, adults who are For example, an advertisement for cooking
planning to buy a laptop are more convinced food in a pressure cooker may point out
by a computer engineer who points out the that this saves fuel such as cooking gas
special features of a particular brand of (LPG) and is economical (rational appeal).
laptop, than they would be by a schoolchild Alternatively, the advertisement may say
who might give the same information. But, that pressure-cooking preserves nutrition,
if the buyers are themselves schoolchildren, and that if one cares for the family, nutrition
they may be convinced more by another would be a major concern (emotional
schoolchild advertising a laptop than they appeal) (see Figure 6.2).
would be by a professional giving the same The motives activated by the message
information (see Figure 6.1). In the case of also deter mine attitude change. For
some products such as cars, sales may example, drinking milk may be said to
increase if they are publicised, not make a person healthy and good-looking,
necessarily by experts, but by popular or more energetic and more successful at
public figures. one’s job.

My laptop is my key
to success — 100 GB
storage capacity, My laptop is my key
light in weight, can to success — 100 GB
do wonders for me !! storage capacity,
Buy one now, and light in weight, can
see how you grow !! do wonders for me !!
Buy one now, and
see how you grow !!

Picture A Picture B

Fig.6.1 : Which Picture will Make You More Eager to Buy a Laptop – Picture A, or Picture B ? Why?

115
Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition

2020-21
 Rational appeal Emotional appeal
(saving money) (caring for your family)

Are you spending too If you care for your

much on cooking gas? family, nothing is
Switch to the pressure more important than
cooker, and say nutrition. Switch to
goodbye to your the pressure cooker,
budget problems! and ensure healthy
eating!

Fig.6.2 : Rational and Emotional Appeals

Finally, the mode of spreading letters and pamphlets, or even through

the message plays a significant role. mass media. For example, a positive
Face-to-face transmission of the message attitude towards Oral Rehydration Salts
is usually more effective than indirect (ORS) for young children is more effectively
transmission, as for instance, through created if community social workers and

“ORS will
protect
your child
“ORS will
from heat
protect your
in the
child from
summer”
heat in the
summer”

Fig.6.3 : Face-to-face Interaction versus Media Transmission. Which one works better? Why?

116
Psychology

2020-21
doctors spread the message by talking to • the person’s behaviour is not being
people directly, than by only describing the watched or evaluated by others, and
benefits of ORS on the radio (see Figure 6.3). • the person thinks that the behaviour
These days transmission through visual would have a positive consequence, and
media such as television and the Internet therefore, intends to engage in that
are similar to face-to-face interaction, but behaviour.
not a substitute for the latter.
In the days when Americans were said
• Target characteristics : Qualities of the to be prejudiced against the Chinese,
target, such as persuasibility, strong Richard LaPiere, an American social
prejudices, self-esteem, and intelligence psychologist, conducted the following
influence the likelihood and extent of study. He asked a Chinese couple to travel
attitude change. People, who have a more across the United States, and stay in
open and flexible personality, change more different hotels. Only once during these
easily. Advertisers benefit most from such occasions they were refused service by one
people. People with strong prejudices are of the hotels. Sometime later, LaPiere sent
less prone to any attitude change than those out questionnaires to managers of hotels
who do not hold strong prejudices. Persons and tourist homes in the same areas where
who have a low self-esteem, and do not have the Chinese couple had travelled, asking
sufficient confidence in themselves, change them if they would give accommodation to
their attitudes more easily than those who Chinese guests. A very large percentage said
are high on self-esteem. More intelligent that they would not do so. This response
people may change their attitudes less easily showed a negative attitude towards the
than those with lower intelligence. However, Chinese, which was inconsistent with the
sometimes more intelligent persons change positive behaviour that was actually shown
their attitudes more willingly than less towards the travelling Chinese couple.
intelligent ones, because they base their Thus, attitudes may not always predict
attitude on more information and thinking. actual pattern of one’s behaviour.
Attitude-Behaviour Relationship
We usually expect behaviour to follow Cut out an advertisement from a Activity
newspaper or magazine, that 6.1
logically from attitudes. However, an
contains something special and
individual’s attitudes may not always be catches your attention. Write down
exhibited through behaviour. Likewise, the following details about that
one’s actual behaviour may be contrary to advertisement, and present it to your
one’s attitude towards a particular topic. class.
Psychologists have found that there • The topic of the advertisement
(for example, whether the
would be consistency between attitudes and advertisement is about a
behaviour when : consumer product, some food, a
• the attitude is strong, and occupies a company, a health matter, a
central place in the attitude system, national theme, etc.).
• Good and bad consequences of
• the person is aware of her/his attitude, the advertisement.
• there is very little or no external pressure • Whether it contains an emotional
for the person to behave in a particular appeal or a rational appeal.
way. For example, when there is no • Whether it contains a popular
figure : an expert source, or a
group pressure to follow a particular
well-liked person.
norm,

