medicines

Review
Himalayan Aromatic Medicinal Plants: A Review of
their Ethnopharmacology, Volatile Phytochemistry,
and Biological Activities
Rakesh K. Joshi 1 , Prabodh Satyal 2 and Wiliam N. Setzer 2, *
1 Department of Education, Government of Uttrakhand, Nainital 263001, India; raakeshjoshi@rediffmail.com
2 Department of Chemistry, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899, USA;
prabodhsatyal@gmail.com
* Correspondence: wsetzer@chemistry.uah.edu; Tel.: +1-256-824-6519; Fax: +1-256-824-6349

Academic Editor: Lutfun Nahar

Received: 24 December 2015; Accepted: 3 February 2016; Published: 19 February 2016

Abstract: Aromatic plants have played key roles in the lives of tribal peoples living in the Himalaya by
providing products for both food and medicine. This review presents a summary of aromatic medicinal
plants from the Indian Himalaya, Nepal, and Bhutan, focusing on plant species for which volatile
compositions have been described. The review summarizes 116 aromatic plant species distributed over
26 families.

Keywords: Jammu and Kashmir; Himachal Pradesh; Uttarakhand; Nepal; Sikkim; Bhutan; essential oils

1. Introduction
The Himalya Center of Plant Diversity [1] is a narrow band of biodiversity lying on the southern
margin of the Himalayas, the world’s highest mountain range with elevations exceeding 8000 m.
The plant diversity of this region is defined by the monsoonal rains, up to 10,000 mm rainfall, concentrated
in the summer, altitudinal zonation, consisting of tropical lowland rainforests, 100–1200 m asl, up to
alpine meadows, 4800–5500 m asl. Hara and co-workers have estimated there to be around 6000 species
of higher plants in Nepal, including 303 species endemic to Nepal and 1957 species restricted to the
Himalayan range [2–4]. The Indian Himalaya is home to more than 8000 species of vascular plants [5] of
which 1748 are known for their medicinal properties [6].

Medicines 2016, 3, 6; doi:10.3390/medicines3010006 www.mdpi.com/journal/medicines

Medicines 2016, 3, 6 2 of 55

Higher plants have played key roles in the lives of tribal peoples living in the Himalaya by
providing forest products for both food and medicine. Numerous wild and cultivated plants have been
utilized as curative agents since ancient times, and medicinal plants have gained importance recently,
not only as herbal medicines, but also as natural ingredients for the cosmetic industry. In this review, we
summarize aromatic medicinal plants from Bhutan, Nepal, and the Indian Himalaya of Uttarakhand,
Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir (Figure 1). We have focused the review on plant species
for which volatile compositions have been described. In searching the literature (Google Scholar),
we have used the keywords: essential oil, Himalaya, Bhutan, Nepal, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh,
and Kashmir. For essential oils from these regions that were reported in the literature, we have carried
out an additional
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 search using the plant name and the keywords, ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology. 2 of 52

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Google
Google Earth
Earth©© map of the Himalayan region.
map of the Himalayan region.

Table 1 summarizes the aromatic medicinal plants of the Himalayan region and includes
Table 1 summarizes the aromatic medicinal plants of the Himalayan region and includes
ethnopharmacological uses of the plants, essential oil compositions, and any biological activities of
ethnopharmacological uses of the plants, essential oil compositions, and any biological activities
the essential oils. In addition, we describe in more detail some important genera and species used as
of the essential oils. In addition, we describe in more detail some important genera and species used
aromatic medicinal plants in this region.
as aromatic medicinal plants in this region.
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 3 of 55