117
Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition

2020-21
 Sometimes it is behaviour that decides Prejudices can exist without being
the attitude. In the experiment by Festinger shown in the form of discrimination.
and Carlsmith (see Box 6.2), students who Similarly, discrimination can be shown
got only one dollar for telling others that without prejudice. Yet, the two go together
the experiment was interesting, discovered very often. Wherever prejudice and
that they liked the experiment. That is, on discrimination exist, conflicts are very
the basis of their behaviour (telling others likely to arise between groups within the
that the experiment was interesting, for only same society. Our own society has
a small amount of money), they concluded witnessed many deplorable instances of
that their attitude towards the experiment discrimination, with and without prejudice,
was positive (“I would not have told a lie for based on gender, religion, community,
this small amount of money, which means caste, physical handicap, and illnesses such
that the experiment was actually as AIDS. Moreover, in many cases
interesting”). discriminatory behaviour can be curbed by
law. But, the cognitive and emotional
components of prejudice are more difficult
PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION to change.
Prejudices are examples of attitudes Social psychologists have shown that
towards a particular group. They are prejudice has one or more of the following
usually negative, and in many cases, may sources :
be based on stereotypes (the cognitive • Lear ning : Like other attitudes,
component) about the specific group. As will prejudices can also be learned through
association, reward and punishment,
be discussed below in the section on social
observing others, group or cultural
cognition, a stereotype is a cluster of ideas
norms and exposure to information that
regarding the characteristics of a specific
encourages prejudice. The family,
group. All members belonging to this
reference groups, personal experiences
group are assumed to possess these
and the media may play a role in the
characteristics. Often, stereotypes consist
learning of prejudices (see section on
of undesirable characteristics about the
‘Attitude Formation and Change’).
target group, and they lead to negative
People who learn prejudiced attitudes
attitudes or prejudices towards members
may develop a ‘prejudiced personality’,
of specific groups. The cognitive component
and show low adjusting capacity,
of prejudice is frequently accompanied by
anxiety, and feelings of hostility against
dislike or hatred, the affective component.
the outgroup.
Prejudice may also get translated into • A strong social identity and ingroup bias :
discrimination, the behavioural component, Individuals who have a strong sense of
whereby people behave in a less positive social identity and have a very positive
way towards a particular target group attitude towards their own group boost
compared to another group which they this attitude by holding negative
favour. History contains numerous attitudes towards other groups. These
examples of discrimination based on race are shown as prejudices.
and social class or caste. The genocide • Scapegoating : This is a phenomenon by
committed by the Nazis in Germany against which the majority group places the
Jewish people is an extreme example of how blame on a minority outgroup for its own
prejudice can lead to hatred, discrimination social, economic or political problems.
and mass killing of innocent people. The minority is too weak or too small in