Table 1. Ethnopharmacology, biological activities, and essential oil compositions of Himalayan aromatic medicinal plants.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
The tribal people of the Sewa River area of Jammu and Kashmir, Leaf essential oil from Uttarakhand, India: α-pinene (16.8%), camphene
Abies pindrow (Royle ex D. India, use the leaves to treat bronchitis and asthma; the inner bark is None reported for Himalayan (19.9%), β-pinene (6.5%), myrcene (6.7%), limonene (21.0%) [8].
Don) Royle (Pinaceae) taken for constipation; and the cones are used as a diuretic and essential oils. Stem essential oil from Uttarakhand: α-pinene (13.8%), β-pinene (8.6%),
purgative [7]. myrcene (8.3%), limonene (24.4%) [8].
Aerial parts essential oil from Srinagar, Kashmir (Jammu and Kashmir,
The tribal people of the Sewa River area of Jammu and Kashmir,
India): β-pinene (10.6%), 1,8-cineole (15.1%), β-caryophyllene (16.2%),
Achillea millefolium L. India, use an infusion of plant as a diuretic; vapors from leaves and None reported for Himalayan
α-terpineol (0.1%), borneol (0.2%) [9]. Aerial parts essential oil from Sisso,
(Asteraceae) flowers are used to treat colds and fever; tea from leaves is given to essential oils.
Lahaul-Spiti (Himachal Pradesh, India): β-pinene (14.0%), 1,8-cineole
treat cold [7].
(3.2%), β-caryophyllene (12.5%), α-terpineol (4.4%), borneol (8.5%) [9].
Rhizome oil from Biratnagar, Nepal.
The tribal people of the Sewa River area of Jammu and Kashmir,
Artemia salina lethality (LC50 = 9.5
India, apply the leaf paste to wounds [7]. The people of Baitadi and
µg/mL), cytotoxic (MCF-7), antifungal
Darchula districts of far-western Nepal use the juice of the rhizome
(Aspergillus niger, MIC = 19.5 µg/mL) Rhizome essential oil from Biratnagar, eastern Nepal. Rhizome:
as an anthelmintic; the juice is given for stomachache [10]. In the
Acorus calamus L. [14]. (Z)-Asarone from Acorus calamus (Z)-asarone (84.0%–86.9%), (E)-asarone (1.9%–4.0%) [14]. Leaf essential oil
Rasuwa District of central Nepal [11], and the Seti River area of
(Araceae) inhibited growth of Candida albicans at from Biratnagar, Nepal: (Z)-asarone (78.1%), (E)-asarone (9.9%) [14].
western Nepal [12], the rhizome is chewed to treat coughs, colds,
0.5 mg/mL and was fungicidal at 8 Rhizome oil from Uttarakhand, India: (Z)-asarone (81.1%–92.4%) [17].
and sore throat. In the Jutpani Village, Chitwan district of central
mg/mL [15]. (Z)-Asarone inhibited
Nepal, the rhizome paste is applied to wounds and swelling to
intracellular lipid accumulation during
reduce inflammation [13].
adipocyte differentiation [16].
The people of Baitadi and Darchula districts of far-western Nepal
Leaf oil from from Biratnagar, eastern
use a leaf decoction used to treat dysentery, diarrhea, respiratory
Nepal, Culex pipiens larvicidal
tract infections, and heart ailments [10]. Tribal people in the Seti
(LC50 = 2.15 µg/mL), Leaf essential oil from Biratnagar, eastern Nepal: limonene (64.1%),
River area of western Nepal use the bark juice against diarrhea and
Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa Caenorhabditis elegans nematicidal (E)-β-ocimene (9.7%), germacrene B (4.7%) [20]. Several leaf oil samples
stomachache [12]. In India, the leaf paste is used externally to treat
(Rutaceae) (LC50 = 113 µg/mL), insecticidal from Uttarakhand, India: limonene (31.0%–90.3%), α-phellandrene
abcesses, cuts, wounds, ulcers. Fruit is taken internally for
(Reticulitermes virginicus, (trace-43.5%), (E)-β-ocimene (0.7%–7.9%) [21].
gastrointestinal problems (vomiting, dysentery, diarrhea) [18].
Drosophila melanogaster,
People in Kumaun, Uttarakhand, use the fruits to treat digestive
Solenopsis invicta ˆ richteri) [20].
disorders [19].
Tribal people in the Seti River area of western Nepal apply the leaf
Aerial parts essential oil from Kumaun, Uttarakhand, India:
Ageratum conyzoides L. juice to cuts and wounds [12]. People from Kumoun, Uttrakhand, None reported for Himalayan
ageratochromene (42.5%), demothoxyageratochromene (16.7%),
(Asteraceae) * India use the leaf extract to stop bleeding [19] and to treat skin essential oils.
β-caryophyllene (20.7%) [23].
diseases (ringworm, scabies, sores, burns boils, cuts) [22].
Aerial parts essential oil from India,
Ageratum houstonianum Aerial parts essential oil from India: ageratochromene (52.6%),
Plant juice used externally to treat cuts and wounds [24]. antibacterial (Micrococcus luteus,
Mill. (Asteraceae) * demothoxyageratochromene (22.5%), β-caryophyllene (9.7%) [25].
Rhodococcus rhodochrous) [25].
Ajuga parviflora Benth. Tribal people in the Mornaula Reserve Forest of Kumoun, west None reported for Himalayan Leaf essential oil from Uttarakhand, India: β-caryophyllene (22.4%),
(Lamiaceae) Himalaya, India use the leaves used as an anthelmintic (Ascaris) [22]. essential oils. γ-muurolene (12.7%), γ-terpinene (6.3%), caryophyllene oxide (6.2%) [26].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 4 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
Seed oil from Terhathum district, eastern
Seed essential oil from Terhathum district, eastern Nepal: 1,8-cineole
Nepal, antifungal (Aspergillus niger,
(60.8%), α-terpineol (9.8%), α-pinene (6.4%), β-pinene (8.3%). Pericarp:
In Ayurveda, the plant is used to treat indigestion, vomiting, MIC = 19.5 µg/mL), nematicidal
Amomum subulatum Roxb. 1,8-cineole (39.0%), α-terpineol (12.3%), α-pinene (4.8%), β-pinene
biliousness, abdominal pains, rectal diseases; throat trouble, lung (Caenorhabditis elegans,
(Zingiberaceae) (17.7%) [28]. Several seed oil samples from Himachal Pradesh, India:
congestion, pulmonary tuberculosis [27]. LC50 = 341 µg/mL), insecticidal
1,8-cineole (50.6%–60.5%), α-terpineol (14.9%–16.5%), limonene
(Drosophila melanogaster,
(5.5%–11.8%), terpinen-4-ol (2.6%–5.4%), nerolidol (3.8%–6.0%) [29].
LC50 = 441 µg/mL) [28].
In the Mornaula Preserve Forest of Kumoun, west Himalaya, the
Leaf oil from Toranmal Forest, Satpuda
Anisomeles indica (L.) people use the whole plant as an antidote to poisonous bites [22]. Leaf essential oil from Toranmal Forest, Satpuda Valley, Maharashtra,
Valley, Maharashtra, India, antibacterial
Kuntze (Lamiaceae) In far western Nepal, the leaf extract is taken for urinary India: isobornyl acetate (64.6%), isothujone (6.0%) [31].
(Bacillus pumilus) [31].
complaints [30].
Aralia cachemirica The root is used traditionally in Himachal Pradesh, India, for gastric None reported for Himalayan Leaf essential oil from Uttarakhand, India: α-pinene (41.0%), β-pinene
Decne. (Araliaceae) complaints [32]. essential oils. (35.1%). Root: α-pinene (52.7%), β-pinene (13.6%) [33].
Used in traditional medicine in India [34]. The root, leaf, stem bark,
Aristolochia indica L. None reported for Himalayan Stem essential oil from Arunachal Pradesh: trans-pinocarveol (24.4%),
given for fever, as an anthelmintic (intestinal worms), and to treat
(Aristolochiaceae) essential oils. α-pinene (16.4%), pinocarvone (14.2%) [35].
snakebites. Given to children to treat diarrhea and bowel complaints.
Aerial parts essential oil from Shansha, Kirting (Himachal Pradesh), India:
A. dracunculus (tarragon) is used throughout the world flavoring capillene (58.4%), (Z)-β-ocimene (8.6%), β-phellandrene (7.0%),
food [36,37]. In the Nubra Valley (Kashmir), Kibber Wildlife terpinolene (5.9%) [36]. Leaf oil sample from Sanat Nagar, (Jammu and
Artemisia dracunculus L. Sanctuary (Himachal Pradesh), and the Lahual Valley (Himachal None reported for Himalayan Kashmir), India: acenaphthene (51.7%), capillene (12.6%), (Z)-β-ocimene
(Asteraceae) Pradesh), an extract of the plant is used used to relieve toothache, essential oils. (12.2%). Stem: acenaphthene (32.6%), capillene (34.7%), (Z)-β-ocimene
reduce fever, and as a treatment for gastrointestinal problems (17.6%). Root: acenaphthene (66.6%), capillene (22.8%) [37]. Aerial parts
[38–40]. essential oil from Kashmir, India: capillene (60.2%), (Z)-β-ocimene (12.7%),
5-phenyl-1,3-pentadiyne (5.1%) [41]
Leaf oil sample from Kirtipur,
Artemisia dubia Wall. ex In Newar community of Kathmandu, Nepal, the leaf juice is used to Kathmandu, Nepal showed cytotoxic Leaf oil sample from Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal: chrysanthenone
Besser (Asteraceae) treat cuts and wounds [42]. (MCF-7) activity and marginal antifungal (29.0%), coumarin (18.3%), and camphor (16.4%) [43].
activity (Aspergillus niger) [43].
Aerial parts essential oil from a sample from Malari, Garhwal region,
India: artemisia ketone (28.2%), 1,8-cineole (13.0%), sabinene (6.6%) [45].
In the Humla district of northwestern Nepal, the fresh plant is Essential oil from the aerial parts of a sample from Niti valley,
Artemisia gmelinii Weber None reported for Himalayan
ground into a paste an applied externally to cure headache, boils, Uttarakhand, India: artemisia ketone (53.3%), α-thujone (9.9%), 1,8-cineole
ex Stechm. (Asteraceae) essential oils.
and pimples [44]. (6.6%) [46]. Essential oil from the aerial parts of a sample from Jhelum,
Uttarakhand, India: artemisia ketone (40.9%), α-thujone (4.0%),
ar-curcumene (8.5%) [46].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 5 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
Sample from Nepal not antimicrobial;
not cytotoxic [43]. Sample from Kashmir
Leaf oil sample from Dhulikhel, Kavre, Nepal: ascaridole (15.4%),
antibacterial (Bacillus subtilis,
isoascaridole (9.9%), trans-p-mentha-2,8-dien-1-ol (9.7%), and
In the Rasuwa District of central Nepal [11], and the Seti River area Staphylococcus epidermidis,
trans-verbenol (8.4%) [43]. Aerial parts essential oil from Daksum,
Artemisia indica Willd. of western Nepal [12], a leaf paste is applied to cuts and wounds. In Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi,
Kokerrnag (Kashmir), India: artemisia ketone (42.1%), germacrene B
(Asteraceae) the Newar community of Kathmandu, Nepal, the whole plant/leaf Klebsiella pneumoniae,
(8.6%), borneol (6.1%) and cis-chrysanthenyl acetate (4.8%) [47]. Aerial
juice is used for anti-leech and indigestion [42]. Penicillium chrysogenum, Aspergillus niger)
parts essential oil from Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India: davanone
and cytotoxic [THP-1 (leukemia), A-549
(30.8%), β-pinene (15.3%), germacrene D (5.8%) [48].
(lung), HEP-2 (liver) and Caco-2
(colon)] [47]
In the Garhwal Himalaya (Uttarakhand), the leaves used as incense Aerial parts essential oil from Uttarakhand: linalool (27.5%), germacrene D
Artemisia japonica Thunb. None reported for Himalayan
and insecticide [49]. In northern Pakistan, the leaf extract used to (11.2%), (E)-β-ocimene (6.5%), 1,8-cineole (5.5%), (Z)-β-ocimene
(Asteraceae) essential oils.
treat malaria; paste of leaves used externally on skin diseases [50]. (5.5%) [51].
Aerial parts essential oil from a sample from Malari, Garhwal region,
India: α-thujone (63.3%), sabinene (7.8%), 1,8-cineole (6.5%) [45]. Aerial
parts essential oil from Pooh, Himachal Pradesh, India: 1,8-cineole (23.8%),
chrysanthenone (17.5%) [54]. Aerial parts essential oil from Rhongtong
Pass, Himachal Pradesh, India: 1,8-cineole (37.3%), chrysanthenone
The Bhots people of Spiti Valley, Himachal Pradesh, India apply the The essential oil from Lahaul-Spiti,
Artemisia maritima L. (38.1%) [54]. Aerial parts essential oil from Lahaul-Spiti, Himachal
root juice externally to treat boils; a decoction of the leaves is taken Himachal Pradesh,
(Asteraceae) Pradesh, India: 1,8-cineole (44.2%), camphor (9.2%), borneol (10.9%) [54].
orally to remove abdominal parasites [52]. not antimicrobial [53].
Essential oil from the aerial parts growing in Chamoli district of Garhwal
(Uttarakhand), India: 1,8-cineole (23.6%), chrystanthenone (25.7%),
germacrene D (6.7%) [55]. Aerial parts essential oil from Lahaul-Spiti,
Himachal Pradesh, India: 1,8-cineole (27.2%), camphor (44.4%), camphene
(5.9%) [53].
Aerial parts essential oil from Lahaul-Spiti, Himachal Pradesh, India:
Aerial parts essential oil from Aerial parts: camphor (12.6%), artemisia ketone (10.2%), caryophyllene
Lahaul-Spiti, Himachal Pradesh, India oxide (7.4%), borneol (5.3%) [53]. Aerial parts essential oil from
showed antifungal activity against Uttarakhand, India: α-thujone (36.4%), β-thujone (9.4%), germacrene D
Colletotrichum acutatum, Colletotrichum (6.3%), terpinen-4-ol (6.3%) [58]. Aerial parts essential oil from Garhwal
fragariae, and Colletotrichum region (Uttarakhand), India (500 m asl): α-thujone (36.9%), β-thujone
gloeosporioides [53]. Aerial parts essential (8.2%), terpinen-4-ol (7.1%) [60]. Aerial parts essential oil from Garhwal
Artemisia nilagirica People in the Parvati valley (Himachal Pradesh), India, apply a leaf oil from Uttarakhand, India showed region (Uttarakhand), India (1200 m asl): mequinyl p-nitrobenzoate
(C.B. Clarke) Pamp. paste to cuts and wounds [56]. In Darjeeling (West Bengal) India, the antifungal activity against Rhizoctonia (22.1%), β-eudesmol (12.4%), β-caryophyllene (7.4%) [60]. Aerial parts
(Asteraceae) plant is chewed to treat oral ulcers [57]. solani, Sclerotium rolfsii, and essential oil from Garhwal region (Uttarakhand), India (2000 m asl):
Macrophomina phaseolina [58]. Aerial linalool (32.5%), isopulegyl acetate (20.7%), sabinene (6.6%),
parts essential oil from Uttarakhand, β-caryophyllene (6.5%) [60]. Leaf oil from Mandi (1044 m asl), Himachal
India, showed antibacterial activity Pradesh, India: caryophyllene oxide (28.6%), methanoazulene (10.9%) [61].
against Staphylococcus aureus (MIC = 6.25 Leaf oil from Manali (2050 m asl), Himachal Pradesh, India: borneol
µg/mL) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (35.8%), methanozaulene (14.7%), caryophyllene oxide (13.4%) [61]. Leaf
(MIC = 12.5 µg/mL) [59]. oil from Shimla (2210 m asl), Himachal Pradesh, India: camphor (46.9%),
β-caryophyllene (13.3%), α-humulene (9.7%) [61].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 6 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
Aerial parts essential oil from Kumaun (Uttarakhand), India: germacrene
People in Kumaun, Uttarakhand, use the plant to treat skin diseases,
Artemisia parviflora D (41.01%), β-caryophyllene (10.58%), α-humulene (7.86%) [63]. Aerial
burns, cuts, and wounds; fumes are used as insect repellents [19]. None reported for Himalayan
Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don parts from Pauri, Pauri Garhwal (Uttarakhand), India: β-caryophyllene
The indigenous people of Jammu and Kashmir, India, use the whole essential oils.
(Asteraceae) (15.3%), germacrene D (14.7%), camphor (11.4%), artemisia ketone (7.8%),
plant as a diuretic [62].
1,8-cineole (5.8%) [64].
Aerial parts essential oil from a sample from Kedarnath, Garhwal region,
India: β-thujone (65.3%) [45]. Essential oil from aerial parts of plants
In Garhwal Himalaya (Uttarakhand), India, the whole plant extract cultivated in Italy from seeds collected in Kumbu valley, Nepal:
is used as a tonic and to relieve fever; the plant extract is rubbed on 1,8-cineole (16.6%), camphor (15.2%) α-thujone (10.0%) [65]. Aerial parts
Artemisia roxburghiana None reported for Himalayan
the skin to treat allergic reactions [49]. In the western Himalaya of essential oil from Mussoorie (Uttarakhand), India: borneol (21.2%), linalyl
Besser (Asteraceae) essential oils.
northern Pakistan, the whole plant extract is used for fever; the acetate (7.4%), α-humulene (6.7%) [66]. Aerial parts essential oil from
powder of whole plant taken for intestinal worms [50]. Bhatwari (Uttarakhand), India: β-caryophyllene (16.3%), α-thujone
(12.0%) [66]. Aerial parts essential oil from Bhaldana (Uttarakhand), India:
β-caryophyllene (18.4%), eugenol (16.2%) [66].
Aerial parts essential oil from Uttarakhand, India: capillene (42.1%),
The tribal people of the Sewa River area of Jammu and Kashmir,
β-caryophyllene (12.5%), myrcene (9.2%), β-pinene (8.6%), p-cymene
India, use the leaves to treat stomach problems, intestinal worms, Aerial parts essential oil from
(6.8%), γ-terpinene (5.3%), 1-phenyl-2,4-pentadiyne (1.1%) [59]. Leaf oil
indigestion; the leaf powder (mixed with oil) is massaged on joints to Uttarakhand was antibacterial against
Artemisia scoparia Waldst. from Milam glacier, Uttarakhand, India: capillene (60.2%), γ-terpinene
releave pain [7]. The Bhots people of Spiti Valley, Himachal Pradesh, Staphylococcus aureus
and Kit. (Asteraceae) (11.1%), 1-phenyl-2,4-pentadiyne (1.0%); root oil: capillene (82.9%),
India, use a paste made from the leaves to treat earache [49]. (MIC = 12.5 µg/mL) and Bacillus subtilis
1-phenyl-2,4-pentadiyne (2.6%) [68]. Aerial parts essential oil from
Inhabitants of Nanda Devi National Park (Uttarakhand), India apply (MIC = 12.5 µg/mL) [59].
Tajikistan: β-pinene (21.3%), 1-phenyl-2,4-pentadiyne (34.2%), myrcene
a paste of the leaves to cuts and wounds [67].
(5.2%), capillene (4.9%) [69].
In Nepal, crushed leaves are used to stop nosebleeds; leaves are
Artemisia vulgaris L. Leaf essential oil not antimicrobial; not Leaf essential oil from Hetauda Makwanpur, Nepal: α-thujone (30.5%),
chewed for mouth ulcers [70]. In the western Himalaya of northern
(Asteraceae) cytotoxic [43]. 1,8-cineole (12.4%), and camphor (10.3%) [43].
Pakistan, the leaf extract is used for fever [50].
Essential oil from the aerial parts
collected from Baratnagar, eastern Nepal:
Aerial parts essential oil from Baratnagar, eastern Nepal:
Blumea lacera (Burm. f.) Inhabitants of the Sewa River area of Jammu and Kashmir, India, use Cytotoxic (MDA-MB-231, MCF-7, 5637
(Z)-lachnophyllum ester (25.5%), (Z)-lachnophyllic acid (17.0%),
DC. (Asteraceae) the leaves as an antipyretic, febrifuge, diuretic, and anthelmintic [7]. cells), antimicrobial
germacrene D (11.0%), (E)-β-farnesene (10.1%) [71].
(Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans,
Aspergillus niger) [71].
Inhabitants of the Sewa River area of Jammu and Kashmir, India, use Aerial parts of essential oils from western Himalaya, India: germacrene D
Boenninghausenia albiflora
the shoots to repel insects; the root used to relieve toothache [7]. None reported from Himalayan (4.2%–18.2%), τ-cadinol (0.1%–16.3%), β-caryophyllene (4.6%–13.1%),
(Hook.) Rchb. ex Meisn.
People in the Mornaula Reserve Forest of Kumaun (Uttarakhand), essential oils. globulol (0.3%–9.2%), β-copaene-4α-ol (0.1%–7.5%), myrcene (2.1%–26.1%)
(Rutaceae)
India, use roots of the plant to kill fleas, lice, and insects [22]. and β-pinene (8.4%–13.8%) [72].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 7 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
Essential oil sample from Nepal,
Leaf essential oil of plant cultivated in Biratnagar, Nepal: 1,8-cineole
Insecticidal (Drosophila melanogaster,
Callistemon citrinus (52.1%), α-terpineol (14.7%), eugenol (14.2%) [74]. Leaf essential oil from
The local people in villages of Bhabar tract of Garhwal (Uttarakhand), Reticulitermes virginicus) [74]. Essential
(Curtis) Skeels Nainital, Uttarakhand, India: 1,8-cineole (66.3%), α-pinene (18.7%) [76].
India, use the plant as an antibacterial and antifungal agent [73]. oil sample from Palampur, Himachal
(Myrtaceae) * Leaf essential oil of plant cultivated in Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India:
Pradesh was cytotoxic (A549,
α-pinene (32.3%), limonene (13.1%), α-terpineol (14.6%) [75].
IC50 = 84.0 µg/mL) [75].
Local people in the Rasuwa district of central Nepal [11] and the
Tanahun district of western Nepal [12] take a paste made from the
plant for stomach problems. In the Humla district of western Nepal,
the juice of the leaves and flowers is applied externally on skin
Cannabis sativa L. None reported for Himalayan Leaf essential oil from wild-growing plant in Biratnagar, Nepal:
diseases, cuts, and wounds; the juice is taken orally to treat
(Cannabinaceae) essential oils. β-caryophyllene (20.4%), α-humulene (7.0%), α-bisabolol (5.8%) [77].
diarrhea [44]. In far western Nepal, the local people apply the leaf
juice to control bleeding [30]. In the Parvati valley, Himachal
Pradesh, India, a leaf paste is used on tumors; leaf powder used on
wounds and sores [56].
In far western Nepal, fruits are applied to treat swelling of breast and
testicles [30]. In northwestern Nepal, the fruits are chewed to cure None reported for Himalayan Seed oil from Uttarakhand, India: carvone (65.8%–78.8%), limonene
Carum carvi L. (Apiaceae)
stomach problems, fever, swellings, cough, cold, and to kill intestinal essential oils. (19.4%–31.6%) [78].
worms [44].
In the Ayurvedic system, leaves are used as a laxative; applied Leaf oil from Nepal, antifungal Leaf essential oil from Biratnagar, Nepal: eugenol (25.0%), (E)-phytol
Cassia fistula L. (Fabaceae) externally for chilblains, insect bites, swelling, rheumatism, skin (Aspergillus niger, MIC = 78 µg/mL; (21.5%), camphor (13.5%), limonene (11.0%), salicyl alcohol (10.4%),
eruptions, ringworm, eczema [79]. Candida albicans, MIC = 313 µg/mL) [80]. linalool (9.9%), and 4-hydroxybenzyl alcohol (8.7%) [80].
Villagers in the Kali Gandaki watershed area of Nepal use the leaf Leaf oil marginally antibacterial
Leaf oil from Biratnagar, Nepal: elemol (26.9%), linalool (19.6%), palmitic
Cassia tora L. (Fabaceae) paste to treat skin disease; to treat stomach ache, the powdered seeds (Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus,
acid (15.3%) [82].
are taken on an empty stomach. [81]. MIC = 625 µg/mL) [82].
The people of Baitadi and Darchula districts of far-western Nepal
use the wood essential oil externally for scabies [10]. People of the
Karnali zone, western Nepal, massage the leaf essential oil to relieve
rheumatic pain [83]. In the Sewa River catchment area, Jammu and
Wood essential oil from Himachal
Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex Kashmir, India, the bark is used as a diuretic, carminative, Wood essential oil from Himachal Pradesh, India: β-himachalene (38.3%),
Pradesh, India, insecticidal
D. Don) G. Don (Pinaceae) antiflatulent, and for urinary disorders [7]. People in Kumaun, α-himachalene (17.1%), γ-himachalene (12.6%) [85].
(Plutella xylostella larvae) [84].
Uttarakhand, use the fumes from the bark and wood as a snake
repellent [19]. People living in the Nanda Devi National Park
(Uttarakhand), India, use a decoction of the bark decoction used to
treat fever and dysentery [67].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 8 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
The people of Baitadi and Darchula districts of far-western Nepal
use the leaf juice to treat urinary problems and cuts and wounds [10].
None reported for Himalayan essential
Tribal people in the Seti River area of western Nepal use the juice
oils, but an essential oil sample from
from the whole plant to treat fever or urinary tract infections [12].
South Africa has shown antibacterial Aerial parts essential oil from Kathmandu, Nepal: Isocaryophyllene
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. People in the Jutpani Village, Chitwan district of central Nepal, chew
activity (Bacillus subtilis, (9.2%–32.3%), β-caryophyllene (7.5%–24.5%), α-humulene (0.1%–17.1%),
(Apiaceae) the leaves and stems to relieve headache [13]. People in Kumaun,
Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, (E)-β-farnesene (1.7%–18.9%) [87].
Uttarakhand, use the leaves used to prepare a brain tonic [19]. Tribal
Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
people in the Mornaula Reserve Forest of Kumoun, west Himalaya,
Shigella sonnei) [86].
India, prepare a tonic made from the whole plant to use as an
anthelmintic, to treat dysentery, cholera, diarrhea [22].
Leaf oil from Uttarakhand, antibacterial Leaf oil from Milam glacier (Uttarakhand): γ-terpinene (74.9%), p-cymene
In the Lahaul-Spiti district of Himachal Pradesh, the people consume
Chaerophyllum villosum (Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus (10.0%) [91]. Root essential oil from Uttarakhand: carvacrol methyl ether
the seeds and leaves to cure stomach pain [88], colds and
Wall. ex DC. (Apiaceae) mutans), antifungal (Candida albicans, (31.1%), myristicin (19.1%), thymol methyl ether (18.6%), γ-terpinene
coughs [89].
Candida glabrata) [90] (11.7%) [92].
None reported for Himalayan essential
People in the Sudhan Gali area of Pakistan, consider an infusion of
oils, but an ascaridole-rich essential oil
Chenopodium ambrosioides herb to be carminative, diaphoretic, and emmenagogue; it is given in Aerial parts essential oil from Uttarakhand: α-terpinene (8.3-44.7%),
sample from Cuba has shown
L. (Amaranthaceae) * cough, pulmonary obstruction, and amenorrhea and is p-cymene (21.3%–27.1%), ascaridole (17.9%–45.0%) [95].
antiparasitic activity (Leishmania
recommended for the expulsion of the dead fetus [93].
amazonensis) [94].
Chrysanthemum The local people in villages of Bhabar tract of Garhwal
None reported for Himalayan Aerial parts: camphor (11.0%), chrysanthenone (7.6%), α-cadinol (4.8%),
cinerariifolium (Trevir.) Vis. (Uttarakhand), India, use the plant externally to treat scabies and
essential oils. γ-muurolene (4.6%) and cis-chrysanthenol (4.4%) [96].
(Asteraceae) other skin diseases [73].
Essential oil from Pantnagar,
Uttarakhand showed antibacterial
activity against Pasturella multocida [97].
Essential oil from Lucknow, India
(dominated by (1R)-(+)-camphor),
Leaf oil from Pantnagar, Uttarakhand: camphor (82.4%) [97]. Leaf oil from
The plant is used as an anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antiviral, showed antifungal activity against
Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Naukuchiatal, Uttarakhand: camphor (81.5%) [101]. Leaf oil from
bactericidal, counterirritant, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant, Choanephora cucurbitarum [99]. Leaf oil
J. Presl. (Lauraceae) Hetauda, Makwanpur, Nepal: camphor (36.5%), camphene (11.7%),
rubefacient, vermifuge, decongestant, cough suppressant [97,98]. from Nepal, Artemia salina lethality
limonene (9.0%), sabinene (6.3%), β-pinene (6.3%) [100].
(LC50 = 2.5 µg/mL), Antifungal
(Aspergillus niger, MIC = 19.5 µg/mL),
Insecticidal (Chaoborus plumicornis,
Pieris rapae, Drosophila melanogaster,
Solenopsis invicta ˆ richteri) [100].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 9 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
Leaf oil from northern India,
antibacterial: Gram-positive bacteria
Micrococcus luteus (MIC = 6.86 µg/mL);
Cinnamomum In the Dolakha district, Nepal, a paste of the roots is used to treat Gram-negative bacteria, Escherichia coli
Leaf oil from northern India: 1,8-cineole (41.4%), α-pinene (20.3%),
glanduliferum (Wall.) wounds and toothache [102]. In northern India, the leaves are used (MIC = 3.40 µg/mL),
α-terpineol (9.4%), germacrene D-4-ol (6.1%) and α-thujene (5.10%) [103].
Meisn. (Lauraceae) as a stimulant, carminative, and to treat coughs and colds [103]. Pseudomonas aeruginosa
(MIC = 3.43 µg/mL), and
Aeromonas salmonicida
(MIC = 1.72 µg/mL) [103].
Fruit oil from Hetauda, Makwanpur,
Nepal, nematicidal
(Caenorhabditis elegans, Fruit essential oil from Hetauda, Makwanpur, Nepal: methyl
LC50 = 151 µg/mL), insecticidal (E)-cinnamate (40.5%) 1,8-cineole (24.8%), α-terpineol (7.4%) [100].
Cinnamomum glaucescens In Manipur, India, the powdered bark is used to treat kidney
(Culex pipiens, Commercial fruit essential oil from Nepal: methyl (E)-cinnamate (14%)
Hand.-Mazz. (Lauraceae) trouble [104].
Reticulitermes virginicus) [100]. Fruit oil 1,8-cineole (13%), α-terpineol (7%) [106]. Leaf oil from northeast India:
from Lucknow, India, insecticidal elemicin (92.9%) [107].
(Callosobruchus chinensis), antifungal
(Aspergillus flavus) [105].
Root essential oil from Hetauda, Makwanpur, Nepal: camphor (35.0%),
linalool (10.6%), p-cymene (8.5%), o-cymene (6.8%), and 1,8-cineole
Root essential oil from Nepal, (6.1%) [100]. Leaf oil from Jeolikote, Uttarakhand: (E)-cinnamaldehyde
insecticidal (Culex pipiens, (79.4%), (E)-cinnamyl acetate (3.7%), linalool (5.4%) [101]. Leaf oil from
Solenopsis invicta ˆ richteri) [100]. Leaf oil Munsyari, Uttarakhand: linalool (52.5%), (E)-cinnamaldehyde (26.4%),
Cinnamomum tamala Indigenous people in far western Nepal use the leaves to treat gastric
from Munsyari, Uttarakhand, 1,8-cineol (4.2%) [97]. Leaf oil from Lohaghat, Uttarakhand: linalool
(Buch.-Ham.) T. Nees and problems [10]. In the Newar community of Kathmandu, Nepal, the
antibacterial (Salmonella enterica, (29.8%), camphor (44.0%), (E)-cinnamaldehyde (14.3%) [97]. Leaf oil from
Nees (Lauraceae) leaves are used as a spice and flavorant [42].
Escherichia coli, Pasturella multocida); leaf Champawat, Uttarakhand: linalool (24.7%), camphor (25.5%),
oil from Logaghat, antibacterial (E)-cinnamaldehyde (30.4%) [97]. Leaf oil from Pannagar, Uttarakhand:
(Pasturella multocida) [97]. eugenol (65.0%) [97]. Leaf essential oil from Uttarakhand:
(E)-cinnamaldehyde (35.8%–62.3%), (E)-cinnamyl acetate (4.7%–22.7%),
linalool (5.7%–16.2%) [108].
In western Nepal, the rhizome paste is applied externally for bruises,
Rhizome oil from Jagdalpur, central India: xanthorrhizol isomer (12.7%),
Curcuma angustifolia Roxb. pains, injuries, paralysis [30,44]. In eastern Nepal, the Meche people None reported for Himalayan
methyl eugenol (10.5%) [110]. Rhizome oil from Travancore, southern
(Zingiberaceae) use the dried rhizome powder as an antiseptic in cuts and wounds, essential oils.
India: camphor (21.3%), germacrone (12.8%) [110].
and to check bleeding [109].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 10 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
Rhizome oil from Bhutan: α-turmerone (30%–32%), ar-turmerone
(17%–26%), β-turmerone (15%–18%). Leaf: α-phellandrene (18.2%),
In the Kumaon division of Uttarakhand, the powdered rhizome is Leaf oil from Nigeria cytotoxic (Hs578T,
1,8-cineole (14.6%), p-cymene (13.3%) [117]. Rhizome oil from northern
used as an antiseptic [19]. In Nepal, the powdered rhizome taken PC-3), antimicrobial (Bacillus cereus,
Curcuma longa L. (syn. India: α-turmerone (44.1%), ar-turmerone (5.4%), β-turmerone (18.5%).
orally to cure gastritis. It is used as a carminative, stimulant, Staphylococcus aureus,
Curcuma domestica Leaf: α-phellandrene (53.4%), 1,8-cineole (10.5%), terpinolene
anti-inflammatory, and anthelmintic; externally, the rhizome is Aspergillus niger) [115]. Rhizome oil from
Valeton) (Zingiberaceae) (11.5%) [118]. Rhizome oil from Nigeria: α-turmerone (20.8%),
mixed with alum and applied as a paste to wounds, inflamed joints Nigeria larvicidal
ar-turmerone (44.4%), β-turmerone (26.5%) [116]. Leaf oil from Nigeria:
and sprains [111–114]. (Anopheles gambiae) [116].
α-phellandrene (17.5%), 1,8-cineole (4.1%), α-terpinolene (17.8%),
p-cymene (15.7%), β-pinene (11.7%) [115].
In far western Nepal, the plant paste used for headache, body ache,
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Essential oil from Nepal, antifungal Essential oil from Nepal: cis-3-butyl-4-vinylcyclopentane (26.4%),
itching [10]. In Nepal, the plant is crushed, decocted, and the liquid
(Convolvulaceae) (Aspergillus niger) [119]. limonene (5.1%), (E)-nerolidol (9.5%) [119].
taken as a treatment for jaundice [12,42,44].
Aerial parts from from Nainital (Uttarakhand): α-oxobisabolene
(68%) [122]. Aerial parts from Munsyari (Uttarakhand): neral/geranial
Aerial parts essential oil from Yunnan, (35.0%), geraniol (9.5%), geranyl acetate (15.0%) [122]. Leaf oil from Thal
Cymbopogon distans
Aerial parts used in Pakistan (Lakki Marwat) as carminative, China, insect repellent (Liposcelis (Uttarakhand): α-terpinene (24.9%), piperitone (45.3%) [123]. Leaf oil from
(Nees ex Steud.) Will.
prevention of heart diseases, flavoring agent [120]. bostrychophila [booklouse], Tribolium Jabarkhet (Uttarakhand): limonene (12.6%), bornyl acetate (27.9%) [123].
Watson (Poaceae)
castaneum [red flour beetle]) [121]. Leaf oil from Narayan Ashram (Uttarakhand): α-terpinene (22.4%),
cis-p-menth-2-en-1-ol (22.7%), trans-p-menth-2-en-1-ol (10.8%), cis-piperitol
(13.0%), trans-piperitol (5.6%) [123].
Leaf oil from Uttarakhand, antibacterial
Dodecadenia grandiflora Leaf oil from Uttarakhand: germacrene D (26.0%), furanodiene
Ripe fruits are eaten in Garhwal Himalaya (India) [124]. (Staphylococcus aureus,
Nees (Lauraceae) (13.7%) [101].
Pasteurella multocida) [125].
In communities of Kathmandu district, Nepal, the leaf juice used to
Elsholtzia flava (Benth.) treat insect bites [42]. In the Parvati Valley, the flowers are used to Leaf oil from Uttarakhand: piperitenone (30.8%), carvacrol (4.8%),
None reported for Himalayan plants.
Benth. (Lamiaceae) treat skin diseases, diarrhea, and stomachache [126]. The seeds are (Z)-anethole (4.4%), γ-elemene (4.8%) [128].
also used as a curry [127]
Eryngium foetidum L. Native to the Neotropics; decoction of aerial parts used for pains, None reported for Himalayan Aerial parts from far western Nepal: (E)-2-dodecenal (58.1%), dodecanal
(Apiaceae) * fevers, gastrointestinal problems [129]. essential oils. (10.7%), 2,3,6-trimethylbenzaldehyde (7.4%), (E)-2-tridecenal (6.7%) [130].
Aerial parts: p-cymene (16.6%), bornyl acetate (15.6%), amorph-4-en-7-ol
(9.6%), camphene (8.9%) [23]. Aerial parts essential oil from northern
Aerial parts essential oil, antibacterial India: 1-naphthalenol (17.5%), α-bisabolol (9.5%), bornyl acetate
Eupatorium adenophorum In Nepal, the leaf juice is used as an antiseptic; to treat cuts and (Arthrobacter protophormiae, Escherichia (9.0%) [25]. Aerial parts essential oil from northern India:
Spreng. (Asteraceae) * wounds [11,12,42]. coli, Micrococcus luteus, Rhodococcus amorph-4-en-7-ol (5.8-17.7%), bornyl acetate (7.6-15.9%), p-cymene
rhodochrous, Staphylococcus aureus) [25]. (0.1-16.6%), 3-acetoxyamorpha-4,7(11)-dien-8-one (0.3-16.3%),
α-phellandrene (1.5-9.6%), camphene (0.1-8.9%), α-bisabolol (1.7-7.8%),
α-cadinol (0.6-6.2%), and amorph-4,7(11)-dien-8-one (3.2%–5.7%) [131].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 11 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
In far western Nepal, the bark juice is applied for paralysis [30]. Leaf oil from Kirtipur, Nepal: eugenol (27.0%), itaconic anhydride (15.4%),
Ficus religiosa L. Leaf oil from Nepal, cytotoxic
In Jammu and Kashmir, India, leaves and young shoots used as a 3-methyl-cyclopenetane-1,2-dione (10.8%), 2-phenylethyl alcohol
(Moraceae) (MCF-7) [132].
purgative [7]. (8.0%) [132].
Filipendula vestita (Wall. ex
None reported for Himalayan Root essential oil from Milam glacier, Uttarakhand: methyl salicylate
G. Don) Maxim. In Kashmir, a leaf paste is applied to wounds [133].
essential oils. (56.0%), salicaldehyde (15.6%), santene (9.4%) [134].
(Rosaceae)
Gualtheria fragrantissima In Newar community of Kathmandu, Nepal, a liquid made from the Leaf oil from Nepal, antibacterial
Leaf oil from Godawari forest, Nepal: methyl salicylate (94.2%) [135].
Wall. (Ericaceae) whole plant is used to treat rheumatism [42]. (Staphylococcus aureus) [135].
Rhizome oil from Uttarakhand: 1,8-cineole (15.5%–58.2%), linalool
(0.8%–10.6%), terpinen-4-ol (0.7%–15.2%), elemol (0.7%–16.6%),
Rhizome oil pediculicidal [Pediculus
10-epi-γ-eudesmol (0.2%–13.9%), α-cadinol (4.5%–11.2%) [138]. Leaf oil
Hedychium spicatum humanus capitis (head louse)] [136],
In Nepal, a decoction of the rhizome is taken for coughs and from Song (Uttarakhand): α-pinene (9.6%), β-pinene (40.9%), 1,8-cineole
Buch.-Ham. Ex Sm. antimicrobial (several Gram-positive,
colds [42]. (11.9%). Root: β-pinene (8.9%), 1,8-cineole (48.7%), α-terpineol
(Zingiberaceae) Gram-negative bacteria, several
(11.8%) [139]. Leaf oil from Bhowali (Uttarakhand): β-pinene (9.3%),
fungi) [137].
1,8-cineole (34.2%) [139]. Rhizome oil from Song (Uttarakhand):
1,8-cineole (64.0%) [139].
Aerial parts essential oil from central
Inula cappa (Buch.-Ham. Himalaya, India, antibacterial Aerial parts essential oil from central Himalaya, India: β-caryophyllene
In Nepal, a decoction of the root is used to treat epilepsy and
ex D. Don) DC. (Enterococcus faecalis, Klebsiella (27.5%), cis-dihydro-mayurone (6.7%), β-bisabolene (6.5%),
rheumatism [42].
(Asteraceae) pneumoniae, Xanthomonas phaseoli, and (E)-β-farnesene (5.6%) [140].
Bacillus subtilis) [140].
In villages of Himachal Pradesh, India, the leaves are used to treat Leaf essential oil from Nepal, Artemia
Jasminum mesnyi
diabetes, central nervous system disorders, gastric disturbance, salina lethality (LC50 = 27.0 µg/mL); not Leaf oil from Nepal: coumarin (48.9%), linalool (14.8%) [142].
Hance (Oleaceae)
anorexia, oral sores, nocturnal emission, and for muscular pain [141]. antibacterial; not antifungal [142].
Leaf oil from Kashmir: α-pinene (15.1%), β-pinene (30.5%),
β-caryophyllene (15.5%) germacrene D (14.4%), limonene (3.6%) [143].
Leaf essential oil from Kashmir,
Leaf oil from Nepal: eugenol (27.5%), methyl salicylate (16.2%),
In Nepal, a decoction of the bark is used for scabies, allergies, antibacterial (Bacillus subtilis,
germacrene D (21.4%), (E)-β-farnesene (8.2%) [144]. Leaf oil from western
toothaches [10], and as an anthelmintic [83]; the nut juice is taken as Staphylococcus epidermidis, Proteus
Juglans regia L. Himalaya, type I: β-caryophyllene (47.9%), caryophyllene oxide (8.6%),
a tonic [11]. In Uttarakhand a decoction of the bark is used as vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
(Juglandaceae) germacrene D (7.5%) [145]. Leaf oil from western Himalaya, type II:
mouthwash [19]; twigs used as toothbrush for treatment of Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi,
β-pinene (8.5%–39.5%), β-caryophyllene (1.4%–26.9%), germacrene D
toothache [67]. Escherichia coli, Shigella dysenteriae,
(5.0%–23.3%), α-pinene (3.1%–18.1%), α-humulene (1.1%–11.8%) [145].
Klebsiella pneumoniae) [143].
Leaf oil from western Himalaya, type III: germacrene D (16.1%–22.1%),
β-caryophyllene (10.4%–13.5%), α-copaene (6.5%–10.1%) [145].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 12 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
None reported for Himalayan essential
oils. Berry essential oil (α-pinene-rich)
from Portugal, antifungal
(Candida albicans,
Epidermophyton floccosum,
Trichophyton rubrum,
Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Leaf essential oil from Uttarakhand: α-pinene (35.4%), limonene
Juniperus communis L. In Himachal Pradesh, people use the twigs to treat joint pains [56].
Microsporum canis) [146]. Berry essential (23.8%) [149]. Berry essential oil from Uttarakhand: α-pinene (10.8%),
(Cupressaceae) In Uttarakhand, the leaf paste is applied to skin ailments [67].
oil (α-pinene-rich) from Serbia, limonene (15.1%), terpinene-4-ol (8.8%) [149].
antibacterial (Bacillus cereus) [147]. Berry
essential oil (α-pinene-rich) from Croatia,
antibacterial (Bacillus cereus), antifungal
(Candida albicans, Candida kefyr,
Trichophyton mentagrophytes,
Trichophyton rubrum) [148].
Leaf essential oil from Nepal: sabinene (19.4%–31.3%), terpinen-4-ol
(3.7%–13.0%), β-thujone (4.5%–25.8%), trans-sabinyl acetate
In Nepal, the leaves and berries are used to treat fevers, coughs, skin
Juniperus indica Bertol. None reported for Himalayan (7.6%–24.3%) [151]. Leaf essential oil from Uttarakhand: sabinene (27.8%),
diseases; also used as incense and flavoring [150]. A paste of the
(Cupressaceae) essential oils. terpinen-4-ol (16.1%), α-pinene (6.3%), γ-terpinene (6.1%) [152]. Berry
leaves and berries applied externally to treat skin diseases [44].
essential oil from Uttarakhand: sabinene (2.32%), terpinen-4-ol (23.6%),
α-pinene (8.8%), γ-terpinene (6.6%) [152].
Leaf oil from Himachal Pradesh,
antifungal (Candida albicans,
Colletotrichum acutatum,
Leaf essential oil from Chamba, Himachal Pradesh: sabinene (27.5%),
Colletotrichum fragariae,
Juniperus macropoda Boiss. In Hamachal Pradesh, the berries used to treat colic, cough, diarrhea, terpinen-4-ol (9.4%), cedrol (14.1%) [154]. Leaf essential oil from
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides), larvicidal
(syn. J. excelsa M. Bieb.) indigestion, skin diseases; the resin is used on ulcers [152]. Hindolkhal, Uttarakhand: β-elemene (42.5%) trans-sabinene hydrate
(Aedes aegypti) [154].
(Cupressaceae) In Kashmir, the plant is used as incense [153] (8.8%), α-cubebene (7.9%) [156]. Leaf essential oil from Mussorie,
Berry essential oil from Lucknow,
Uttarakhand: α-thujone (22.6%), biformene (7.7%), sabinene (5.8%) [156].
larvicidal (Anopheles stephensi,
Aedes aegypti,
Culex quinquefasciatus) [155].
Local people in the Rasuwa district of central Nepal use the plant to
Leaf oil from eastern Sikkim, India: δ-3-carene (13.6%), δ-cadinene (10.2%),
Juniperus recurva treat fever, headache, coughs, and colds [11]. In the Humla district of
None reported for Himalayan τ-cadinol (5.5%), τ-muurolol (5.5%), α-cadinol (13.1%) [157]. Leaf oil from
Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don northwestern Nepal, a paste of the leaves and berries is applied
essential oils. Langtang National Park, Nepal: sabinene (13.4%), δ-3-carene (23.7%),
(Cupressaceae) externally to treat skin diseases [44]. In the Nubra valley (Jammu
limonene (18.4%) [157].
and Kashmir), a leaf decoction is used to reduce fever [7].
Used medicinally in western Chitwan, Nepal, but use not
Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. None reported for Himalayan Leaf oil from Biratnagar, Nepal: α-cadinol (40.3%), τ-muurolol (19.5%),
specified [158]. In the Allai valley, Battagram, Pakistan, the plant is
(Cyperaceae) essential oils. germadrene D-4-ol (12.5%) [160].
used as fodder [159].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 13 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
Native to the Neotropics; decoction taken for rheumatism, diuretic, Aerial parts from Uttarahkhand, India: germacrene D (27.9%), germacrene
Aerial parts essential oil from India,
snakebite, fever, colds; crushed leaves used externally on wounds, B (16.3%), β-caryophyllene (9.6%) [23]. Aerial parts from India:
Lantana camara L. antibacterial (Arthrobacter protophormiae,
ulcers, skin sores [161]. The tribal people of the Sewa River area of 3,7,11-trimethyl-1,6,10-dodecatriene (28.9%), β-caryophyllene (12.3%),
(Verbenaceae) * Micrococcus luteus, Rhodococcus