118
Psychology

2020-21
 number to defend itself against such tackling the problem of a strong ingroup
accusations. Scapegoating is a group- bias.
based way of expressing frustration, and • Increasing intergroup contact allows for
it often results in negative attitudes or direct communication, removal of
prejudice against the weaker group. mistrust between the groups, and even
• Kernel of truth concept : Sometimes discovery of positive qualities in the
people may continue to hold stereotypes outgroup. However, these strategies are
because they think that, after all, there successful only if :
must be some truth, or ‘kernel of truth’ - the two groups meet in a cooperative
in what everyone says about the other rather than competitive context,
group. Even a few examples ar e - close interactions between the
sufficient to support the ‘kernel of truth’ groups helps them to know each
idea. other better, and
• Self-fulfilling prophecy : In some cases, - the two groups are not different in
the group that is the target of prejudice power or status.
is itself responsible for continuing the • Highlighting individual identity rather
prejudice. The target group may behave than group identity, thus weakening the
in ways that justify the prejudice, that importance of group (both ingroup and
outgroup) as a basis of evaluating the
is, confirm the negative expectations.
other person. More details about social
For example, if the target group is
identity and intergroup conflict have
described as ‘dependent’ and therefore
been presented in the next chapter on
unable to make progress, the members
Social Influence and Group Processes.
of this target group may actually behave
in a way that proves this description to
be true. In this way, they strengthen SOCIAL COGNITION
the existing prejudice.
‘Cognition’ refers to all those mental
processes that deal with obtaining and
STRATEGIES FOR HANDLING PREJUDICE processing of information. Extending this
idea to the social world, the term ‘social
Knowing about the causes or sources would cognition’ refers to all those psychological
be the first step in handling prejudice. Thus, processes that deal with the gathering and
the strategies for handling prejudice would processing of information related to social
be effective if they aim at : objects. These include all the processes that
(a) minimising opportunities for learning help in understanding, explaining and
prejudices, interpreting social behaviour.
(b) changing such attitudes, The processing of information related to
(c) de-emphasising a narrow social identity social objects (particularly individuals,
based on the ingroup, and groups, people, relationships, social issues,
(d) discouraging the tendency towards self- and the like) differs from the processing of
fulfilling prophecy among the victims of information related to physical objects.
prejudice. People as social objects may themselves
These goals can be accomplished change as the cognitive process takes place.
through : For instance, a teacher who observes a
• Education and infor mation student in school may draw conclusions
dissemination, for correcting stereotypes about her/him that are quite different from
related to specific target groups, and the conclusions drawn by the student’s

119
Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition

2020-21
mother, who observes her/him at home. The The inferences you have drawn are not the
student may show a difference in her/his result of your logical thinking or direct
behaviour, depending on who is watching experience, but are based on pre-conceived
her/him — the teacher or the mother. ideas about a particular group. The next
Social cognition is guided by mental units time you actually meet a member of
called schemas. group G, your impression of this person,
and your behaviour towards her/him will
be influenced by your stereotype. It was
SCHEMAS AND STEREOTYPES
mentioned earlier that stereotypes provide
A schema is defined as a mental structure fertile ground for the growth of prejudices
that provides a framework, set of rules or and biases against specific groups. But
guidelines for processing information about prejudices can also develop without
any object. Schemas (or ‘schemata’) are the stereotypes.
basic units stored in our memory, and
function as shorthand ways of processing IMPRESSION FORMATION AND EXPLAINING
information, thus reducing the time and BEHAVIOUR OF OTHERS THROUGH
mental effort required in cognition. In the
ATTRIBUTIONS
case of social cognition, the basic units are
social schemas. Some attitudes may also Every social interaction begins with the
function like social schemas. We use many formation of an impression about the
different schemas, and come to know about person(s) we meet. Public figures and
them through analysis and examples. applicants appearing for job interviews are
Most of the schemas are in the form of good examples that show it is very
categories or classes. Schemas that important to ‘make a good impression’ on
function in the form of categories are called others. The process of coming to know a
prototypes, which are the entire set of person can be broadly divided into
features or qualities that help us to define two parts : (a) Impression formation, and
an object completely. In social cognition, (b) Attribution.
category-based schemas that are related to The person who forms the impression
groups of people are called stereotypes. is called the perceiver. The individual
These are category-based schemas that are about whom the impression is formed is
overgeneralised, are not directly verified, called the target. The perceiver gathers
and do not allow for exceptions. For information, or responds to a given
example, suppose you have to define a information, about the qualities of the
group G. If you have never directly known target, organises this information, and
or interacted with a member of this group, draws inferences about the target.
you will most likely use your ‘general In attribution, the perceiver goes further,
knowledge’ about the typical member of and explains why the target behaved in a
group G. To that information you will add particular way. Attaching or assigning a
your likes and dislikes. If you have heard cause for the target’s behaviour is the main
more positive things about group G, then idea in attribution. Often perceivers may
your social schema about the whole group form only an impression about the target,
will be more positive than negative. On the but if the situation requires it, they may
other hand, if you have heard more negative also make attributions to the target.
things about group G, your social schema Impression formation and attribution are
will be in the form of a negative stereotype. influenced by :