Jammu and Kashmir, India, prepare a decoction of the plant to treat zingiberene (7.6%), γ-curcumene (7.5%) [25]. Aerial parts from Nepal:
rhodochrous, Staphylococcus aureus) [25].
tetanus, theumatism, and malaria [7]. davanone (44.4%), (E)-nerolidol (13.0%) [162].
Leaf oil from Nepal: limonene (20.0%), (E)-phytol (27.5%), linalool (7.0%),
Lawsonia inermis L. In Nepal, the leaf is used externally for skin wounds and Leaf oil from Nepal not
1,8-cineole (6.9%) [164]. Leaf oil from Nigeria: α-pinene (18.1%), p-cymene
(Lythraceae) infections [163]. antimicrobial [164].
(14.7%), 1,8-cineole (58.6%) [165].
In India, a decoction of the plant is taken as an antihelmintic, for
Aerial parts oil from Nepal,
Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link headache, asthma, bronchitis; extract taken orally for scabies Aerial parts essential oil from Nepal: 1-octen-3-ol (30.6%),
antimicrobial (Bacillus cereus,
(Lamiaceae) psoriasis, snake bite; plant used externally as insect repellent [166]; β-caryophyllene (23.4%), caryophyllene oxide (24.4%) [168].
Aspergillus niger) [168].
the leaf extract applied to releave toothache [167].
Fruit essential oil from Nepal: geranial (15.1%), neral (11.9%), citronellal
Fruit essential oil from Nepal,
Lindera neesiana (Wall. ex In Nepal, the fruits are taken for diarrhea [11]; a paste of the fruit is (6.7%), 1,8-cineole (8.8%), α-pinene (6.6%), β-pinene (5.6%) [169]. Leaf
antimicrobial (Staphylococcus aureus,
Nees) Kurz (Lauraceae) applied externally to treat boils and scabies [44]. essential oil from India: methyl chavicol (83.8%), safrole (11.9%) [170].
Candida albicans); not cytotoxic [169].
Branch essential oil: myristicin (70.0%), 1,8-cineole (18.0%) [170].
Leaf essential oil from Uttarakhand,
Lindera pulcherrima (Nees) In Newar community of Kathmandu, Nepal, the leaves and branches Leaf essential oil from Utturakhand: curzerenone (17.6%), furanodienone
antibacterial (Staphylococcus aureus,
Hook. F. (Lauraceae) are used as a spice and flavorant [42]. (46.6%) [101].
Salmonella enterica) [125].
Native to southern and eastern Europe; introduced to India during
the Mughal period [171]. In France and Germany, it is used to treat
digestive ailments (bloating, impaired digestion, eructations,
Matricaria recutita L. (syn. Aerial parts essential oil from Bara, Nepal: (E)-β-farnesene (44.2%),
flatulence, gastrointestinal spasms, inflammation); used topically to Aerial parts essential oil, antimicrobial
Matricaria chamomilla L., α-bisabolol oxide A (22.3%), (E,E)-α-farnesene (8.3%) [174]. Floral essential
treat inflammation of skin and mucous membranes, bacterial (Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas
Chamomilla recutita (L.) oil from Pantnagar, India: α-bisabolol oxide A (36.5%), α-bisabolol (16.0%),
infections (skin, mouth, gargles); anal and genetal disorders (baths, aeruginosa, Candida albicans) [174].
Rauschert) (Asteraceae) * (E)-β-farnesene (14.0%), α-bisabolol oxide B (8.6%) [175].
washes); respiratory irritations (inhalations) [172]. In Nepal, a tea
made from flowers used for stomach ailments, as a sleep aid, mild
laxative [173].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 14 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
Local people in the Mornaula Reserve Forest of Kumaun, India use
the plant to releave stomach ache, vomiting [22]. In Kashmir, a tea None reported for Himalayan essential
from the leaves is taken to treat gastroenteritis [176]; powder from oils, but a leaf oil sample from Banaras
Aerial parts from Kumaon, India: menthol (61.9%–82.2%), menthone
Mentha arvensis L. the aerial parts is taken to treat cough, sore throat, indigestion, and Hindu University showed broad
(3.6%–19.3%) [180]. Aerial parts of Pantnagar, India: menthol
(Lamiaceae) constipation [177]. The Meche people of eastern Nepal chew the spectrum antifungal activity against 14
(77.5%–89.3%), menthone (0.3%–7.9%) [181].
leaves to get rid of phlegm from the throat [109]. In Maccheguan, storage fungi, and insecticidal activitity
Nepal, the leaves (mixed with Ocimum sanctum) are applied against Callosobruchus chinensis [179].
externally and taken orally to treat fever, cold, cough [178].
Aerial parts essential oil from Kumaon, India: carvone (61.1%–78.7%),
In Jammu and Kashmir, India, the essential oil used for flavorings dihydrocarveol (0.4%–9.5%), cis-carvyl acetate (0.2%–6.4%), germacrene D
confectionery [7]; a tea from the leaves is taken as a cooling (1.3%–5.7%) [183].
Mentha longifolia (L.) medicine [182]. In Uttarakhand, India, the herb used for None reported for Himalayan Leaf essential oil from Sirmaur, Himachal Pradesh, India: piperitenone
Huds. (Lamiaceae) gastrointestinal disorders, cough, colds, and chronic fever [19]. In the essential oils. oxide (54.2%), trans-piperitone oxide (24.1%), cis-piperitone oxide
Karnali Zone, Nepal, the leaf juice is applied to cuts and wounds as (7.0%) [184]. Aerial parts essential oil from Tajikistan: cis-piperitone oxide
an antiseptic; a leaf decoction is taken to relieve sore throat [83]. (7.8%–77.6%), piperitenone oxide (1.5%–49.1%), carvone (0.0%–21.5%),
pulegone (0.3%–5.4%), menthone (0.0%–16.6%) [185].
None reported for Himalayan plants, but
commercial peppermint oil rich in
menthone (27.5%–42.3%) and menthol
(18.4%–27.9%) showed antibacterial
In Uttarakhand, India, the crushed leaves are used to treat nausea Aerial parts from Kumaon, India: menthol (22.6%–42.8%), menthone
Mentha ˆ piperita L. (Staphylococcus aureus,
and vomiting [19,186]. Traditional practitioners in Darjeeling, West (0.8%–33.8%), menthyl acetate (0.6%–32.8%), myrcene (0.0%–15.5%),
(Lamiaceae) Listeria monocytogenes,
Bengal, India, use a paste from the whole plant for bodyache [57]. 1,8-cineole (2.3%–13.9%), menthofuran (0.0%–17.9%) [180].
Staphylococcus epidermidis,
Xanthomonas campestris,
Pseudomonas syringae) and antifungal
(Candida albicans) activity [187].
None reported for Himalayan essential
oils, but leaf oil from Paisalabad,
The people of Baitadi and Darchula districts of far-western Nepal
Pakistan showed antibacterial
Mentha spicata L. use the plant to treat asthma and urinary complaints [10]. In the
(Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus), Aerial parts oil from Uttarakhand: carvone (76.7%), limonene (9.6%) [189].
(Lamiaceae) Humla district of western Nepal, the plant is chewed for diarrhea
antifungal (Aspergillus flavus, Rhizopus
and stomachache [44].
solani), and cytotoxic (MCF-7, LNCap)
activities [188].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 15 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
Leaf essential oil from Uttarakhand, Aerial parts essential oil from Uttarakhand: germacrene D (10.8%),
In the Parvati valley, Himachal Pradesh, India, the root powder is antibacterial (Escherichia coli, α-pinene (4.8%), bicyclogermacrene (4.3%), α-cadinol (4.3%),
applied as a poultice on boils and wounds [56]. In the Chamoli Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus vulgaris, (E)-citronellyl tiglate (4.2%) β-phellandrene (3.2%) [193]. Aerial parts
Morina longifolia Wall. ex district of Uttarakhand, the people use the fresh leaves to treat boils, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Bacillus subtilis, essential oil from Uttarakhand: β-myrcene (42.5%), bicyclogermacrene
DC. (Caprifoliaceae) cuts and wounds [190]. Indigenous people of Kavrepalanchowk Pseudomonas aeruginosa), antifungal (8.9%), germacrene D (6.7%), limonene (6.3%) [194]. Aerial parts essential
district of central Nepal use the root juice to treat dysentery and (Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus flavus, oil from Uttarakhand: β-myrcene (14.5%–18.7%), geranyl formate
diarrhea [191]. Aspergillus fumigatus, (7.5%–10.6%), limonene (5.0%–10.4%), bicyclogermacrene
Fusarium solani) [192]. (2.3-%–8.7%) [195].
In far western Nepal, the leaves used as anthelmintic and in blood
Murraya koenigii (L.) disorders [10]. In Uttarakhand, a leaf paste applied to skin None reported for Himalayan Leaf oil from Dehradun, Uttarakhand: α-pinene (51.7%), sabinene (10.5%),
Spreng. (Rutaceae) diseases [19]. In the Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh, a paste of essential oils. β-pinene (9.8%) [197].
the branch is applied as a poultice on skin infections [196].
In far-western Nepal, the rhizome oil is used for headaches; the
rhizome is used in epilepsy and mental weakness [10]. In central
Nepal, the juice from the whole plant is taken to treat headache and
high altitude sickness [11]; the root paste is applied externally to
Rhizome oil from Nepal, antimicrobial
tumors [13]. In northwestern Nepal, a powder or infusion of Rhizome oil from Nepal: β-gurjunene (9.4%), valerena-4,7(11)-diene
Nardostachys grandiflora (Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli,
rhizomes are taken for cough, cold, fever, food poisoning, stomach (7.1%), nardol A (6.0%), 1(10)-aristolen-9β-ol (11.6%), jatamansone
DC. (Caprifoliaceae) Candida albicans), cytotoxic
disorder, intestinal worms, normal headache, and headache from (7.9%) [198].
(MDF-7) [198].
high altitude sickness; a paste is applied externally on wounds; a
paste is also used for joint pains and cuts; a root decoction taken
early in the morning is beleived to be tonic; the plant is also used as
incense [44].
Neolitsea pallens (D. Don)
In the Parbat district of western Nepal, the juice of the fruit is Leaf oil from Uttarakhand not Leaf oil from Uttarakhand: furanogermenone (59.5%), β-caryophyllene
Momiy. and H. Hara
applied externally to treat scabies and exzema [199]. antibacterial [125] (6.6%) [101].
(Lauraceae)
Nepeta ciliaris Benth. Local people in the Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Uttarakhand
None reported None reported
(Lamiaceae) use a decoction of the leaves to reduce fever [49].
Aerial parts essential oil from Malari, Chamoli, Uttarakhand: iridodial
Aerial parts essential oil from β-monoenol acetate (25.3%), β-sesquiphellandrene (22.0%), germacrene D
Nepeta clarkei Hook. f.
None reported Uttarakhand, antimicrobial (Pseudomonas (13.0%), α-guaiene (10.0%) [200]. Aerial parts essential oil from Gulmarg,
(Lamiaceae)
aeruginosa) [200]. Kashmir: kaur-16-ene (36.6%), pimara-7,15-dien-3-one (19.7%),
caryophyllene oxide (14.1%) [201].
In the Bhotiya tribal communities of Niti valley, Uttarakhand, India,
Nepeta discolor Royle ex a leaf decoction, mixed with honey, is used to treat tuberculosis [190]. Essential oil from Uttarakhand, not Aerial parts essential oil from Malari, Chamoli, Uttarakhand: 1,8-cineole
Benth. (Lamiaceae) In the Nubra valley [38] and the Leh-Ladakh region [202] of Kashmir, antimicrobial [200]. (25.5%), β-caryophyllene (18.6%), p-cymene (9.8%) [200].
a decoction of the leaves is used to treat coughs, colds, and fever.
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 16 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
Aerial parts essential oil from
Aerial parts essential oil from Clips, Nainital, Uttarakhand:
Uttarakhand, antimicrobial
Nepeta elliptica Royle ex In Utturakhand, [186] and Jammu and Kashmir [203], an infusion of (7R)-trans,trans-nepetalactone (83.4%) [200]. Aerial parts essential oil from
(Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Benth. (Lamiaceae) the seeds is used for digestive disorders. Jammu and Kashmir: β-elemene (23.4%), α-humulene (11.8%),
Serratia marcescens, Candida albicans,
bicyclogermacrene (13.1%) [204].
Trichophyton rubrum) [200].
Nepeta erecta (Royle ex Aerial parts essential oil from
People of the Deosai Plateau of Pakistani Kashmir use the leaves of Aerial parts essential oil from Hemkund, Uttarakhand: isoiridomyrmecin
Benth.) Benth. Uttarakhand, antimicrobial
N. erecta to cure cough, cold, fever [205]. (66.7%) [200].
(Lamiaceae) (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) [200].
People in the Devikund, Bageshwar [206], and Sundardhunga
Nepeta eriostachys Benth. valley [207], Uttrakhand, give an extract of the leaves for fever.
None reported. None reported.
(Lamiaceae) The whole plant is used in the Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh for
eye complaints [208].
Nepeta floccosa Benth. People in the cold desert of Ladakh, Kashmir prepare a decoction of
None reported. None reported.
(Lamiaceae) the leaves as a remedy for colds, coughs, and fever [202].
Nepeta glutinosa Benth. In the Nubra valley of Kashmir, a decoction of the leaves is taken to
None reported. None reported.
(Lamiaceae) treat diarrhea, pneumonia, and fever [38].
Aerial parts essential oil from Bhundiar, Chamoli, Uttarakhand:
In Murari Devi, Himachal Pradesh, a decoction of whole plant taken
Nepeta govaniana (Wall. ex Aerial parts essential oil from isoiridomymecin (35.2%), pregeijerene (20.7%) [200]. Aerial parts essential
for colds, influenza, diarrhea, colic, insomnia, mentrual cramps [206].
Benth.) Benth. Uttarakhand, antimicrobial oil from Uttarakhand: prejeijerene (38%), geijerene (6.8%) [208]. Aerial
In Pakistani Kashmir, a decoction of whole plant taken for sore
(Lamiaceae) (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) [200]. parts essential oil from Jammu and Kashmir: pregeijerene (56.9%),
throat, and as a cardiac tonic [207].
germacrene D (9.4%), β-caryophyllene (6.1%), torreyol (5.1%) [209].
Aerial parts essential oil from Jammu
and Kashmir, antifungal
Nepeta juncea Benth. Aerial parts essential oil from Jammu and Kashmir: nepetalactone
None reported. (Aspergillus umigatus,
(Lamiaceae) (71.8%) [210].
Trichophyton mentagrophytes,
Trichophyton rubrum) [210].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 17 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
Aerial parts essential oil from Jammu and Kashmir: citronellol (16.5%),
In Pakistani Kashmir, an infusion of seeds used to treat
Aerial parts essential oil from Kumaun, β-caryophyllene (10.8%), germacrene D (19.4%), α-bisabolol oxide B
Nepeta laevigata (D. Don) dysentery [211]. In the Naran valley, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan,
Uttarakhand, radical-scavenging (12.4%) [204]. Aerial parts essential oil from Kumaun, Uttarakhand:
Hand.-Mazz. (Lamiaceae) powders of the dried plants used to treat colds, fevers, and
(DPPH) [213]. 1,8-cineole (11.1%), β-caryophyllene (5.7%), caryophyllene oxide (15.2%),
headaches [212].
manool (7.9%) [214].
Local healers in the Baglund district, Nepal, recommend using the Aerial parts essential oil from Aerial parts essential oil from Nainital, Uttarakhand: iridodial
Nepeta leucophylla Benth.
root juice for fever [215]. In Utturakhand, a leaf paste used to treat Uttarakhand, antimicrobial (Pseudomonas β-monoenol acetate (25.4%), dihydroiridodial diacetate (18.2%), iridodial
(Lamiaceae)
malaria [186]. aeruginosa, Trichophyton rubrum) [200]. dienol diacetate (7.8%) [200].
Nepeta longibracteata Benth. In the Nubra valley of Kashmir, the whole plant is used for stomach
None reported. None reported.
(Lamiaceae) disorders [38].
Nepeta raphanorhiza Benth. Aerial parts essential oil from Kashmir: (Z)-β-farnesene (49.2%),
None reported. None reported.
(Lamiaceae) δ-3-carene (12.3%), α-bisabolene (9.4%), germacrene D-4-ol (5.8%) [216].
Nepeta royleana R.R.
None reported. None reported. Aerial parts essential oil from Himachal Pradesh: 1,8-cineole (75%) [217].
Stewart (Lamiaceae)
Nepeta spicata Wall. ex Aerial parts essential oil from Uttarakhand: β-caryophyllene (27.0%),
None reported. None reported.
Benth. (Lamiaceae) linalool (25.1%), germacrene D (20.1%), caryophyllene oxide (10.6%) [218].
In Nepal, a tea made from the leaves is used to reduce fever [42].
Leaf oil from Nepal: linalool (11.3%), (3Z)-hexenyl benzoate (11.0%),
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. In Ayurvedic medicine, the plant is used as an anthelminthic,
Not antimicrobial [220]. palmitic acid (26.4%), (E)-phytol (13.6%) [220]. Bark oil from Nepal:
(Oleaceae) anti-pyretic, laxative, sedative, and to treat rheumatism and skin
β-eudesmol (17.1%), α-eudesmol (8.7%), palmitic acid (34.3%) [220].
ailments [219].
Villagers in the Kali Gandaki waternshed area of Nepal use a Aerial parts essential oil from Nepal: linalool (50.8%–58.3%), geraniol
Ocimum basilicum L.
decoction of seeds to treat urinary disorders; a leaf paste is used None reported for Himalayan plants. (5.2%–13.7%), eugenol (0.0%–19.1%), τ-cadinol (5.1%–5.9%), 1,8-cineole
(Lamiaceae)
externally to treat skin diseases and fungal infections [81]. (0.8%–7.3%) [221].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 18 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
Aerial parts essential oil from Uttarakhand: thymol (53.2%), p-cymene
(10.3%), carvacrol (3.9%) [17]. Aerial parts essential oil from Rilkot,
Uttarakhand: thymol (82.0%) [227]. Aerial parts essential oil from
Kumaon region, Uttarakhand: thymol (40.9%–63.4%), p-cymene,
(5.1%–25.9%), γ-terpinene (1.4%–20.1%) [228]. Aerial parts essential oil
from Milam, Uttarakhand: thymol (68.5%), p-cymene (8.5%) [226]. Aerial
parts essential oil from Harinagar, Uttarakhand: thymol (41.4%), myrcene
(14.2%), α-humulene (9.2%) [226]. Aerial parts essential oil from Bhowali,
Uttarakhand: thymol methyl ether (45.2%), thymol (44.6%) [226]. Aerial
parts essential oil from Liti, Bageshwar, Uttarakhand: thymol (56.5%),
γ-terpinene (20.2%), p-cymene (8.7%) [229]. Aerial parts essential oil from
The aromatic oil of O. vulgare is used as stimulant, rubefacient, and Patal Bhuvneshwar, Pithoragarh, Uttarakhand: thymol (45.1%),
tonic [7]. People in the Parvati valley (Himachal Pradesh), India, γ-terpinene (21.8%), linalool (13.1%) [229]. Aerial parts essential oil from
apply a paste from the leaves to boils, ulcers, wounds, cuts, burns, Gwaldam, Chamoli, Uttarakhand: thymol (23.3%), (E)-β-ocimene (16.0%),
and weeping eczema [56]. The plant extract is used by people living p-cymene (11.3%), (Z)-β-ocimene (8.9%) [229]. Aerial parts essential oil
in the Nanda Devi National Park (Uttarakhand) to treat bronchitis, from Uttarakhand: carvacrol (58.3%), γ-terpinene (29.4%), p-cymene
coughs, and colds [67]. Local inhabitants of the Kedarnath Wildlife Thymol-rich essential oil from (8.3%) [229]. Aerial parts essential oil from Aeradev, Almora, Uttarakhand:
Sanctuary, Uttarakhand, use the leaves to treat toothache and Uttarakhand, India, antifungal carvacrol (65.3%), γ-terpinene (15.6%) [229]. Aerial parts essential oil from
Origanum vulgare L. swelling [222]. Local people in the Garhwal Himalaya (Uttarakhand) (Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger) Kumaon region, Uttarakhand: carvacrol (52.2%–66.1%), γ-terpinene
(Lamiaceae) apply a leaf paste for skin diseases, insect bites, and earache; a leaf [17]. Thymol-rich essential oil from (5.5%–24.1%), p-cymene (4.2%–34.4%) [230]. Aerial parts essential oil from
decoction is taken for coughs and cold [223]; the powdered leaves are Uttarakhand, antioxidant and radical Kumaon region, Uttarakhand: carvacrol (53.3%), p-cymene (19.2%),
used to treat whooping cough in children [224]. Women in the Gurez scavenging [226]. γ-terpinene (14.5%) [231]. Aerial parts essential oil from Dhanachuli,
Valley of Kashmir take a warm decoction of the plant to alleviate Uttarakhand: thymol (29.2%), carvacrol (27.4%), γ-terpinene (10.1%) [227].
menstrual discomfort [225]. In the Humla district of northwestern Aerial parts essential oil from Dhoulchina, Uttarakhand: thymol (29.7%),
Nepal, the dry or fresh plant is boiled with water, liquid is drunk to carvacrol (20.9%), γ-terpinene (12.4%), p-cymene (6.7%) [232]. Aerial parts
treat stomachache, diarrhea, dysentry, constipation, toothache, essential oil from Champawat, Uttarakhand: thymol (35.1%), carvacrol
earache and rheumatism. It is also widely used as herbal tea [44]. (12.4%), γ-terpinene (14.0%), p-cymene (9.8%) [232]. Aerial parts essential
oil from Naintal, Uttarakhand: linalool (11.0%), bornyl acetate (7.0%),
β-caryophyllene (8.8%), germacrene D (13.3%), germacrene D-4-ol
(9.5%) [227]. Aerial parts essential oil from Bhowali, Uttarakhand: linalool
(14.7%), α-terpineol (8.4%), bornyl acetate (9.3%), β-caryophyllene
(8.7%) [227]. Aerial parts essential oil from Joshimath, Uttarakhand:
linalool (34.4%), germacrene D-4-ol (9.6%), α-cubebene (9.4%), β-cubebene
(7.8%), terpinen-4-ol (5.7%) [226]. Aerial parts essential oil from
Badhangari, Chamoli, Uttarakhand: linalool (28.6%), α-terpineol (20.1%),
1,8-cineole (6.5%) [229]. Aerial parts essential oil from Dronagiri, Almora,
Uttarakhand: linalool (29.8%), α-terpineol (11.9%), terpinene-4-ol (10.2%),
sabinene (10.0%), γ-terpinene
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 19 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
(6.5%), (E)-β-ocimene (5.3%) [229]. Aerial parts essential oil from Purara,
Bageshwar, Uttarakhand: linalool (34.1%), borneol (12.3%), α-terpineol
(9.6%), β-caryophyllene (9.3%), epi-α-bisabolol (6.2%), germacrene D
(5.5%), selin-11-en-4α-ol (5.1%) [229]. Aerial parts essential oil from
Aeradev, Almora, Uttarakhand: (E)-β-ocimene (25.4%), linalool (24.2%),
(Z)-β-ocimene (13.2%), α-terpineol (6.9%), bornyl acetate (6.7%),
epi-α-bisabolol (6.0%) [229]. Aerial parts: linalool (23.8%), myrcene
(18.0%), β-caryophyllene (9.06%), germacrene D (7.4%) [233]. Aerial parts
essential oil from Talvari, Chamoli, Uttarakhand: myrcene (26.0%),
(E)-β-ocimene (15.1%), β-caryophyllene (7.2%), guiaol (7.1%), α-terpineol
(7.0%) [229]. Aerial parts essential oil from Gopeshwar, Uttarakhand:
terpinen-4-ol (16.8%), linalool (10.1%), β-cubebene (6.7%), germacrene D
(5.2%) [226]. Aerial parts essential oil from Badhangari, Chamoli,
Uttarakhand: γ-terpinene (43.4%), thymol (17.9%), myrcene (8.8%) [229].
Aerial parts essential oil from Aeradev, Almora, Uttarakhand: γ-terpinene
(44.2%), thymol (19.0%) p-cymene (12.7%), (E)-β-ocimene (8.6%) [229].
Aerial parts essential oil from Kamedi Devi Bageshwar, Uttarakhand:
γ-terpinene (40.2%), thymol (39.7%), p-cymene (6.1%) [229]. Aerial parts
essential oil from Shama, Bageshwar, Uttarakhand: γ-terpinene (45.9%),
carvacrol (20.1%), p-cymene (14.3%), thymol (5.1%) [229]. Aerial parts
essential oil from Purara, Bageshwar, Uttarakhand: sabinene (16.5%),
myrcene (14.2%), borneol (13.4%), β-caryophyllene (8.9%), (E)-β-ocimene
(5.3%) [229]. Aerial parts essential oil from Shama, Bageshwar,
Uttarakhand: borneol (15.5%), epi-α-bisabolol (12.2%), linalool (12.0%),
sabinene (8.1%), bornyl acetate (7.3%), germacrene D (6.7%) [229]. Aerial
parts essential oil from Rushi village, Uttarakhand: bornyl acetate (16.8%),
germacrene D (11.3%), β-caryophyllene (10.5%), linalool (6.7%) [232].
Aerial parts essential oil from Bhowali, Nainital, Uttarakhand: germacrene
D (26.3%), linalool (18.8%), β-caryophyllene (14.6%), p-cymene
(5.2%) [229]. Aerial parts essential oil from Kilbury, Uttarakhand:
β-caryophyllene (13.8%), bornyl acetate (12.6%), linalool (9.7%),
germacrene D (6.3%), (Z)-β-ocimene (5.9%) [232].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 20 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
Aerial parts essential oil from Karakoram, Jammu and Kashmir: α-pinene
Perovskia abrotanoides Kar. The plant extract is used by people in the Nubra valley, Jammu and Essential oil from Karakoram, Jammu
(18.2%–23.2%), 1,8-cineole (24.4%–27.1%), borneol (7.9%–10.4%),
(Lamiaceae) Kashmir, to treat coughs and headache [38]. and Kashmir, not antifungal [210].
β-caryophyllene (5.7%–12.3%), δ-3-carene (4.7%–9.3%) [210].
Leaf oil from Uttarakhand, antibacterial
Persea duthiei (King) In India, the tree is not used medicinally; the wood is used for fuel; Leaf essential oil from Uttarakhand: α-pinene (10.0%), β-pinene (10.0%),
(Escherichia coli,
Kosterm. (Lauraceae) the leaves are used for fodder; the fruit is edible [234,235]. limonene (10.1%), (E)-nerolidol (13.2%) [101].
Pasteurella multocida) [125].
Persea gamblei (King ex
In India, this tree is not used medicinally; it is used for Leaf oil from Uttarakhand, antibacterial Leaf essential oil from Uttarakhand: β-caryophyllene (22.1%), γ-gurjunene
Hook. f.) Kosterm.
firewood [235]. (Staphylococcus aureus) [125]. (16.8%) [101].
(Lauraceae)
Leaf oil from Uttarakhand, antibacterial
Persea odoratissima (Nees) In Nepal, the tree is not used medicinally; the wood is used for fuel; Leaf essential oil from Uttarakhand: α-pinene (16.6%), sabinene (13.1%),
(Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus,
Kosterm. (Lauraceae) the leaves are used for fodder [236,237]. β-caryophyllene (10.4%), (E)-nerolidol (13.2%) [101].
Salmonella enterica) [125].
Phoebe lanceolata (Nees) Leaf oil from Uttarakhand, antibacterial Leaf essential oil from Uttarakhand: 1,8-cineole (18.2%), β-caryophyllene
In Uttarakhand, the plant used to treat wounds and sores [238].
Nees (Lauraceae) (Escherichia coli) [125]. (27.4%) [101].
In Kashmir, the bark resin used as expectorant for bronchitis [7]. Leaf essential oil from Nepal: β-caryophyllene (31.7%), terpinen-4-ol
In far-western Nepal, a paste made from the bark is used to treat (30.1%), α-humulene (7.3%) [239]. Bark essential oil from Nepal:
Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Cone oil from Nepal: cytotoxic (MCF-7),
burns and scalds; the bark resin is applied to boils [10]. β-caryophyllene (34.5%), eugenol (11.4%), linalool (6.4%) [239]. Cone
(Pinaceae) antifungal (Aspergillus niger) [239]
In Uttarakhand, the bark resin is used to treat snake bite and essential oil from Nepal: β-caryophyllene (26.8%), terpinen-4-ol (16.2%),
scorpion sting [19]. δ-3-carene (6.8%) [239].
In Nepal, the leaves are fried in ghee and taken to treat cough in
children [109]. In Himalayan India, the leaves are used to treat
headache, sore throat, constipation [73]. In India, betel leaf is used to Leaf oil from Nepal, cytotoxic Leaf essential oil from Nepal: chavibetol (80.5%), chavibetol acetate
Piper betle L. (Piperaceae)
various conditions, including bad breath, boils, conjunctivitis, (MCF-7) [241]. (11.7%), allylpyrocatechol diacetate (6.2%) [241].
constipation, headache, hysteria, itching, mastitis, ringworm,
rheumatism, cuts and wounds [240].
Root, leaf, and floral essential oils from
Uttarakhand antifungal (Candida
albicans); root oil antibacterial (Salmonella
Root essential oil from Milam Glacier, Uttarakhand: nothoapiole
typhi, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus
Pleurospermum angelicoides In Uttarakhand, a decoction of the root, mixed with cumin and black (87.3%) [243]. Leaf essential oil from Milam Glacier, Uttarakhand:
mutans); leaf oil antibacterial (Klebsiella
(Wall. ex DC.) Benth. ex pepper, is taken to reduce fever and treat chronic gastric limonene (48.4%), α-asarone (23.2%), γ-terpinene (11.0%) [243]. Floral
pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus,
C.B. Clarke (Apiaceae) disorders [190,242]. essential oil from Milam Glacier, Uttarakhand: α-pinene (22.3%),
Streptococcus mutans, Bacillus subtilis);
α-asarone (20.7%), perilla aldehyde (16.8%), limonene (14.8%) [243].
floral oil antibacterial (Salmonella typhi,
Klebsiella pneumoniae, Streptococcus
mutans) [243].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 21 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
Aerial parts, essential oil from Nepal,
In central Nepal, a tea from dried flowers is taken to treat gastritis
Rhododendron anthopogon antimicrobial (Bacillus subtilis, Aerial parts essential oil from Dolakha district, Nepal: α-pinene (37.4%),
and stomach disorders [244]. In the Sunderdhunga valley,
D. Don (Ericaceae) Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Candida β-pinene (16.0%), limonene (13.3%), δ-cadinene (9.1%) [246].
Uttarakhand, a decoction of young shoots is given to cure fever [245].
pseudotropicalis); cytotoxic (A-431) [246].
In the Parvati valley (Himachal Pradesh), India, the smoke produced
Root essential oil from Rhohtang, Himachal Pradesh: Nona-3,5-diyne
Selinum tenuifolium Salisb. from the roots is used for killing and repelling insects [56]. People in None reported for Himalayan
(85.6%) [248]. Aerial parts essential oil from Chamoli, Uttarakhand:
(Apiaceae) the Pangi Valley, Himachal Pradesh, use a powder of the roots and essential oils.
α-bisabolol (71.8%) [249]
umbels to treat swelling and knee pain [247].
Senecio nudicaulis In the Almora district of Uttarakhand, the leaf juice is dropped into Aerial parts essential oil from Himachal Aerial parts essential oil from Himachal Pradesh: caryophyllene oxide
Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don the eyes to treat conjunctivitis; the leaf paste applied externally to Pradesh, free-radical-scavenging (DPPH, (25.0%), humulene epoxide-II (21.3%), α-humulene (18.8%),
(Asteraceae) wounds [250]. ABTS) [251]. β-caryophyllene (9.7%) [251].
Leaf essential oil from Uttarakhand: germacrene D (33.7%), δ-cadinene
Senecio rufinervis DC. In the Tons River valley, Uttarakhesh, a decoction of the leaves is None reported for Himalayan (5.5%), γ-cadinene (5.5%), germacrene D-4-ol (5.4%) [253]. Root essential
(Asteraceae) used to relieve stomache ache [252]. essential oils. oil from Uttarakhand: germacrene D (32.9%), germacrene A (19.5%),
δ-elemene (7.6%) [253].
Leaf essential oil from Uttarakhand: germacrene B (11.6%), linalool (9.5%),
The leaf and floral essential oils from
Skimmia anquetilia Tayl. In far western Nepal, the local people take an infusion of the leaf for linalyl acetate (7.3%), α-bisabolol (7.2%), β-gurjunene (6.6%) [255]. Floral
Uttarakhand inhibited egg laying by the
and Airy Shaw (Rutaceae) headache and freshness [30]. essential oil from Uttarakhand: β-phellandrene (18.6%), geijerene (15.1%),
beetle, Caryedon serratus [254].
linalyl acetate (11.2%), linalool (9.4%) [255].
Aerial parts essential oil from Jammu
and Kashmir, antimicrobial
(Staphylococcus aureus, Aerial parts essential oil from Jammu and Kashmir: linalyl acetate (33.0%),
Staphylococcus epidermidis, linalool (25.0%), limonene (8.1%), α-terpineol (5.9%) and geranyl acetate
In Uttarakhand, the leaf used as incense [22]; the leaf paste (with cow
Aspergillus niger, Penicillium chrysogenum) (5.9%) [257]. Aerial parts essential oil from Dalhousie, Himachal Pradesh:
Skimmia laureola (DC.) urine) is used to treat psoriasis [67]. In the Chail valley of Khyber
[257]. Leaf oil from Patrak, Pakistan, linalool (34.9%), linalyl acetate (26.7%), α-terpineol (12.8%), geranyl
Decne. (Rutaceae) Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistant, the leaf powder is taken orally with water
antispasmodic, antimicrobial acetate (6.6%) [154]. Leaf essential oil from Patrak, Pakistan: linalyl acetate
to treat smallpox, intestinal worms, and colic [256].
(Micrococcus luteus, Streptococcus viridans, (50.5%), linalool (13.1%), geranyl acetate (8.5%), cis-p-menth-2-en-1-ol
Pasteurella multocida; (6.2%) [258].
Tricophyton longifusis, Candida albicans,
Aspergillus flavus) [258].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 22 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
Fruit essential oil from Kirtipur, Nepal: benzyl benzoate (21.7%),
(E,E)-geranyllinalool (12.6%) [259]. Leaf essential oil from Kirtipur, Nepal:
Solanum xanthocarpum
The tribal people of the Sewa River area of Jammu and Kashmir, None reported for Himalayan heptacosane (20.0%), (E)-phytol (8.4%) [259]. Stem essential oil from
Schrad. and J.C. Wendl.
India, use the plant juice to treat dysentery and fever [7]. essential oils. Kirtipur, Nepal: palmitic acid (28.9%), heptacosane (12.8%), linoleic acid
(Solanaceae)
(10.1%) [259]. Root essential oil from Kirtipur, Nepal: solavetivone (22.9%),
palmitic acid (21.0%), linoleic acid (8.2%) [259].
Stachys sericea Wall. ex None reported for Himalayan Aerial parts essential oil from Uttarakhand: germacrene D (37.7%),
In Kashmir, the whole plant taken internally to treat epilepsy [203].
Benth. (Lamiaceae) essential oils. β-caryophyllene (17.4%), δ-cadinene (6.0%) [260].
Aerial parts essential oil from Ladakh, Kashmir: lavendulol (21.5%),
Tanacetum gracile Hook. f. Essential oil from Ladakh, Kashmir,
In Kashmir, the leaves are used as an anthelmintic 1,8-cineole (15.2%), (Z)-β-ocimene (6.4%) [262]. Aerial parts essential oil
and Thomson cytotoxic, induces apoptosis (HL-60
(intestinal worms) [62]. from Nalyang valley, Uttarkashi district, Uttarakhand: α-bisabolol (28.0%),
(Asteraceae) leukemia, IC50 = 27 µg/mL) [261].
chamazulene (8.4%), α-phellandrene (6.9%) [263].
In Kashmir, the root powder is taken with tea to relieve stomach
Aerial parts essential oil from Milam
Tanacetum longifolium Wall. pain [203]. Local inhabitants of the Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary, Aerial parts essential oil from Milam Glacier, Uttarakhand: trans-sabinyl
Glacier, Uttarakhand, antifungal
ex DC. (Asteraceae) Uttarakhand, use the leaves to treat stomachache and acetate (43.2%) and trans-sabinol (12.7%) [264].
(Candida albicans, Candida glabrata) [264].
indigestion [222].
Aerial parts from Malari, Chamoli district, Uttarakhand: cis-chrysanthenol
(37.0%), sabinene (10.7%), cis-chrysanthenyl acetate (5.8%),
cis-chrysanthenyl isobutyrate (5.7%) [268]. Aerial parts essential oil from
Milam glacier, Uttarakhand: bornyl acetate (39.7%), borneol (10.6%),
Aerial parts essential oil from (E)-β-farnesene (6.6%), 1,8-cineole (5.8%) [269]. Aerial parts essential oil
Uttarakhand, antibacterial from Pindari glacier, Uttarakhand: linalool oxide acetate (69.4%) [269].
(Staphylococcus aureus, Aerial parts essential oil from Dhol Dhar, Chamoli district, Uttarakhand:
Tanacetum nubigenum Wall. In Uttarakhand, a decoction of the leaves is used as an Enterococcus faecalis), antifungal 1,8-cineole (30.0%), sabinene (15.6%), eudesmol (11.2%), camphor
ex DC. (Asteraceae) antimicrobial [265]. (Candida albicans) [266]. Aerial parts (8.0%), [263]. Aerial parts essential oil from Gothing, Chamoli district,
essential oil from Uttarakhand, Uttarakhand: selin-11-en-4α-ol (10.3%), methyl acetopyronone (9.5%),
insecticidal and insect repellent 2,6,8-trimethyl-4-nonanone (8.8%), terpinen-4-ol (7.1%), camphor (6.9%),
(Tribolium castaneum) [267]. borneol (5.8%) [267]. Aerial parts essential oil from Burphu, Pithoragarh
district, Uttarakhand: borneol (19.8%), 1,8-cineole (10.9%), cis-piperitol
(10.9%), camphor (9.7%), bornyl acetate (8.1%) [267]. Aerial parts essential
oil from Milam glacier, Uttarakhand: bornyl acetate (38.1%), borneol
(19.5%), 1,8-cineole (7.3%) [267].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 23 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
Women in the Garhwal region of India take a decoction of the bark Leaf essential oil from Kangra, Himachal Pradesh: α-pinene (29.2%),
Thuja orientalis L. Leaf oil from Himachal Pradesh,
orally to treat leucorrhea [270]. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, δ-3-carene (20.1%), α-cedrol (9.8%), β-caryophyllene (7.5%), α-humulene
(Cupressaceae) antifungal (Alternaria alternata) [272].
the powdered seeds used for tooth ache [271]. (5.6%) [272].
Tribal people of the Sewa River area of Jammu and Kashmir, India, Aerial parts essential oil from Rupal valley, Pakistani Kashmir: thymol
apply an oil from the herb to the gums for toothache [7]. People in (38.4%), carvacrol (30.7%), γ-terpinene (10.1%) [210]. Aerial parts essential
Essential oils from Pakistani Kashmir,
the Mornaula Reserve Forest of Kumaun (Uttarakhand), India, use oil from Hunza valley, Pakistani Kashmir: thymol (53.0%), carvacrol
antifungal (Aspergillus fumigatus,
the whole plant as an anthelmintic and vermicide [22]. In the Humla (14.4%) [210]. Aerial parts essential oil from Rakaposh, Pakistani Kashmir:
Thymus linearis Benth. Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Trichophyton
district of western Nepal, a decoction of the ground aerial parts is geraniol (67.8%), geranyl acetate (16.8%) [210]. Aerial parts essential oil
(Lamiaceae) rubrum) [210]. Essential oil from Gilgit
drunk to treat cough, cold, stomachache, gastritis, diarrhea, from Gilgit valley, Pakistan: thymol (36.5%), carvacrol (9.5%), thymyl
valley, Pakistan, cytotoxic (MCF-7,
indigestion. It is widely used as herbal tea [44]. The powdered leaf acetate (7.3%), and β-caryophyllene (5.8%) [273]. Aerial parts essential oils
LNCaP and NIH-3T3) [273].
(with honey) is used by people living in the Nanda Devi National from Uttarakhand: thymol (52.3-66.7%), p-cymene (1.81-21.6%) and
Park (Uttarakhand, India), to treat eczema and psoriasis [67]. γ-terpinene (1.9-12.5%) [274].
Aerial parts essential oil from Muzaffarabad, Jammu and Kashmir: thymol
(16.5-18.8%), 1,8-cineole (14.0%–18.0%) [276]. Aerial parts essential oil
Ethnic people of Almora distric of Uttarakhand use the juice of the Aerial parts essential oil from Jammu
Thymus serpyllum L. from Purara, Uttarakhand: thymol (19.4%–60.1%), γ-terpinene
whole plant orally to treat cough and asthma; the paste of whole and Kashmir, antifungal
(Lamiaceae) (0.3%–13.8%) and p-cymene (3.5%–10.4%) [277]. Aerial parts essential oil
plant is used externally to treat arthritis [275]. (Fusarium solani) [276].
from Kattyur valley, Uttarakhand: thymol (58.8%), p-cymene (5.7%),
thymol methyl ether (4.0%) [278].
Root/rhizome essential oil from Arunachal Pradesh: bornyl acetate
(11.2%), cuparene (7.1%), valeracetate (11.6%), methyl linoleate
(21.1%) [279]. Root/rhizome essential oil from Khati village, Uttarakhand:
Local people in the Humla district of northwestern Nepal, use an bornyl acetate (20.5%), epoxysesquithujene [280]. Root/rhizome essential
infusion of the root powder for headache, indigestion, diarrhea, oil from Milam, Uttarakhand: valeracetate (17.3%), bornyl acetate (15.3%),
Valeriana hardwickii Wall. None reported for Himalayan
dysentery, and for coughs and cold [44]. Ethnic people of Almora methyl linoleate (11.7%), cuparene (10.4%), α-cedrene (6.2%) [281].
(Caprifoliaceae) essential oils.
distric of Uttarakhand use the plant extract to treat malaria; the leaf Root/rhizome essential oil from Mapang, Pithoragarh, Uttarakhand:
paste is used externally to treat boils and eczema [275]. bornyl acetate (17.8%), valeracetate (13.3%), 8-epikessyl glycol diacetate
(10.6%) [282]. Root/rhizome essential oil from Vishnu Prayag, Chamoli,
Uttarakhand: kessanyl acetate (22.2%), maaliol (13.4%), bornyl acetate
(7.4%), β-gurjunene (5.4%) [282].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 24 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
Root/rhizome oil from Uttarakhand: maaliol (64.3%), viridiflorol (7.2%),
β-gurjunene (7.2%) [282,287]. Root/rhizome oil from Bageshwar,
Uttarakhand: maaliol (53.8%), β-gurjunene (14.2%) [288]. Root/rhizome
oil from Uttarkashi, Uttarakhand: maaliol (42.1%), β-gurjunene (20.8%),
seychellene (17.6%), α-santalene (8.7%) [288]. Root/rhizome oil from
Dehradun, Uttarakhand: maaliol (51.7%), seychellene (13.7%),
β-gurjunene (13.2%), α-santalene (6.0%) [288]. Root/rhizome oil from
Uttarakhand: patchouli alcohol (40.2%), α-bulnesene (10.7%), seychellene
(8.2%), viridiflorol (5.2%) [282,287]. Root/rhizome essential oil from
Katarmal forest, Almora, Uttarakhand: patchouli alcohol (36.6%),
People in far western Nepal use the root as an anthelmintic and as a α-bulnesene (10.0%), seychellene (4.8%) [289]. Root/rhizome oil from
tonic [10,283]. Local people in the Rasuwa district of central Nepal Bageshwar, Uttarakhand: patchouli alcohol (63.7%), maaliol (13.3%),
Rhizome paste is applied to cuts and wounds and joint problems. seychellene (4.1%), [288]. Root/rhizome oil from Nainital, Uttarakhand:
Rhizome is chewed to treat sore throat [11]. In the Humla district of patchouli alcohol (43.1%), seychellene (8.0%), viridiflorol (7.1%),
western Nepal, Fresh or dry roots are grinded for paste or powder α-bulnesene (6.3%), α-patchoulene (5.7%), maaliol (5.8%) [288].
and taken with hot water to treat headache, indigestion, diarrhea Root/rhizome oil from Shillong, Meghalaya: patchouli alcohol (57.2%),
and dysentry. It is used in cough and cold. The plant juice or paste is seychellene (10.8%), α-patchoulene (6.6%), viridiflorol (6.0%), maaliol
Valeriana jatamansi Jones also applied on the body of young babies to protect them from (5.8%) α-bulnesene (5.2%) [288]. Root/rhizome essential oil from
Leaf oil from Kashmir, antifungal
(syn. Valeriana wallichii extreme heat-borne diseases [44]. Lay people in the Karnali zone of Kosi-Katarmal, Almora, Uttarakhand: patchouli alcohol (52.1%),
(Microsporum canis, Fusarum solani) [286].
DC.) (Caprifoliaceae) west Nepal use a decoction of the root to wash wounds [83]. In the seychellene (4.5%) [289]. Root/rhizome essential oil from Kullu, Himachal
villages of Chaubas and Syabru, central Nepal, the rhizome oil is Pradesh: patchouli alcohol (60.2%), azulene (6.7%), seychellene
used for rheumatism and dislocation of joints [284]. The local people (5.3%) [290]. Root/rhizome essential oil from Mandi, Himachal Pradesh:
in the Dolpa district of Nepal use a paste of the rhizome to treat patchouli alcohol (52.5%), viridiflorol (13.2%) [290]. Root/rhizome
headache, sore throat, and shock; it is also taken as a tonic; leaf and essential oil from Mandi, Himachal Pradesh: patchouli alcohol (51.0%),
rhizome extracts are applied to boils and burns [285]. Ethnic people viridiflorol (19.9%) [290]. Root/rhizome essential oil from Chamba,
of Almora distric of Uttarakhand use the dried root as incense and Himachal Pradesh: patchouli alcohol (59.3%), viridiflorol (15.2%) [290].
insecticide [275]. Root/rhizome essential oil from Cantonment area, Uttarakhand: patchouli
alcohol (40.6%), α-bulnesene (12.4%), α-guaiene (9.9%), seychellene
(6.2%) [291]. Root/rhizome essential oil from Gwaldam, Uttarakhand:
patchouli alcohol (46.2%) [291]. Root/rhizome essential oil from Laubanj,
Uttarakhand: patchouli alcohol (60.9%) [291]. Root/rhizome essential oil
from Dewalchoura, Uttarakhand: α-bulnesene (23.5%), patchouli alcohol
18.1%), α-guaiene (13.3%), viridiflorol (7.3%) [291]. Root/rhizome
essential oil from Shitlakhet, Uttarakhand: patchouli alcohol (28.4%),
α-bulnesene (21.4%), α-guaiene (11.2%), seychellene (7.4%) [291].
Root/rhizome essential oil from Jakhera, Uttarakhand: patchouli alcohol
(13.4%), α-bulnesene (12.8%), α-guaiene (11.9%), β-gurjunene (7.1%),
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 25 of 55