120
Psychology

2020-21
• the nature of information available to if we are told that a person is ‘tidy’ and
the perceiver, ‘punctual’, we are likely to think that
• social schemas in the perceiver this person must also be ‘hard-working’.
(including stereotypes),
• personality characteristics of the Activity
This exercise will help you to see the
perceiver, and factors in impression formation. You 6.2
• situational factors. will need two participants, a girl and
a boy (who are not students in your
Impression Formation class, and who have not read about
this topic).
The following aspects have been found in Give the following instruction to
impression formation : the participants. For the female
• The process of impression formation participant, please write a male name
consists of the following three sub- in the blank. For the male participant,
processes : please write a female name.
“_________ is a hard-working
(a) Selection : we take into account only student. In your opinion, which of the
some bits of information about the following qualities would also be
target person, found in this student? Please
(b) Organisation : the selected underline all those qualities.”
infor mation is combined in a Intelligent Helpful Selfish
systematic way, and Friendly Punctual Dishonest
Nervous Hot-tempered
(c) Inference : we draw a conclusion See (a) what qualities have been
about what kind of person the chosen?, and (b) whether there is a
target is. difference between the female and
• Some specific qualities influence the male participants?
impression formation more than other
traits do.
• The order or sequence in which Attribution of Causality
information is presented affects the kind After forming an impression, we often go
of impression for med. Mostly, the through the process of assigning causes to
infor mation presented first has a a person’s behaviour. This is also a
stronger effect than the information systematic process, as indicated by the
presented at the end. This is called the r esearches done on attribution. The
primacy effect (first impressions are the following aspects of attribution have been
lasting impressions). However, if the found.
perceiver may be asked to pay attention • When we assign a cause to a person’s
to all the information, and not merely behaviour, we can broadly classify the
to the first infor mation, whatever cause as being internal — something
information comes at the end may have within the person, or external —
a stronger influence. This is known as something outside the person. For
the recency effect. example, if we see a person A hitting
• We have a tendency to think that a target another person B, as observers we may
person who has one set of positive explain the hitting behaviour by saying
qualities must also be having other that (i) A hit B because A is a hot-
specific positive qualities that are tempered person, which is an internal
associated with the first set. This is (personality-related) cause, or that (ii) A
known as the halo effect. For example, hit B because B behaved in a nasty way,