Table 1. Cont.

Plant Species (Family) Ethnopharmacology Bioactivity of Himalayan Essential Oil Major Essential Oil Components
β-caryophyllene (5.1%) [291]. Root/rhizome essential oil from Kullu,
Himachal Pradesh: patchouli alcohol (39.8%), viridiflorol (21.1%),
β-gurjunene (6.6%) [290]. Root/rhizome essential oil from Chamba,
Himachal Pradesh: patchouli alcohol (27.2%), viridiflorol (27.3%),
β-gurjunene (11.7%), α-patchoulene (5.7%) [290]. Root/rhizome essential
oil from Chamba, Himachal Pradesh: patchouli alcohol (30.2%),
viridiflorol (24.4%), β-gurjunene (13.5%), α-patchoulene (8.2%) [290].
Root/rhizome oil from Almora, Uttarakhand: seychellene (27.4%), maaliol
(15.5%), β-gurjunene (13.6%), patchouli alcohol (12.2%), α-santalene
(12.0%) [288]. Rhizome essential oil from Bhundiar, Chamoli, Uttarakhand:
kanokonyl acetate (42.4%), γ-curcumene (10.7%), ar-curcumene
(7.2%) [292]. Leaf essential oil from Jammu and Kashmir: maaliol (35.2%),
3-methylvaleric acid (25.7%), β-gurjunene (7.2%) [286]. Leaf essential oil
from Uttarakhand: maaliol (39.2%), 3-methylvaleric acid (26.5%) [293].
The tribal people of the Sewa River area of Jammu and Kashmir,
India, use the aromatic leaves as a tonic and vermifuge [7]. In far
Leaf essential oil from Kurukshetra, Haryana, India: ethyl
Vitex negundo L. western Nepal, the local people take the leaf juice for None reported for Himalayan
9-hexadecenoate (28.5%), α-bulnesene (18.0%), caryophyllene oxide
(Verbenaceae) stomachache [30]. In the Parvati valley, Himachal Pradesh, India, the essential oils.
(10.2%), β-caryophyllene (5.0%) [294].
people prepare a paste of the leaves with cow urine and apply it to
wounds and swellings [56].
The Bhots people of Spiti Valley, Himachal Pradesh, India, use the Fruit essential oil from Pithoragarh, Uttarakhand: linalool (55.3%),
bark use to relieve toothache [7]. The people of Baitadi and Darchula limonene (22.5%), methyl cinnamate (8.8%) [295].
districts of far-western Nepal use the fruits used to treat colds, Leaf essential from Kumaon, Uttarakhand: 2-undecanone (55.7%), linalool
Zanthoxylum armatum DC.
coughs, toothaches; the bark is used to stupefy fish [10]. Local people None reported for Himalayan (11.5%), β-caryophyllene (4.6%), 1,8-cineole (4.3%) [296]. Leaf essential oil
(syn. Zanthoxylum alatum
in the Rasuwa district of central Nepal take the pickled fruits for essential oils. from Mandi, Himachal Pradesh: linalool (30.6%), 2-decanone (20.9%),
Roxb.) (Rutaceae)
stomach ache and indigestion [11]. In Newar community of 2-tridecanone (8.9%), β-fenchol (9.4%), β-phellandrene (6.0%) [297]. Fruit
Kathmandu, Nepal, the fruit used for antileech, indigestion, spice pericarp oil from Uttar Pradesh: linalool (72%), methyl cinnamate (12.2%),
and flavorant [42]. limonene (6.2%), β-phellandrene (5.3%) [298].
* Introduced species
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 26 of 55

2. The Genus Artemisia

There are approximately 400 species of Artemisia distributed throughout temperate regions of
the world, and the genus is typically characterized by aromatic shrubs and herbs [299]. Numerous
members of the genus are used as traditional medicines by indigenous cultures, and many show
biological activities including antimalarial, cytotoxic, antihepatotoxic, antibacterial, antifungal and
antioxidant activities [300]. Some particularly notable members of the genus include A. absinthium L.,
the major component of the notorious spirit drink absinthe [301]; A. annua L., the efficacious
antimalarial drug qinghaosu [302]; A. dracunculus L., the flavoring herb tarragon [303]; and A. tridentata
Nutt., the “big sagebrush” of western North America [304].
In the Himalaya, 19 species of Artemisia are recognized to be medicinal herbs (A. absinthium,
A. biennis, A. brevifolia, A. desertorum, A. dracunculus, A. dubia, A. gmelinii, A. indica, A. japonica,
A. lacinata, A. macrocephala, A. maratima, A. moorcroftiana, A. nilagarica, A. parviflora, A. roxburghiana,
A. scoparia, A. sieversiana, and A. vulgaris) [55,59], and some of these have been investigated for volatile
compositions and bioactivity (see Table 1). A. dracunculus (tarragon) is used worldwide, including
the Himalayan region, as a flavoring agent for food. The plant is also used ethnobotanically. Native
peoples in the Nubra valley (Kashmir) [38], Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary (Himachal Pradesh) [39], and
the Lahaul Valley (Himachal Pradesh) [40] use a paste from the leaves to treat wounds on the legs of
donkeys and yaks; an extract of the whole plant is used to relieve toothache, reduce fever, and as a
treatment for dysentery, intestinal worms, and stomachache. A. dracunculus from the Himalayas is a
rich source of the diacetylene capillene and the monoterpene (Z)-β-ocimene [36,37,41], and is markedly
different from “French tarragon”, which is dominated by estragole (up to 74%), or “Russian tarragon”,
which is dominated by elemicin (up to 57%), or other cultivars of A. dracunculus [303].
The leaf juice of A. dubia is used by villagers in the Dolpa district of Nepal [285] and the Newar
community of Kathmandu, Nepal [42], as an antiseptic to cure cuts and wounds and the leaf extracts
are used as pesticides. The essential oil of A. dubia was shown to be rich in chrysanthenone (29.0%),
coumarins (18.3%), and camphor (16.4%) [43]. Although the leaf oil showed in vitro cytotoxic activity
against MCF-7 human breast tumor cells and antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger, it was inactive
against the bacteria Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa [43].
Thus, the antiseptic qualities of A. dubia must be due to non-volatile components in the plant.
In the Humla district of northwestern Nepal, the whole fresh plant of A. gmelinii is ground into
a paste an applied externally to cure headache, boils, and pimples [44]. The essential oils from the aerial
parts of A. gmelinii from Himalayan India are dominated by artemisia ketone and 1,8-cineole [45,46].
Neither of these compounds, however, are notably antibacterial (B. cereus, S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa)
or antifungal (Candida albicans, A. niger) [305].
The essential oil composition of A. indica has shown wide variation. The leaf essential oil from
Nepal was dominated by ascaridole (15.4%), isoascaridole (9.9%), trans-p-mentha-2,8-dien-1-ol (9.7%),
and trans-verbenol (8.4%) [43]. Conversely, the essential oil from the aerial parts of a sample from
Uttarakhand, India was rich in davanone (30.8%), β-pinene (15.3%), and germacrene D (5.8%) [48],
while the aerial parts essential oil from a sample collected from Kashmir was dominated by artemisia
ketone (42.1%), germacrene B (8.6%), and borneol (6.1%) [47]. The oil from Kashmir was screened for
antimicrobial activity and showed extraordinary activity against S. aureus and Penicillium chrysogenum
(MIC = 16 µg/mL). The Kashmir oil also showed remarkable cytotoxic activity against THP-1
(leukemia), A-549 (lung), HEP-2 (liver) and Caco-2 (colon) human tumor cells. The Nepali A. indica
oil showed neither antibacterial (B. cereus, S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa), antifungal (A. niger), nor
cytotoxic (MCF-7 breast tumor) activities [43]. In Nepal, the leaves are used to make a paste that is
applied to cuts and wounds [11,12], while the juice of the plant is used to treat indigestion [42].
In the Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand, the leaves of Artemisia japonica are used as an incense
and insecticide [49] and in ethnoveterinary medicine the plant is used as a treatment for internal
parasites (e.g., round worm) [306]. In northern Pakistan, the leaf extract is used to treat malaria
while a paste of the leaves is applied externally to treat skin diseases [50]. The essential oil from
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 27 of 55