121
Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition

2020-21
 which is an exter nal, situational his own positive and negative experiences
cause. (actor-role), and the attribution made for
• When people make attributions for another person’s positive and negative
success and failure, the causes they give experiences (observer-role). This is called
can be classified into internal or external the actor-observer effect. For example,
factors, and also into stable or unstable if you yourself get good marks in a test,
factors. Bernard Wiener suggested you will attribute it to your own ability
a classification which is shown in or hard work (actor -role, inter nal
Figure 6.4. Stable factors refer to those attribution for a positive experience). If
causes that do not change with time, you get bad marks, you will say that this
while unstable factors are those that do was because you were unlucky, or that
change. the test was too difficult (actor-role,
• In making attributions, there is an external attribution for a negative
overall tendency for people to give experience). On the other hand, if one
greater weightage to inter nal or of your classmates gets good marks in
dispositional factors, than to external or the test, you will attribute her/his
situational factors. This is called the success to good luck or an easy test
fundamental attribution error. This (observer-role, external attribution for
tendency is stronger in some cultures a positive experience). If the same
than it is in others. For instance, classmate gets bad marks, you are likely
research shows that Indians tend to to say that her/his failure was because
make more exter nal (situational) of low ability or lack of effort (observer-
attributions than Americans do. role, internal attribution for a negative
• There is a dif ference between the experience). The basic reason for the
attribution made for success, and the difference between the actor and
attribution made for failure. In general, observer roles is that people want to
people attribute success to internal have a nice image of themselves, as
factors, such as their ability or hard compared to others.
work. They attribute failure to external So far in this chapter, we have
factors, such as bad luck, the difficulty highlighted the cognitive, or thought-related
of the task, and so on. aspects of social behaviour. Let us now
• A distinction is also found between the examine some aspects of actual behaviour
attribution that a person makes for her/ that can be observed from outside.

Fig.6.4 : Wiener’s Classification of Causal Factors

122
Psychology

2020-21
 BEHAVIOUR IN THE PRESENCE OF OTHERS fear of criticism or punishment is
stronger. So the individual performs
One of the first observations made about worse in the presence of others than
social behaviour was that performance on s/he does when alone.
specific tasks is influenced by the mere • If the others present are also performing
presence of others. This is called social the same task, this is called a situation
facilitation. For example, Reena is about of co-action. In this situation, there is
to participate in a music contest. She is very social comparison and competition.
talented, yet she is feeling very nervous Once again, when the task is simple or
about the event. If you were in Reena’s a familiar one, performance is better
place, would you perform better in front of under co-action than when the person
an audience, or when you are alone? As is alone.
early as 1897, Norman Triplett observed In short, task performance can be
that individuals show better performance facilitated and improved, or inhibited and
in the presence of others, than when they worsened by the presence of others. Many
are performing the same task alone. For other kinds of social influence have been
instance, cyclists racing with each other noticed. For example, if we are working
perform better than when they cycle alone. together in a group, the larger the group,
With time more details came to be known the less effort each member puts in. This
about this phenomenon.
• Better performance in the presence of
others is because the person experiences Consider these two situations : Activity
arousal, which makes the person react Situation X. A person is performing a 6.3
in a mor e intense manner. This solo dance in front of an audience.
explanation was given by Zajonc (this Situation Y. A person is running in a
race with five other athletes.
name is pronounced to rhyme with
Which of the following factors is
‘science’). present in Situation Y, but not in
• The arousal is because the person feels Situation X?
she or he is being evaluated. Cottrell (a) Arousal
called this idea evaluation (b) Evaluation apprehension
apprehension. The person will be (c) Competition
(d) Difficult task
praised if the performance is good
Based on the given situations,
(r eward), or criticised if it is bad choose the correct alternative.
(punishment). We wish to get praise and In the presence of an audience,
avoid criticism, therefore we try to evaluation apprehension leads to :
perform well and avoid mistakes. A. Improvement in
• The nature of the task to be performed performance of both
also affects the performance in the familiar and new tasks. Yes No
B. Decline in
presence of others. For example, in the performance of both
case of a simple or familiar task, the familiar and new tasks. Yes No
person is more sure of performing well, C. Improvement in
and the eagerness to get praise or reward performance of
is stronger. So the individual performs familiar tasks, and
better in the presence of others than decline in performance
of new tasks. Yes No
s/he does when alone. But in the case
D. Arousal, which leads
of a complex or new task, the person to C. Yes No
may be afraid of making mistakes. The

123
Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition

2020-21
phenomenon is called social loafing, based behaviour, people do not show such
on diffusion of responsibility. You will read behaviour very often. Immediately after the
about social loafing in the next chapter. Mumbai blasts on 11 July, 2006, the
Diffusion of responsibility, which is often community stepped forward to help the
the basis of social loafing, can also be blast victims in any way they could. By
frequently seen in situations where people contrast, on an earlier occasion, nobody
are expected to help. We will look into this came forward to help a girl on a moving
aspect and other factors in helping suburban train in Mumbai, when her purse
behaviour in the section that follows. was being snatched. The other passengers
did nothing to help, and the girl was thrown
out of the train. Even as the girl was lying
PRO-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
injured on the railway tracks, people living
Throughout the world, doing good to others in the buildings around the area did not
and being helpful is described as a virtue. come to help her.
All religions teach us that we should help The question then is : under what
those who are in need. This behaviour is conditions, and with what motives do people
called helping or pro-social behaviour. Pro- help others? Research on pr o-social
social behaviour is very similar to ‘altruism’, behaviour has brought out several factors
which means doing something for or that affect pro-social behaviour.
thinking about the welfare of others without
any self-interest (in Latin ‘alter’ means Factors Influencing Pro-social Behaviour
‘other’, the opposite of ‘ego’ which means • Pro-social behaviour is based on an
‘self’). Some common examples of pro-social inborn, natural tendency in human
behaviour are sharing things, cooperating beings to help other members of their
with others, helping during natural own species. This inborn tendency
calamities, showing sympathy, doing facilitates survival of the species.
favours to others, and making charitable • Pro-social behaviour is influenced by
donations. learning. Individuals who are brought
Pro-social behaviour has the following up in a family environment that sets
characteristics. It must : examples of helping others, emphasises
• aim to benefit or do good to another helping as a value, and praises
person or other persons, helpfulness, and showing more pro-
• be done without expecting anything in social behaviour than individuals who
return, are brought up in a family environment
• be done willingly by the person, and not devoid of these features.
because of any kind of pressure, and • Cultural factors influence pro-social
• involve some difficulty or ‘cost’ to the behaviour. Some cultures actively
person giving help. encourage people to help the needy and
For instance, if a rich person donates a distressed. In cultures that encourage
lot of money that is obtained illegally, with independence, individuals will show less
the idea that her/his photograph and name pro-social behaviour, because people are
will appear in the newspapers, this cannot expected to take care of themselves, and
be called ‘pro-social behaviour’ although the not to depend on help from others.
donation may do good to many people. Individuals in cultures suffering from a
In spite of the great value and shortage of resources may not show a
importance attached to pro-social high level of pro-social behaviour.

124
Psychology

2020-21
• Pro-social behaviour is expressed when not get help because there are many
the situation activates certain social people standing around the scene of the
norms that require helping others. accident. Each person thinks that it is
Three norms have been mentioned in not her/his responsibility alone to give
the context of pro-social behaviour : help, and that someone else may take
(a) The norm of social responsibility : the responsibility. This phenomenon is
We should help anyone who needs called diffusion of responsibility. On
help, without considering any other the other hand, if there is only one
factor. bystander, this person is more likely to
(b) The norm of reciprocity : We should take the responsibility and actually help
help those persons who have helped the victim.
us in the past. In this chapter, you have learnt about
(c) The norm of equity : We should help the basic concepts of attitudes and social
others whenever we find that it is fair cognition, and got a glimpse of some forms
to do so. For example, many of us of social behaviour. In the next chapter, you
may feel that it is more fair to help a will read about the influence of groups on
person who has lost all belongings the individual.
in a flood, than to help a person who
has lost everything thr ough A. Go to the school library with a pile Activity
gambling. of heavy books and other articles. 6.4
• Pro-social behaviour is affected by the Outside the library, at a convenient
expected reactions of the person who is point, when you find that (a) only
being helped. For example, people might one person (bystander) is present,
be unwilling to give money to a needy (b) more than one person
(bystanders) is present, drop the
person because they feel that the person
books and articles as though that
might feel insulted, or may become happened accidentally. Observe
dependent. the following :
• Pro-social behaviour is more likely to be (a) when there was only one
shown by individuals who have a high bystander, did that person
level of empathy, that is, the capacity come forward to help you to
pick up the fallen articles ?
to feel the distress of the person who is
(b) when there was more than one
to be helped, such as Baba Saheb Amte bystander, how many of them
and Mother Teresa. Pro-social behaviour came forward to help you to
is also more likely in situations that pick up the fallen articles?
arouse empathy, such as the picture of Have a detailed class discussion.
starving children in a famine. Go through some recent
• Pro-social behaviour may be reduced by newspapers and magazines. Collect at
least one report of bystanders giving
factors such as a bad mood, being busy help. Make sure you attach
with one’s own problems, or feeling that newspaper/ magazine clippings along
the person to be helped is responsible with the report. Discuss why the
for her/his own situation (that is, when bystanders gave help in the situation
an internal attribution is made for the that is described. You can also present
need state of the other person). descriptions about people you know
personally, who have helped others in
• Pro-social behaviour may also be
emergencies. Write a brief description
reduced when the number of bystanders of those reports and present them in
is more than one. For example, the your class.
victim of a road accident sometimes does