the aerial parts of A. japonica collected from Milam glacier (Uttarakhand), India, was dominated by
the monoterpenoids linalool (27.5%), (E)-β-ocimene (6.5%), 1,8-cineole (5.5%), and (Z)-β-ocimene
(5.5%), along with germacrene D (11.2%) [51]. In contrast, a sample of A. japonica from southern India
(Munmar, Kerala) was rich in sesquiterpene hydrocarbons: Spathulenol (12%), germacrene D (7.5%),
β-elemene (2.8%), β-caryophyllene (2.4%) [307].
Artemisia maritima is used by several Himalayan peoples to treat stomach problems and for
expelling intestinal worms [50,182,308]. Mathela and co-workers [45] found A. maritima essential oil
from Malari (Garhwal region, India) to be rich in α-thujone (63.3%), sabinene (7.8%), and 1,8-cineole
(6.5%), while 1,8-cineole and chrystanthenone dominated the essential oils from Himachal Pradesh [50]
and Chamoli (Garhwal region, India) [51]. Camphor was the dominant monoterpenoid (44.4%)
in an essential oil sample from Lahaul-Spiti (Hamachal Pradesh, India) [52], which was screened
for antimicrobial activity (S. aureus, E. coli, S. abony, P. aeruginosa, C. albicans), but was found to be
inactive. Commercial A. maritima oil from Pakistan was also rich in 1,8-cineole (41.1%) and camphor
(20.3%) [309]. α-Thujone has shown anthelmintic activity [310], and high concentrations of α-thujone
in some A. maritima essential oils likely account for the ethnopharmacological use of this plant to expel
intestinal parasites. The compound is a potent neurotoxin and modulator of the GABA-gated chloride
channel, however [311]. Conversely, camphor has been shown not have anthelmintic activity [312],
but the compound is toxic to humans and ingestion may cause seizures [313,314]. 1,8-Cineole has
been shown to inhibit castor oil-induced diarrhea in rats [315], prevent ethanol-induced gastric injury
in rats [316], and attenuate trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-induced colitis in rats [317], and so this
compound may be an important component in the traditional use of 1,8-cineole-containing herbal
medicines for stomach problems.
Artemisia nilagirica is widely found in the hilly areas of northern India, where it is used as an
insecticide [318]. A. nilagirica essential oil compositions have shown altitudinal variation. Badoni and
co-workers [55] found that A. nilagririca from lower altitudes in Uttarakhand (500 m asl) contained
α-thujone (36.9%) as the major component, the oil from intermediate elevation (1200 m asl) had
mequinyl p-nitrobenzoate (22.1%), cadina-1,4-diene (17.7%), and β-eudesmol (12.4%) as the major
components, and the sample from higher elevation (2000 m asl) had linalool (32.5%) and isopulegyl
acetate (20.7%) as the major components. Haider and co-workers [56], working in Himachal Pradesh,
observed a similar effect, albeit with very different composition. A. nilagririca from lower altitudes
(Mandi, 1044 m asl) contained caryophyllene oxide (28.6%) as the major component, the oil from
intermediate elevation (Manali, 2050 m asl) had borneol (35.8%) as the major component, and the
sample from higher elevation (Shimla, 2210 m asl) was dominated by camphor (46.9%).
The A. nilagirica essential oil from Himachal Pradesh [major components: camphor
(12.6%), artemisia ketone (10.2%), caryophyllene oxide (7.4%), borneol (5.3%)] showed antifungal
activity against the plant pathogenic fungi Colletotrichum acutatum, Colletotrichum fragariae, and
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, but did not show antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, E. coli, S. abony,
P. aeruginosa, or C. albicans [52]. Similarly, the α-thujone-rich essential oil from Uttarakhand was active
against plant pathogenic fungi Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotium rolfsii, and Macrophomina phaseolina [54].
Another essential oil sample from Uttarakhand [major components: linalool (16.3%), α-thujone (13.9%),
β-caryophyllene (7.5%), germacrene D (7.1%)] did show notable antibacterial activity against S. aureus
and P. aeruginosa with MIC values of 6.25 and 12.5 µg/mL, respectively [55]. Traditional medical
practitioners in Darjeeling, West Bengal, India, chew shoots of the plant to treat oral ulcers and
apply crushed leaves to the forehead for dizziness and headaches [54]. Inhabitants of the Parvati
valley, Himachal Pradesh, India, make a paste from the leaves and apply it cuts and wounds to check
bleeding [53]. The antimicrobial activities of A. nilagrica (see above) are consistent with the traditional
uses of the plant for wounds and ulcers.
Artemisia parviflora is widely distributed in the Himalayas between about 900 and 3500 m asl [319].
In the traditional medicine of the Kumaun Himalaya, the leaves of A. parviflora are used to treat skin
diseases, burns, cuts, and wounds, while the volatiles from the plant are used to repel insects [19].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 28 of 55

The indigenous peoples of Jammu and Kashmir (India) use A. parviflora as a diuretic and to treat
gynecological disorders [59]. The plant is also used in ethnoveterinary medicine as an anthelmintic;
a decoction of the leaves and buds of the plant are given to stock animals (e.g., horses, mules, sheep, and
buffaloes) for round worm [320]. The plant is also used as a fodder plant in mid-altitude rangelands of
Uttarakhand [321]. The essential oil from the aerial parts of A. parviflora collected from Pauri, Pauri
Garhwal (Uttarakhand, India) was found to contain β-caryophyllene (15.3%), germacrene D (14.7%),
camphor (11.4%), artemisia ketone (7.8%), and 1,8-cineole (5.8%) [61]. There are apparently no reports
on the bioactivities of Himalayan A. parviflora essential oil, but the oil from southern India has shown
antifungal activity against Candida and Cryptococcus species [322].
People living in the Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary in the western Himalaya of
Chamoli-Rudraprayag (Uttarakhand), India, use an extract of the whole plant to relieve fever [49].
In addition, the plant extract is rubbed on the skin to treat allergic reactions. In Jammu and Kashimir,
India, A. roxburghiana is also used to treat skin allergies [62]. In northern Pakistan, an extract of the
whole A. roxburghiana plant is used to treat fever and malaria; a powder of the whole plant is taken for
intestinal worms [50]. Indigenous people living in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan
use the leaves of A. roxburghiana to treat chest cold, sore throat, and toothache [323]. A. roxburghiana
is used in ethnoveterinary medicine in Uttarakhand, India, to treat eye diseases, wounds, cuts, and
external parasites [306].
As seen with other Artemisia species, there is a wide variation in the essential oil compositions
of A. roxburghiana, and some of these variations can be attributed to altitude. The essential oil of
A. roxburghiana from Bhaldana, Uttarakhand (850 m asl) had β-caryophyllene (18.4%) and eugenol
(16.2%) as the major components, while the oil from Bhatwari, Uttarakhand (1218 m asl) had
β-caryophyllene (16.3%) and α-thujone (12.0%) as major components [65], and the major components
of the essential oil from Mussoorie, Uttarakhand (2205 m asl) were borneol (21.2%), linalyl acetate
(7.4%), and α-humulene (6.7%) [65]. Conversely, A. roxburghiana oil from Kedarnath, Uttarakhand
(3200 m asl) was dominated by β-thujone (65.3%) [45]. A. roxburghiana, plants were grown in Garniga,
Trento, Italy (800 m asl), from seeds that were collected between 2600 and 4600 in the Kumbu valley
of Nepal. The essential oil from these plants were rich in 1,8-cineole (16.6%), camphor (15.2%), and
α-thujone (10.0%) [64]. Apparently, there have been no reports on the biological activities of Himalayan
A. roxburghiana essential oils, and it is difficult to draw any correlations between ethnobotanical use
and phytochemical compositions with such wide variations in their compositions.
Artemisia scoparia (syn. A. capillaris) is widespread and common throughout southwest
Asia and central Europe. The aerial parts of A. scoparia yield an essential oil with medicinal
properties, and has been reported to possess insecticidal, antioxidant, antibacterial, anticholesterolemic,
antipyretic, antiseptic, cholagogue, diuretic, purgative and vasodilatatory activities [300]. A. scoparia
essential oils are generally rich in diacetylenes. Thus, the leaf oil of A. scoparia collected from
Milam glacier, Uttarakhand, India, was composed of capillene (60.2%), γ-terpinene (11.1%), and
1-phenyl-2,4-pentadiyne (1.0%), while the root essential oil was dominated by capillene (82.9%) and
1-phenyl-2,4-pentadiyne (2.6%) [68]. In contrast, the essential oil from the aerial parts of A. scoparia
cultivated in New Delhi was composed largely of myrcene (24.4%), γ-terpinene (18.3%), p-cymene
(17.4%), and neral (12.5%) [324], while A. scoparia essential oil from Tajikistan was made up of β-pinene
(21.3%), 1-phenyl-2,4-pentadiyne (34.2%), myrcene (5.2%), and capillene (4.9%) [69]. A capillene-rich
(42.1%) essential oil of A. scoparia from Uttarakhand showed excellent antibacterial activity against
S. aureus and B. subtilis with MIC values of 12.5 µg/mL [59].
Inhabitants of the Nanda Devi National Park, Uttarakhand, India, apply a paste of the leaves of
A. scoparia on cuts and wounds [67]. The leaf powder is taken to treat diabetes and as a blood purifier,
to treat abdominal complaints, colic, cough, and cold. People in the Agra Valley, Parachinar, Pakistan,
use the whole plant of A. scoparia to treat burns, jaundice, and ear ache; the volatiles of the plant are
inhaled for chest congestion [325]. The biological activities of A. scoparia and its essential oils are likely
due to capillene. This compound has shown antibacterial and antifungal activities [326,327].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 29 of 55

Artemisia vulgaris is used in Nepal to treat various ailments [70]. The crushed leaves are inserted
into the nose to stop bleeding. A bath prepared with the crushed leaves is used to treat allergic reactions.
Raw leaves are chewed as a treatment for oral ulcers. In northern Pakistan, the leaf extract of A. vulgaris
is used to treat malaria and fevers [50]. In Sudhan Gali, Kashmir, Pakistan, an extract of the leaves is
used for the treatment of ophthalmic diseases [328]. The leaf essential oil of A. vulgaris, collected from
Hetauda Makwanpur, Nepal, was found to contain α-thujone (30.5%), 1,8-cineole (12.4%), and camphor
(10.3%) [43]. This essential oil was screened for antimicrogial activity against B. cereus, S. aureus, E. coli,
P. aeruginosa, and A. niger, but was found to be inactive (MIC = 2500 µg/mL). Another A. vulgaris
essential oil sample from Nepal did exhibit antibacterial activity against Streptococcus pyogenes and
Propionibacterium acnes [329].

3. The Genus Cinnamomum

Cinnamomum represents a genus of evergreen aromatic trees belonging to the Lauracaeae
comprised of approximately 250 species [299], out of them only eight species have been found in the
Nepalese Himalayan region: C. bejolghota (Buch.-Ham.) Sweet, C. camphora (L.) J. Presl, C. glanduliferum
(Wall.) Meisn., C. glaucescens (Nees) Hand.-Mazz., C. impressinervium Meisn., C. parthenoxylon (Jack)
Meisn., C. tamala (Buch.-Ham.) Nees and Eberm., and C. zeylanicum Breyn. [330]. This is a very
important genus from the aspect of commercial essential oil production.
Traditionally in Nepal, C. camphora has been used to treat bronchitis, cold, congestion, diarrhea,
dysentery, edema, influenza, flatulence, metabolic and heart problems, as well as various gynecological
problems [331]. Five different essential oil chemotypes of C. camphora have been identified: (1) camphor,
(2) linalool, (3) 1,8-cineole, (4) nerolidol, and (5) borneol [332]. The leaf essential oils of C. camphora
from Hetauda, central region, Nepal [100], Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India [97], and Naukuchiatal,
Uttarakhand, India [101] were all found to be the camphor chemotype. C. camphora leaf oils have
shown antifungal activity against Choanephora cucurbitarum [99] and antibacterial activity against
Pasturella multocida [97] and Aspergillus niger [100]. In addition to antimicrobial activities, the leaf oil
sample from Nepal had shown notable allelopathic activity, cytotoxic activity against MCF-7 human
breast tumor cells, and insecticidal activity (Chaoborus plumicornis, Pieris rapae, Drosophila melanogaster,
Solenopsis invicta ˆ richteri) [100]. The traditional use of C. camphora to treat bronchitis, colds, and
chest congestion is supported by laboratory and clinical investigations. In a Guinea-pig model,
camphor vapor was shown to significantly reduce (33%) coughing [333]. A clinical study of topical
“vapor rub” containing camphor, menthol, and 1,8-cineole, showed it to be superior to a petrolatum
control [334]. In addition, camphor has shown antibacterial activity against the respiratory pathogen
Haemophilus influenza [335].
People living in the Dolakha district of Nepal apply a paste from the roots of C. glanduliferum
to treat wounds and toothache [102]. In northern India, leaves of C. glanduliferum are used as a
stimulant, carminative, and to treat coughs and colds [103]. A leaf oil sample from northern India,
rich in 1,8-cineole (41.4%), α-pinene (20.3%), and α-terpineol (9.4%), was found to have antibacterial
activity against Gram-positive bacteria (Micrococcus luteus) and Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Aeromonas salmonicida). The high concentration of 1,8-cineole likely
contributes to its efficacy against coughs and colds. 1,8-Cineole has shown clinical efficacy as a
mucolytic and spasmolytic as well as beneficial effects in inflammatory airway diseases such as
asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) [336,337]. The antibacterial activity
of C. glanduliferum leaf oil is likely not due to 1,8-cineole alone [338], but may be attributed to
synergistic effects between 1,8-cineole and other minor components [339,340]. Another chemotype
of C. glanduliferum, rich in (E)-nerolidol (52.2%), has been reported, but no biological activities were
investigated for this oil [107]. (E)-Nerolidol has shown antibacterial activity, however [341,342].
C. glaucescens, commonly known as “sugandhwal kokila”, has been traditionally used
as demulcent and stimulant and has shown analgesic, antiseptic, astringent, and carminative
properties [343]. Seeds of C. glaucescens are used for treatment of common cold, cough, toothache and
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 30 of 55

taenias; the seed paste is applied to treat muscular swellings; the seed oil has also been demonstrated to
treat muscular spasm, joint pain and body aches. [344]. In Manipur, India, the powdered bark is used to
treat kidney trouble [104]. The fruit essential oil of C. glaucescens from Nepal was dominated by methyl
(E)-cinnamate (40.5%) [100], whereas a commercial fruit essential from Nepal had methyl (E)-cinnamate
(14%) 1,8-cineole (13%), and α-terpineol (7%) as the major components, while the pericarp oil was
rich in 1,8-cineole (56%) [106]. The essential oil obtained from fruits from Lucknow, India, was also
rich in 1,8-cineole (43.6%) [105]. In comparison, the leaf oil of C. glaucescens from northeast India
contained elemicin (92.9%) and methyl eugenol (4.9%) as major components [107]. The fruit essential
oil from Nepal showed nematicidal (Caenorhabditis elegans) and insecticidal (Culex pipiens, Reticulitermes
virginicus) activity [100], while the fruit oil from Lucknow was insecticidal (Callosobruchus chinensis)
and antifungal (Aspergillus flavus) [105]. The nematicidal activity of C. glaucescens fruit oil is consistent
with the traditional use of the plant to expel tapeworms. Methyl (E)-cinnamate was shown to be active
against C. elegans, but 1,8-cineole was not [100].
Cinnamomum tamala leaf essential oil has shown some variation in composition. Cinnamaldehyde
is generally a major component [97,101,108], but a leaf oil sample from Pannagar, Uttarakhand
was dominated by eugenol (65%) [97]. By contrast, C. tamala leaf oil from Karachi, Pakistan, was
composed largely of β-caryophyllene (25.3%), linalool (13.4%), and caryophyllene oxide (10.3%) [345].
In far-western Nepal, leaves of C. tamala are used to treat gastic problems [10], while in the
Kathmandu area of Nepal, the leaves are used as a spice and flavoring agent [42]. The leaf oil
from Uttarakhand has shown activity against foodborne bacteria, Salmonella enterica, Escherichia coli,
and Pasturella multocida [97]. A leaf oil sample from Jharkhand, India, demonstrated antifungal activity
against Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans, Rhizopus stolonifer, and Penicillium spp.,
but the composition of the oil was not reported [346].