125
Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition

2020-21
Key Terms
Actor-observer effect, Arousal, Attitudes, Attribution, Balance, Beliefs, Centrality of attitude, Co-action,
Cognitive consistency, Cognitive dissonance, Congruent attitude change, Diffusion of responsibility,
Discrimination, Empathy, Evaluation apprehension, Extremeness of attitude, Fundamental attribution
error, Halo effect, Identification, Incongruent attitude change, Kernel of truth, Persuasibility, Prejudice,
Primacy effect, Pro-social behaviour, Prototype, Recency effect, Scapegoating, Schema, Self-fulfilling
prophecy, Simplicity or complexity (multiplexity) of attitude, Social facilitation, Social loafing, Stereotype,
Valence of attitude, Values.

• Human beings have a need to interact with and relate to others, and to explain their
own as well as others’ behaviour.
• People develop attitudes, or thoughts and behavioural tendencies, through learning
processes, family and school influences, reference groups and the media. Attitudes
have an affective, cognitive and behavioural component, and can be understood in
terms of valence, extremeness, simplicity or complexity (multiplexity) and centrality.
• Attitude change takes according to the balance concept, cognitive consonance and
the two-step concept. Attitude change is affected by characteristics of the source, the
target, and the message. Negative attitudes (prejudices) towards a group often create
conflicts within a society, and are expressed through discrimination, but there are
practical strategies for handling prejudice.
• The entire set of processes involved in understanding the social world around us is
called social cognition, which is guided by mental structures known as social schemas.
One kind of social schema, a stereotype, contains overgeneralised beliefs about a
particular group, often leads to and strengthens prejudices.
• Impression formation takes place in a systematic way, and exhibits effects such as
primacy and recency, and the halo effect.
• People also assign causes to their own and others’ behaviour, and to experiences
such as success and failure, by attributing internal or external causes. Attribution
shows effects such as the fundamental attribution error and actor-observer effect.
• Because of arousal and evaluation apprehension in the presence of others,
performance of familiar tasks may improve (social facilitation) and performance of
unfamiliar or new tasks may decline (social inhibition).
• People respond to others who are in need by helping them (pro-social behaviour),
but this is determined by several factors.

Review Questions
1. Define attitude. Discuss the components of an attitude.
2. Are attitudes learnt? Explain how?
3. What are the factors that influence the formation of an attitude?
4. Is behaviour always a reflection of one’s attitude? Explain with a relevant example.
5. Highlight the importance of schemas in social cognition.
6. Differentiate between prejudice and stereotype.
7. Prejudice can exist without discrimination and vice versa. Comment.
8. Describe the important factors that influence impression formation.
9. Explain how the attribution made by an ‘actor’ would be different from that of an
‘observer’.
10. How does social facilitation take place?
11. Explain the concept of pro-social behaviour.
12. Your friend eats too much junk food, how would you be able to bring about a change
in her/his attitude towards food?

126
Psychology

2020-21
Project 1. Attitudes Towards and Awareness of Waste Management : A Survey
Ideas The problem of household garbage (domestic waste) is common in most Indian cities.
The concern for a clean environment is increasing, but we do not know to what extent
citizens know how to dispose of the garbage that collects in their household. Along
with some of your classmates, conduct a survey in your own colony to find out what
people do about household garbage. Each student may visit two houses in their colony,
and ask the heads of the household the following questions. Their answers must be
written down.
1. What do you do with old newspapers, magazines, tins, and bottles ?
2. What do you do with plastic packets, and other plastic objects (for example, toys,
containers etc.)?
3. How do you dispose of kitchen waste (e.g., vegetable and fruit peels, used tea leaves
or tea-bags, left-over food that cannot be eaten etc.)?
4. How do you dispose of other used objects that contain chemical substances (e.g.
torch cells, used or damaged CDs, cassettes, insecticide and pesticide containers
etc.)?
5. Do you put all the garbage collected in your house everyday in the same place, or do
you put different kinds of garbage in separate dustbins/waste-baskets?
6. What happens to the garbage that is collected from your house and neighbourhood
and where is it taken?
7. What is the meaning of ‘recycling’?
8. What can you do (personally) to make your colony/neighbourhood more clean?
Compare the responses collected by all the students, and see what kind of attitudes
and awareness people show about waste management at the household level.

2. Interpersonal Judgment Exercise

The following exercise will help you to see how well you and your best friend know each
other.
For each quality listed below, give ratings for yourself (Column 1) and for your best
friend in your class (Column 2). Also ask your friend to do the same kind of rating, for
himself/herself (Column 1) and for you (Column 2). Use the following rating scale :
1 2 3 4 5
Very low Low Neither low High Very high
on the quality nor high on the quality

After you and your friend have completed the ratings, copy Column 2 ratings from
your friend’s sheet on your sheet, under Column 3. Compare Column 3 ratings with
Column 1 ratings in the case of each quality. Ask your friend to do the same task – that
is, copy Column 2 ratings from your sheet on her/his sheet, under Column 3, and
compare these ratings with her/his Column 1 ratings. Enter Column 3 minus
Column 1 under Column 4.
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4
You rate You rate Rating of you Column 3
yourself your friend by your friend minus Column 1
Friendly
Tense
Sincere
Pleasant
Open to new ideas
Examine the following. Are there any zeros in Column 4? On which quality is the
difference greatest? On which quality is the difference smallest (other than zero)?

127
Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition

2020-21
 In general, have you given yourself a higher or lower rating than what your friend has given
you? Has your friend given herself/himself a higher or lower rating than what you have given
your friend? The sign of the difference (plus or minus) should be noted only to see the direction
of the difference.
The closer the ratings between Column 1 and Column 3 for both of you, the better you
know each other. You can also compare your Column 1 with your friend’s Column 1. The more
similar these two ratings are, the greater the similarity between you and your friend.

Weblinks
http://tip.psychology.org/attitude.html
http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/schema.htm
http://www.12manage.com/methods_heider_attribution_theory.html
http://www.answers.com/topic/social-facilitation

Pedagogical Hints
1. In the topic of attitudes, students
should be made to understand the
distinction between attitudes as
such (with the A-B-C components)
on one hand, and behaviour related
to the attitude, on the other.
2. To explain attitude change, students
may be encouraged to think of real-
life examples of attitude change, for
instance, attempts made by
advertisers to pr omote their
products thr ough media. Then
discuss whether these attempts to
change attitude are actually
successful or not.
3. To enable students to understand
the relationships among schemas,
pr ototypes and prejudice, give
examples of how stereotypes, as
forms of prototypes, may lead to
prejudice.
4. In the topic of social cognition,
students should be able to
understand that impression
formation and attribution are basic
cognitive processes that help in
processing information about other
persons. The role of schemas has to
be emphasised in this context.
5. Social facilitation and pro-social
behaviour must be discussed as
aspects that highlight the
behavioural rather than cognitive
aspects of social life.

128
Psychology

2020-21