4. The Genus Cymbopogon

Aromatic grasses are one of the chief sources of essential oils. The genus Cymbopogon is comprised
of about 140 species worldwide, out of which 45 species have been reported to occur in India.
Cymbopogon is one of the most important essential oil yielding genera of the family Poaceae [347–349].
The most common economic species viz., C. winterianus Jowitt ex Bor, C. flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.)
Will. Watson, C. martinii var. motia Bruno, C. martinii var. sofia Bruno, C. nardus var. nardus (L.)
Rendle, C. citratus (DC.) Stapf, C. pendulus (Nees ex Steud.) Will. Watson, C. jwarancusa (Jones)
Schultz, and C. khasianus (Munro ex Hack.) Stapf ex Bor, produce different types of essential oils,
such as palmarosa oil (C. martinii var. motia), lemongrass oil (C. citratus, C. flexuosus), citronella
oil (C. winterianus, C. nardus), ginger grass oil (C. martinii var. sofia), or rusa oil (C. martinii
var. motia) of commercial interest [350–352]. Three Cymbopogon grasses, namely, Java citronella
(C. winterianus), East Indian lemongrass (C. flexuosus and C. pendulus) and palmarosa (C. martinii var.
motia) are the most common species that are widely cultivated for their essential oils of commercial
importance used in perfumes, soaps, cosmetics, toiletry, tobacco products and other related industrial
products [353,354]. In India, the total area under cultivation of these aromatic grasses is more
than 40 thousand hectares, distributed mainly in Assam, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, South Gujarat,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh [355–358]. Several Cymbopogon species
have demonstrated considerable anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-ageing, pesticidal,
antimicrobial, mosquito repellant, and larvicidal activities and thus, are used in native medicine for
curing a number of diseases [350,359,360]. The Cymbopogon species have great prospects for producing
quality essential oils [359,360], and it has direct relevance to the perfumery industry with economic
benefit to humankind [361,362].
Lemongrass oil is distilled from two morphologically different species of lemongrass, C. flexuosus
(common name: East Indian lemongrass) and C. citratus (common name: West Indian lemongrass).
Geraniol (30.5%), citronellol (24.1%), neral (10.3%), and geranial (13.6%) have been reported as the major
components of C. flexuosus [363], but many chemotypes / cultivars / variants have been reported for
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 31 of 55

C. flexuosus [364–373]. The oil of lemongrass is widely used in soaps and detergents [374]. The antifungal,
antibacterial, and antioxidant properties of lemongrass oil have been widely utilized [59,374–381].
The North Indian lemongrass oil (C. pendulus) occurs in wild areas of northern India such as
Saharanpur (in the state of Uttar Pradesh) [382] and western Nepal [383], and is generally rich
in geranial (48%) and neral (33%), with lesser amounts of geraniol (5%) and linalool (3%) [358].
Palmarosa oil, distilled from C. martinii var. motia, has geraniol as the major component (71%–89%) [384]
and is considered better in quality [385,386]. The essential oil produced from the sofia variety of
C. martinii Stapf is known as gingergrass oil. The cis and trans forms of p-menth-2,8 diene-1-ol,
p-menth1(7),8 dien-2-ol, carveol, and piperitol, along with limonene (20%) and monoterpene alcohols,
have been reported from the wild strain of C. martinii var. sofia growing in Kumaon hills [355,385].
A new hemiacetal bis monoterpenoid compound cymbodi acetal was characterized in the oil of
C. martinii [387].
The leaf essential oil from C. jwarancusa (Jones) Schult. is rich in piperitone, imparting
a characteristic odor [388]. The major components in C. jwarancusa oil are piperitone (45%–67%)
and elemol (7%–29%) [389–392].
The components of the essential oils of C. distans differ with growth conditions and geographical
locations [393]. Thus, for example, the essential oil from Munsyari (Uttarakhand) was composed
of citral (neral + geranial) (35.0%), geranyl acetate (15.0%), and geraniol (9.5%) [122]. Similarly, the
essential oil cultivated in Pantnagar, Uttarakhand was made up predominantly of geranial (22.8%),
neral (16.9%), geraniol (14.8%), and geranyl acetate (19.5%) [394]. However, the oil from Nainital
(Uttarakhand) was dominated by α-oxobisabolene (68%) [122], while C. distans var. Loharkhet essential
oil was rich in the sesquiterpenoids eudesmanediol (34.4%) and 5-epi-7-epi-α-eudesmol (11.2%) [395].
Mathela and co-workers had recognized four chemotypes of C. distans from the Kumaon and Garhwal
regions of Uttar Pradesh (India) having marker compounds α-oxobisabolene (chemotype I); citral,
geraniol, and geranyl acetate (chemotype II); piperitone, limonene, and eudesmanediol (chemotype
III); and sesquiterpene alcohols (chemotype IV) in their oils [396]. A study carried out by Lohani
and co-workers [123] revealed three additional distinct chemotypes: Chemotype I (p-menth-2-en-1-ol,
piperitol, α-terpinene), chemotype II (borneol, bornyl acetate, limonene), and chemotype III (piperitone,
α-terpinene), to give a total of seven different chemotypes for C. distans.

5. The Genus Juniperus

There are around 75 species of Juniperus (Cupressaceae), and is a very diverse genus ranging
in habitat from sea level to above timberline [397]. Important medicinal species include J. communis,
the common juniper used to flavor gin [398], J. drupacea from the eastern Mediterranean [399],
J. monosperma from southwestern North America [400], J. oxycedrus, the heartwood from which oil of
cade is prepared [401], and J. virginiana, used in traditional medicine by Native Americans in eastern
North America [402].
In the Himalaya of Nepal and northern India, there are at least six species of native Juniperus:
J. communis L., J. indica Bertol., J. macropoda Boiss (syn. J. excelsa M. Bieb.), J. pseudosabina Fisch. and
C.A. Mey., J. recurva Buch.-Ham. Ex D. Don (syn. J. squamata Lamb.), and J. wallichiana Hook. f. and
Thomson ex E. Brandis [397,403–406]. J. communis is the most widespread species of Juniperus and
is distributed circumpolar, including the Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan [407]. J. communis is
used in traditional medicine throughout the Himalayas. For example, the local people in Kishtwar,
Jammu and Kashmir, India, apply the oil extracted from the plant to treat rheumatism [182]. Similarly,
inhabitants of Parvati valley in Himachal Pradesh use an extract from the twigs to treat joint pain [56].
Essential oils of J. communis are rich in α-pinene and limonene [149], and both α-pinene [408,409]
and limonene [410] have shown antinociceptive effects in rodents, consistent with the ethnobotanical
use of J. communis to treat joint pain. In addition to using the plant for gout, chronic arthritis, and
rheumatism, J. communis is taken as a tonic, diuretic, for urinary tract infection [411], and a paste
made from the leaves is applied to skin ailments [67]. Essential oils from the berries of J. communis
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 32 of 55

have shown antifungal (Candida albicans, Candida kefyr, Epidermophyton floccosum, Trichophyton rubrum,
Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Trichophyton rubrum, Microsporum canis) and antibacterial (Bacillus cereus)
activity [146–148], which is consistent with its use to treat urinary tract infection and skin infections.
In the Humla district of western Nepal, a decoction of the leaves and berries of Juniperus indica
are consumed to treat coughs and colds; a paste of the berries is applied externally to cure skin
diseases [44]. Similarly, inhabitants in Upper Mustang, Nepal, use the fruits and leaves of J. indica
for skin diseases, fevers, and coughs [150]. The leaf and berry essential oils of Juniperus indica are
generally rich in sabinene and terpinene-4-ol [149,151,152]. Terpinen-4-ol has shown antibacterial
activity against several bacteria, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) [412],
respiratory tract pathogens Haemophilus influenza, and penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae [413].
In addition, terpinen-4-ol been shown to inhibit the growth of human melanoma (M14 WT)
cells [414]. Terpinen-4-ol has shown antifungal activity against several dermatologically important
fungi, including Candida albicans (responsible for cutaneous moniliasis), Candida parapsilosis (responsible
for onychomycosis), and several dermatophytes responsible for tinea in humans (Trichosporon spp.,
Rhodotorula rubra, Epidermophyton floccosum, Microsporum canis, and Trichophyton mentagrophytes); the
compound was also active against the potential pulmonary fungal pathogens Aspergillus niger,
Aspergillus flavus, and Aspergillus fumigatus [415]. Thus, the biological activities of terpinene-4-ol in
J. indica oils are consistent with the ethnobotanical uses of the plant for respiratory and dermal infections.
In Himachal Pradesh, the berries of Juniperus macropoda are used to treat colic, cough, chest colds,
diarrhea, impotency, and indigestion; the resin is used externally on ulcers [152]. In the Ladakh range in
northern Jammu and Kashmir [153,416] and in Tibet [417], the needles are used as incense. In Tibet, the
needles are used medically to treat kidney diseases [417], while in Ladakh, tablets prepared from the
wood is used for irregular menstrual cycles, amenorrhea or dysmenorrhea [418] and tablets made from
J. macropoda berries, mixed with several other plants, are taken for kidney and urinary disorders [419].
The leaf essential oils of J. macropoda have shown wide variation in chemical composition. A sample of
leaf oil from Chamba, Himachal Pradesh had sabinene (27.5%), cedrol (14.1%), and terpinen-4-ol (9.4%)
as the major components [154]. This oil did show antifungal activity and mosquito larvicidal activity.
A leaf oil sample from Hindokhal, Uttarakhand, was dominated by β-elemene (42.5%) trans-sabinene
hydrate (8.8%), and α-cubebene (7.9%) [156], while another sample, from Mussorie, Uttarakhand, was
rich in α-thujone (22.6%), biformene (7.7%), sabinene (5.8%) [156]. Unfortunately, there do not seem to
have been any phytochemical investigations on J. macropoda from Kashmir.
There do not seem to be any published reports on ethnopharmacological uses of
Juniperus pseudosabina. J. recurva, on the other hand, is used in Nepal. Thus, the local people in
the Rasuwa district of central Nepal use J. recurva to treat fever, headache, coughs, and colds [11];
the local people in the Humla district of northwestern Nepal, apply a paste of the leaves and berries to
treat skin conditions [44]. In the Nubra River valley of northern Jammu and Kashmir, the people use a
decoction of the leaves of J. recurva to lower fever in children [7]. Leaf essential oils of J. recurva are rich
in δ-3-carene [157], but there have apparently been no bioactivity studies on J. recurva essential oils.

6. The Genus Nepeta

Nepeta (Lamiaceae) is a genus of about 250 species of flowering herbs, small shrubs, rarely trees,
often with quadrangular stems, glandular and aromatic, with opposite leaves placed successively at
right angles to each other [420]. Among 31 species reported in the Himalayan region, six are found in
the Kumaun region of Uttarakhand: N. ciliaris Benth., N. connata Royle ex Benth., N. distans Royle ex
Benth., N. elliptica Royle ex Benth., N. leucophylla Benth., and N. spicata Wall ex Benth. [421]. Eleven
species of Nepeta are native to Nepal: N. cataria L., N. ciliaris, N. coerulescens Maxim., N. discolor Royle
ex Benth., N. elliptica, N. hindostana (Roth) Haines, N. laevigata (D. Don) Hand.-Mazz., N. lamiopsis
Benth. ex Hook. f., N. leucophylla, N. nepalensis Spreng., and N. staintonii Hedge [330]. In addition,
N. campestris Benth. and N. eriostachys Benth. are endemic to Kashmir, India [422].
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 33 of 55

Nepeta species are used traditionally as antispasmodic, diuretic, febrifuge, diaphoretic,

antimicrobial and antiseptic agents and also in the treatment of dysentery, tooth trouble and kidney and
liver diseases [423]. Diverse biological activities, e.g., feline attractant [424], insect repellant [425], and
arthropod defense [426,427] are attributed to the presence of biologically active iridoids, monoterpene
nepetalactones, in Nepeta species [428]. Aydin et al. investigated the antinociceptive effects of essential
oils from Nepeta species, including N. phyllochlamys, N. nuda ssp. nuda, and N. caesarea, using a tail flick
and tail immersion tests [429]. These authors detected central and peripheral antinociceptive effects in
N. caesarea and concluded that 4aα,7α,7aα-nepetalactone was the active principle and had a specific
opioid receptor subtype agonistic activity.
Nepeta species are used in the traditional medicine of many cultural groups in the Himalayas.
Many species are used to reduce fever, treat coughs and colds, and relieve digestive disorders
(Table 1). Nepetalactones are generally considered biochemical markers for the genus and
some some Himalayan Nepeta essential oils are rich in nepetalactones, e.g., N. elliptica [200] and
N. juncea [210]. The antimicrobial activities of these essential oils are likely due to nepetalactone
concentrations [430–432]. Nevertheless, many Himalayan Nepeta samples contain little or no
nepetalactones [216], and therefore, the ethnomedicinal uses and biological activities observed in
these Nepeta species are likely due to other constituents.
Some Nepeta spp. have large concentrations of 1,8-cineole, viz. N. discolor [200], N. laevigata [214],
and N. royleana [217]. Although 1,8-cineole has been shown not to have antitussive activity [333,433],
the compound has shown efficacy in acute rhinosinusitis and alleviate headache, nasal obstruction,
and rhinological secretion in a double-blind, placebo-controlled study [434]. In addition, 1,8-cineole
has demonstrated ulcer-healing and gastroprotective properties in rats [435] as well as antispasmodic
effects on isolated mouse ileum [436]. Several other Nepeta samples have been rich in sesquiterpenoids
such as β-caryophyllene [200,204,209,214,218], caryophyllene oxide [201,214,218], and germacrene
D [200,204,209,218] (see Table 1). β-Caryophyllene has shown anesthetic [437], anti-inflammatory
activity [438], but not analgesic activity [439], in animal models. The compound ameliorated colitis in a
mouse model [440,441] and has shown antispasmodic effects on isolated rat ileum [442]. Caryophyllene
oxide has shown analgesic as well as anti-inflammatory activity in mice [443].

7. The Genus Origanum

The members of the genus Origanum L. are usually perennial herbs belonging to the mint family
(Lamiaceae). It has been classified into 10 sections including 43 species, 6 subspecies, 3 varieties
and 18 naturally occurring hybrids, widely distributed in the Mediterranean, Euro-Siberian and
Irano-Siberian regions [444,445]. Members of the genus are mainly distributed along the Mediterranean
region, with 75% restricted to the eastern Mediterranean [446]. The genus includes some commercially
important culinary herbs, including oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) and marjoram (Origanum majorana L.,
syn. Majorana hortensis Moench), which are extensively used for flavoring food products and alcoholic
beverages. In India and Nepal, only one species is available from sub-tropical to alpine zones of the
Himalayan Region [6].
Origanum vulgare commonly is known as “oregano” in most European countries and “Himalayan
marjoram” or “Indian oregano” in India. This is the only species reported from northwestern Himalaya,
found in an altitude between 600 and 4000 m of Kumaon and Garhwal region of Uttarakhand
Himalaya [226]. There are numerous chemotypes of O. vulgare, and Verma and co-workers have defined
six in Himalayan India [229]: (1) γ-terpinene/thymol, (2) thymol/ocimene, (3) thymol/γ-terpinene,
(4) γ-terpinene/carvacrol, (5) carvacrol/γ-terpinene, and (6) linalool. Lukas and co-workers have
generalized European O. vulgare monoterpene chemotypes as (a) cymyl-type (rich in p-cymene, thymol,
and/or carvacrol), (b) acyclic-type (rich in myrcene, ocimene, linalool and linalyl derivatives), and
(c) sabinyl-type [447].
The thymol- and carvacrol-rich chemotypes of O. vulgare should be useful in treating bronchial
and pulmonary diseases (coughs, colds, etc.); both thymol and carvacrol are antibacterial [448],
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 34 of 55

antitussive [449,450], antihistamine [451], and numerous other pharmacological properties [452], which
are consistent with traditional uses of this plant. The monoterpenoid alcohols, linalool, terpinen-4-ol,
and α-terpineol [338,453], the sesquiterpenoids β-caryophyllene, α-humulene, and germacrene D [454]
have also shown antimicrobial effects, consistent with the potential activities and uses of the other
chemotypes of O. vulgare.

8. The Genus Valeriana

Valeriana L. (Caprifoliaceae) consists of around 200 species distributed in the temperate
and sub-tropical areas globally and is among the important herbal traditional drug in various
pharmacopeias [299]. The herbal drug valerian consists of the subterranean organs (rhizome, root,
stolons) of Valeriana officinalis L. [172]. The valerian-derived phytomedicines have been used for curing
nervous unrest, emotional troubles (as tranquillizer/sedative), epilepsy, insanity, snake envenomation,
eye-trouble, skin-diseases, relaxant, carminative, and for improving the complexion [455–457]. Valerian
is one of the top ten selling herbal supplements in North America [458]. It has also been prescribed as
the perfect herbal tranquilizer, and was used for this purpose in the First World War to treat soldiers
suffering from shell shock and to calm civilians subjected to air raids during World War II [459].
In India, Valeriana jatamansi Jones (syn. Valeriana wallichii DC.). has long been used in
Ayurveda and Unani systems of medicine, which describe its use in skin diseases, insanity,
epilepsy, and snake bite, and is considered to have remarkable sedative effects in nervous unrest,
stress, and neuralgia [460,461]. A survey of the literature has revealed the presence of flavonoid
glycosides [462,463], iridoids, and lignans [464–466] in V. jatamansi. Anti-inflammatory [467]
antianxiety [468], antidiarrheal, and bronchodilatory activities [469] of V. jatamansi extracts have
been scientifically validated. The plant has also shown in vitro cytotoxic [470] and antileishmanial [471]
activities. V. jatamansi essential oil has shown antimicrobial activity against pathogenic bacteria and as
well as antifungal activity against different human and plant fungal pathogens [472].
The chemical compositions of root/rhizome essential oils show six chemically distinct chemotypes
within V. jatamansi. (a) a maaliol-rich (~ 40%–60%) chemotype [287,288], (b) a patchouli alcohol-rich
(> 40%) chemotype [288–291], (c) a patchouli alcohol/α-bulnesene chemotype [289,291], (d) a patchouli
alcohol/viridiflorol chemotype [290], (e) a seychellene-rich chemotype [288], and (f) a kanokonyl
acetate chemotype [292]. The root oil of V. himalayana from Talle valley of Arunachal Pradesh was
mainly composed of methyl linoleate, valeracetate, bornyl acetate, and cuparene [279]. The roots
of V. hardwickii var. arnotiana revealed constituents belonging to two different chemotypes [282]:
Chemotype I, collected from an altitude of 3500 m from Milam glacier contained valeracetate,
8-epikessyl glycol diacetete, α-kessyl acetate, and malliol as the marker compounds, while chemotype
II, collected from Vishnu Prayag, contained kessanyl acetate and maaliol as the main constituents.
Epoxysesquithujene, a novel sesquiterpenoid, was isolated from V. hardwickii var. hardwickii [280].
The main constituents of root oil of V. pyrolaefolia were valeranone and patchouli alcohol [473].

9. Conclusions
The Himalayas, with wide-ranging elevations, deep glacial and river valleys, areas of high rainfall
and areas of high desert, is a rich area of biodiversity with much endemism. Traditional herbal
medicine continues to play a role in many tribal areas, and numerous medicinal plants and their
essential oils have shown remarkable biological activities. Unfortunately, there remains a paucity of
information relating biological activities of essential oils with the ethnobotanical uses of the plants.
In many cases this may be due to the activity residing in non-volatile components. Additionally, many
phytochemical researchers have neglected bioactivity screening related to ethnopharmacological uses.
Thus, there is much additional work that can be carried out to identify phytochemicals associated with
biological activities that support traditional uses of medicinal plants. In addition, several aromatic
plants have shown commercial promise as flavoring agents, fragrances, cosmetics, and pesticides.
Due, in part, to the great demand for essential oils, herbal medicines, and pharmaceuticals, the
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 35 of 55

medicinal plants of the Himalayas are threatened by unsustainable harvesting [474], and increasing
environmental degradation, invasive plant species, and climate change also threaten Himalayan native
flora. We encourage the preservation of traditional knowledge and uses of Himalayan medicinal plants
and we hope that additional steps are undertaken to protect and maintain the Himalayan ecology.

Author Contributions: R.K.J., P.S. and W.N.S. conceived and organized the review and contributed to the writing
and editing of the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Barthlott, W.; Mutke, J.; Rafiqpoor, D.; Kier, G.; Kreft, H. Global centers of vascular plant diversity.
Nova Acta Leopoldina 2005, 92, 61–83.
2. Hara, H.; Stearn, W.T.; Williams, H.J. An Enumeration of the Flowering Plants of Nepal; British Museum of
Natural History: London, UK, 1978; Volume I.
3. Hara, H.; Williams, H.J. An Enumeration of the Flowering Plants of Nepal; British Museum of Natural History:
London, UK, 1979; Volume II.
4. Hara, H.; Chater, A.O.; Williams, H.J. An Enumeration of the Flowering Plants of Nepal; British Museum of
Natural History: London, UK, 1982; Volume III.
5. Singh, D.K.; Hajra, P.K. Floristic diversity. In Changing Perspective of Biodiversity Status in the Himalaya;
Gujral, G.S., Sharma, V., Eds.; British Council Division, British High Commission Publication, Wildlife Youth
Services: New Delhi, India, 1996; pp. 23–38.
6. Samant, S.S.; Dhar, U.; Palni, L.M.S. Medicinal Plants of Indian Himalaya: Diversity Distribution Potential Values;
G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development: Almora, India, 1998.
7. Khan, M.; Kumar, S.; Hamal, I.A. Medicinal plants of Sewa River catchment area in the northwest Himalaya
and its implication for conservation. Ethnobot. Leafl. 2009, 13, 1113–1139.
8. Padalia, R.C.; Verma, R.S.; Chauhan, A.; Goswami, P.; Chanotiya, C.S. Chemical analysis of volatie oils from
west Himalayan Pindrow fir Abies pindrow. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2014, 9, 1181–1184. [PubMed]
9. Agnihotri, V.K.; Lattoo, S.K.; Thappa, R.K.; Kaul, P.; Qazi, G.N.; Dhar, A.K.; Saraf, A.; Kapahi, B.K.;
Saxena, R.K.; Agarwal, S.G. Chemical variability in the essential oil components of Achillea millefolium
Agg. from different Himalayan habitats (India). Planta Med. 2005, 71, 280–283. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
10. Kunwar, R.M.; Uprety, Y.; Burlakoti, C.; Chowdhary, C.L.; Bussmann, R.W. Indigenous use and
ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants in far-west Nepal. Ethnobot. Res. Appl. 2009, 7, 5–28.
11. Uprety, Y.; Asselin, H.; Boon, E.K.; Yadav, S.; Shrestha, K.K. Indigenous use and bio-efficacy of medicinal
plants in the Rasuwa District, central Nepal. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 2010, 6. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
12. Uprety, Y.; Poudel, R.C.; Asselin, H.; Boon, E. Plant biodiversity and ethnobotany inside the projected
impact area of the Upper Seti Hydropower Project, western Nepal. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 2011, 13, 463–492.
[CrossRef]
13. De Rus-Jacquet, A.; Subedi, R.; Ghimire, S.K.; Rochet, J.C. Nepalese traditional medicine and symptoms
related to Parkinson’s disease and other disorders: Patterns of the usage of plant resources along the
Himalayan altitudinal range. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2014, 153, 178–189. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. Satyal, P.; Paudel, P.; Poudel, A.; Dosoky, N.S.; Moriarity, D.M.; Vogler, B.; Setzer, W.N. Chemical
compositions, phytotoxicity, and biological activities of Acorus calamus essential oils from Nepal.
Nat. Prod. Commun. 2013, 8, 1179–1181. [PubMed]
15. Lee, M.H.; Chen, Y.Y.; Tsai, W.J.; Wang, S.C.; Watanabe, T. Inhibitory effect of β-asarone, a component
of Acorus calamus essential oil, on inhibition of adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 cells. Food Chem. 2011, 126, 1–7.
[CrossRef]
16. Rajput, S.B.; Karuppayil, S.M. β-Asarone, an active principle of Acorus calamus rhizome, inhibits
morphogenesis, biofilm formation and ergosterol biosynthesis in Candida albicans. Phytomedicine 2013,
20, 139–142. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. Bisht, D.; Pal, A.; Chanitiya, C.S.; Mishra, D.; Pandey, K.N. Terpinoid composition and antifungal activity of
three commercially important essential oils against Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger. Nat. Prod. Res.
2011, 25, 1993–1998. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 36 of 55

18. Kala, C.P. Ethnobotany and ethnoconservation of Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 2006, 5,
537–540.
19. Mehra, A.; Bajpai, O.; Joshi, H. Diversity, utilization and sacred values of ethno-medicinal plants of Kumaun
Himalaya. Trop. Plant Res. 2014, 1, 80–86.
20. Satyal, P.; Woods, K.E.; Dosoky, N.S.; Neupane, S.; Setzer, W.N. Essential oil constituents and biological
activity of Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. Serr. From Nepal. J. Med. Act. Plants 2012, 1, 114–122.
21. Verma, R.S.; Padalia, R.C.; Chauhan, A. Essential oil composition of Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa: Chemotypic
and seasonal variations. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2014, 94, 1904–1913. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
22. Pant, S.; Samant, S.S. Ethnobotanical observations in the Mornaula Reserve Forest of Kumoun, west
Himalaya, India. Ethnobot. Leafl. 2010, 14, 193–217.
23. Padalia, R.C.; Verma, R.S.; Sundaresan, V. Volatile constituents of three invasive weeds of Himalayan region.
Rec. Nat. Prod. 2010, 4, 109–114.
24. Kumar, N. Biological potential of a weed Ageratum houstonianum Mill: A review. Indo-Am. J. Pharm. Res.
2014, 4, 2683–2689.
25. Kurade, N.P.; Jaitak, V.; Kaul, V.K.; Sharma, O.P. Chemical composition and antibacterial activity of essential
oils of Lantana camara, Ageratum houstonianum and Eupatorium adenophorum. Pharm. Biol. 2010, 48, 539–544.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
26. Singh, P.; Prakash, O.; Pant, A.K. Essential oil composition of Ajuga parviflora Benth. Growing in western
Himalayan region of Uttarakhand (India). J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2015, 18, 697–701. [CrossRef]
27. Bisht, V.K.; Negi, J.S.; Bhandari, A.K.; Sundriyal, R.C. Amomum subulatum Roxb: Traditional, phytochemical
and biological activities—An overview. Afr. J. Agric. Res. 2011, 6, 5386–5390. [CrossRef]
28. Satyal, P.; Dosoky, N.S.; Kincer, B.L.; Setzer, W.N. Chemical compositions and biological activities of
Amomum subulatum essential oils from Nepal. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2012, 7, 1233–1236. [PubMed]
29. Joshi, R.; Sharma, P.; Sharma, V.; Prasad, R.; Sud, R.K.; Gulati, A. Analysis of the essential oil of large
cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.) growing in different agro-climatic zones of Himachal Pradesh, India.
J. Sci. Food Agric. 2013, 93, 1303–1309. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
30. Kunwar, R.M.; Shrestha, K.P.; Bussmann, R.W. Traditional herbal medicine in far-west Nepal:
A pharmacological appraisal. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 2010, 6. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
31. Ushir, Y.V.; Tatiya, A.U.; Surana, S.J.; Patil, U.K. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis and
antibacterial activity of essential oil from aerial parts and roots of Anisomeles indica Linn. Int. J. Green Pharm.
2010, 4, 98–101. [CrossRef]
32. Samant, S.S.; Pant, S.; Singh, M.; Lal, M.; Singh, A.; Sharma, A.; Bhandari, S. Medicinal plants in Himachal
Pradesh, north western Himalaya, India. Int. J. Biodivers. Sci. Manag. 2007, 3, 234–251. [CrossRef]
33. Verma, R.S.; Padalia, R.C.; Yadav, A.; Chauhan, A. Essential oil composition of Aralia cachemirica from
Uttarakhand, India. Rec. Nat. Prod. 2010, 4, 163–166.
34. Heinrich, M.; Chan, J.; Wanke, S.; Neinhuis, C.; Simmonds, M.S.J. Local uses of Aristolochia species and
content of nephrotoxic aristolochic acid 1 and 2—A global assessment based on bibliographic sources.
J. Ethnopharmacol. 2009, 125, 108–144. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
35. Kanjilal, P.B.; Kotoky, R.; Couladis, M. Chemical composition of the stem oil of Aristolochia indica L. J. Essent.
Oil Res. 2009, 21, 24–25. [CrossRef]
36. Chauhan, R.S.; Kitchlu, S.; Ram, G.; Kaul, M.K.; Tava, A. Chemical composition of capillene chemotype of
Artemisia dracunculus L. from north-west Himalaya, India. Ind. Crop. Prod. 2010, 31, 546–549. [CrossRef]
37. Mir, F.; Rather, M.A.; Dar, B.A.; Rasool, S.; Shawl, A.S.; Alam, M.S.; Qurishi, M.A. Comparative GC-FID and
GC-MS analysis of the chemical profile of the leaf, stem and root essential oils of Artemisia dracunculus L.
growing in Kashmir (India). J. Pharm. Res. 2012, 5, 1353–1356.
38. Kumar, G.P.; Gupta, S.; Murugan, M.P.; Singh, S.B. Ethnobotanical studies of Nubra Valley—A cold arid
zone of Himalaya. Ethnobot. Leafl. 2009, 13, 752–765.
39. Devi, U.; Seth, M.K.; Sharma, P.; Rana, J.C. Study on ethnomedicinal plants of Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary:
A cold desert in Trans Himalaya, India. J. Med. Plants Res. 2013, 7, 3400–3419.
40. Singh, V.; Chauhan, N.S. Traditional practices of herbal medicines in the Lahaul valleys, Himachal Himalayas.
Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 2005, 4, 208–220.
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 37 of 55

41. Verma, M.K.; Anand, R.; Chisti, A.M.; Kitchlu, S.; Chandra, S.; Shawl, A.S.; Khajuria, R.K. Essential oil
composition of Artemisia dracunculus L. (tarragon) growing in Kashmir-India. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2010,
13, 331–335. [CrossRef]
42. Balami, N.P. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants among the Newar community of Pharping village of Kathmandu
district, Nepal. Tribhuvan Univ. J. 2004, 24, 13–19. [CrossRef]
43. Satyal, P.; Paudel, P.; Kafle, A.; Pokharel, S.K.; Lamichhane, B.; Dosoky, N.S.; Moriarity, D.M.; Setzer, W.N.
Bioactivities of volatile components from Nepalese Artemisia species. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2012, 7, 1651–1658.
[PubMed]
44. Rokaya, M.B.; Münzbergová, Z.; Timsina, B. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants from the Humla
district of western Nepal. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2010, 130, 485–504. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
45. Mathela, C.S.; Kharkwal, H.; Shah, G.C. Essential oil composition of some Himalayan Artemisia species.
J. Essent. Oil Res. 1994, 6, 345–348. [CrossRef]
46. Haider, S.Z.; Andola, H.C.; Mohan, M. Constituents of Artemisia gmelinii Weber ex Stechm. from Uttarakhand
Himalaya: A source of artemisia ketone. Indian J. Pharm. Sci. 2012, 74, 265–267. [PubMed]
47. Rashid, S.; Rather, M.A.; Shah, W.A.; Bhat, B.A. Chemical composition, antimicrobial, cytotoxic and
antioxidant activities of the essential oil of Artemisia indica Willd. Food Chem. 2013, 138, 693–700. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
48. Haider, S.Z.; Mohan, M.; Andola, H.C. Constituents of Artemisia indica Willd. from Uttarakhand Himalaya:
A source of davanone. Pharmacogn. Res. 2014, 8, 257–259.
49. Bhat, J.A.; Kumar, M.; Bussmann, R.W. Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants
in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 2013, 9. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
50. Ashraf, M.; Hayat, M.Q.; Jabeen, S.; Shaheen, N.; Khan, M.A.; Yasmin, G. Artemisia L. species recognized
by the local community of northern areas of Pakistan as folk therapeutic plants. J. Med. Plants Res. 2010, 4,
112–119.
51. Joshi, R.K. Volatile oil composition of Artemisia japonica Thunb. from western Himalaya of Uttarakhand.
J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. 2015, 3, 96–97.
52. Singh, K.N.; Lal, B.; Todaria, N.P. Ethnobotany of higher plants in Spiti Cold Desert of western Himalaya.
Nat. Sci. 2012, 10, 7–14.
53. Stappen, I.; Wanner, J.; Tabanca, N.; Wedge, D.E.; Ali, A.; Khan, I.A.; Kaul, V.K.; Lal, B.; Jaitak, V.;
Gochev, V.; et al. Chemical composition and biological effects of Artemisia maritima and Artemisia nilagirica
essential oils from wild plants of western Himalaya. Planta Med. 2014, 80, 1079–1087. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
54. Jaitak, V.; Singh, B.; Kaul, V.K. Variability of volatile constituents in Artemisia maratima in western Himalaya.
Nat. Prod. Res. 2008, 22, 565–568. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
55. Sah, S.; Lohani, H.; Narayan, O.; Bartwal, S.; Chauhan, N.K. Volatile constituents of Artemisia maritima Linn.
grown in Garhwal Himalaya. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2010, 13, 603–606. [CrossRef]
56. Sharma, P.K.; Chauhan, N.S.; Lal, B. Observations on the traditional phytotherapy among the inhabitants of
Parvati valley in western Himalaya, India. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2004, 92, 167–176. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
57. Bantawa, P.; Rai, R. Studies on ethnomedicinal plants used by traditional practitioners, Jhankri, Bijuwa and
Phedangma in Darjeeling Himalaya. Nat. Prod. Radiance 2009, 8, 537–541.
58. Sati, S.C.; Sati, N.; Ahluwalia, V.; Walia, S.; Sati, O.P. Chemical composition and antifungal activity of
Artemisia nilagirica essential oil growing in northern hilly areas of India. Nat. Prod. Res. 2013, 27, 45–48.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
59. Semwal, R.B.; Semwal, D.K.; Mishra, S.P.; Semwal, R. Chemical composition and antibacterial potential
of essential oils from Artemisia cappillaris, Artemisia nilagirica, Citrus limon, Cymbopogon flexuosus,
Hedychium spicatum and Ocimum tenuiflorum. Nat. Prod. J. 2015, 5, 199–205.
60. Badoni, R.; Semwal, D.K.; Rawat, U. Altitudinal variation in the volatile constituents of Artemisia nilagirica.
Int. J. Essent. Oil Ther. 2009, 3, 66–68.
61. Haider, F.; Kumar, N.; Naqvi, A.A.; Bagchi, G.D. Oil constituents of Artemisia nilagirica var. septentrionalis
growing at different altitudes. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2010, 5, 1959–1960. [PubMed]
62. Gairola, S.; Sharma, Y.; Bedi, Y.S. A cross-cultural analysis of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (India) medicinal
plant use. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2014, 155, 925–986. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 38 of 55

63. Tewan, K.; Tewari, G.; Pande, C.; Kunwar, G. Volatile constituents of Artemisia parviflora Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.
from Kumaun Himalaya region, India. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2015, 18, 195–198.
64. Rana, V.S.; Juyal, J.P.; Blazquez, M.A.; Bodakhe, S.H. Essential oil composition of Artemisia parviflora aerial
parts. Flavour Fragr. J. 2003, 18, 342–344. [CrossRef]
65. Bicchi, C.; Rubiolo, P.; Marschall, H.; Weyerstahl, P.; Laurent, R. Constituents of Artemisia roxburghiana Besser
essential oil. Flavour Fragr. J. 1998, 13, 40–46. [CrossRef]
66. Haider, F.; Kumar, N.; Banerjee, S.; Naqvi, A.A. Effect of altitude on the essential oil constituents of
Artemisia roxburghiana Besser var. purpurascens (Jacq.) Hook. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2009, 21, 303–304. [CrossRef]
67. Rana, C.S.; Sharma, A.; Kumar, N.; Dangwal, L.R.; Tiwari, J.K. Ethnopharmacology of some important
medicinal plants of Nanda Devi National Park (NDNP) Uttarakhand, India. Nat. Sci. 2010, 8, 9–14.
68. Joshi, R.K.; Padalia, R.C.; Mathela, C.S. Phenyl alkynes rich essential oil of Artemisia cappillaris.
Nat. Prod. Commun. 2010, 5, 815–816. [PubMed]
69. Sharopov, F.S.; Setzer, W.N. The essential oil of Artemisia scoparia from Tajikistan is dominated by
phenyldiacetylenes. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2011, 6, 119–122. [PubMed]
70. Gaire, B.P.; Subedi, L. Medicinal plant diversity and their pharmacological aspects of Nepal Himalayas.
Pharmacogn. J. 2011, 3, 6–17. [CrossRef]
71. Satyal, P.; Chhetri, B.K.; Dosoky, N.S.; Shrestha, S.; Poudel, A.; Setzer, W.N. Chemical composition of
Blumea lacera essential oil from Nepal. Biological activities of the essential oil and (Z)-lachnophyllum ester.
Nat. Prod. Commun. 2015, 10, 1749–1750. [PubMed]
72. Padalia, R.C.; Verma, R.S.; Chauhan, A. Compositional variations in volatile constituents of
Boenninghausenia albiflora Reichb. from western Himalaya. Natl. Acad. Sci. Lett. 2013, 36, 635–640. [CrossRef]
73. Juyal, P.; Ghildiyal, J.C. Medicinal phyto-diversity of Bhabar Tract of Garhwal Himalaya. J. Med. Plants Stud.
2013, 1, 43–57.
74. Shrestha, S.; Poudel, A.; Satyal, P.; Dosoky, N.S.; Chhetri, B.K.; Setzer, W.N. Chemical composition and
biological activity of the leaf essential oil of Callistemon citrinus from Nepal. Am. J. Essent. Oils Nat. Prod.
2015, 2, 29–33.
75. Kumar, D.; Sukapaka, M.; Babu, G.D.K.; Padwad, Y. Chemical composition and in vitro cytotoxicity of
essential oils from leaves and flowers of Callistemon citrinus from western Himalayas. PLoS ONE 2015, 10.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
76. Srivastava, S.K.; Ahmad, A.; Jain, N.; Aggarwal, K.K. Essential oil composition of Callistemon citrinus leaves
from the lower region of the Himalayas. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2001, 13, 359–361. [CrossRef]
77. Satyal, P.; Setzer, W.N. Chemotyping and determination of antimicrobial, insecticidal and cytotoxic properties
of wild-grown Cannabis sativa from Nepal. J. Med. Active Plants 2014, 3, 9–16.
78. Gwari, G.; Bhandari, U.; Andola, H.C.; Lohani, H.; Chauhan, N. Aroma profile of seeds of Carum carvi Linn.
cultivated in higher hills of Uttarakhand Himalaya. Indian J. Nat. Prod. Resour. 2012, 3, 411–413.
79. Danish, M.; Singh, P.; Mishra, G.; Srivastava, S.; Jha, K.K.; Khosa, R.L. Cassia fistula Linn. (amulthus)—An
important medicinal plant: A review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological properties.
J. Nat. Prod. Plant Resour. 2011, 1, 101–118.
80. Satyal, P.; Dosoky, N.S.; Poudel, A.; Setzer, W.N. Essential oil constituents and their biological activities from
the leaves of Cassia fistula growing in Nepal. Open Access J. Med. Aromat. Plants 2012, 3, 1–4.
81. Joshi, A.R.; Joshi, K. Indigenous knowledge and uses of medicinal plants by local communities of the Kali
Gandaki Watershed Area, Nepal. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2000, 73, 175–183. [CrossRef]
82. Satyal, P.; Mallik, S.; Gautam, T.; Vogler, B.; Setzer, W.N. Composition and bioactivities of leaf essential oil of
Cassia tora. Chem. Nat. Compd. 2013, 49, 553–554. [CrossRef]
83. Bhattarai, N.K. Medical ethnobotany in the Karnali Zone, Nepal. Econ. Bot. 1992, 46, 257–261. [CrossRef]
84. Chaudhary, A.; Sharma, P.; Nadda, G.; Tewary, D.K.; Singh, B. Chemical composition and larvicidal activities
of the Himalayan cedar, Cedrus deodara essential oil and its fractions against the diamondback moth,
Plutella xylostella. J. Insect Sci. 2011, 11. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
85. Chaudhary, A.; Kaur, P.; Singh, B.; Pathania, V. Chemical composition of hydrodistilled and solvent volatiles
extracted from woodchips of Himalayan Cedrus: Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) Loud. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2009, 4,
1257–1260. [PubMed]
86. Oyedeji, O.A.; Afolayan, A.J. Chemical composition and antibacterial activity of the essential oil of
Centella asiatica growing in South Africa. Pharm. Biol. 2005, 43, 249–252. [CrossRef]
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 39 of 55

87. Devkota, A.; Dall’Acqua, S.; Comai, S.; Innocenti, G.; Jha, P.K. Chemical composition of essential oils of
Centella asiatica (L.) Urban from different habitats of Nepal. Int. J. Pharm. Biol. Arch. 2013, 4, 300–304.
88. Singh, K.N.; Lal, B. Ethnomedicines used against four common ailments by the tribal communities of
Lahaul-Spiti in western Himalaya. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2008, 115, 147–159. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
89. Singh, K.N. Traditional knowledge on ethnobotanical uses of plant biodiversity: A detailed study from the
Indian western Himalaya. Biodivers. Res. Conserv. 2012, 28, 63–77. [CrossRef]
90. Joshi, R.K. Antimicrobial activity of leaf essential oil of Chaerophyllum villosum Wall. ex DC. from Kumaun
Himalayan of Uttrakhand. Indo-Am. J. Pharm. Res. 2013, 3, 1503–1509.
91. Joshi, R.K.; Mathela, C.S. Volatile oil composition and antioxidant activity of leaf of Chaerophyllum villosum
Wall. ex DC from Uttrakhand, India. Rec. Res. Sci. Technol. 2013, 5, 25–28.
92. Joshi, R.K. Root essential oil composition of Chaerophyllum villosum Wall. ex DC. from Uttarakhand, India.
Am. J. Essent. Oil Nat. Prod. 2013, 1, 34–36.
93. Ahmad, S.S. Medicinal wild plants from Lahore-Islamabad Motorway (M-2). Pak. J. Bot. 2007, 39, 355–375.
94. Monzote, L.; Nance, M.R.; Garcia, M.; Scull, R.; Setzer, W.N. Comparative chemical, cytotoxicity and
antileishmanial properties of essential oils from Chenopodium ambrosioides. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2011, 6,
281–286. [PubMed]
95. Lohani, H.; Chauhan, N.K.; Haider, K.K.S.Z.; Andola, H.C. Comparative aroma profile of wild and cultivated
Chenopodium ambrosioides L. from Uttarakhand. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2012, 15, 657–661. [CrossRef]
96. Shrestha, S.; Satyal, P.; Pandit, G.; Setzer, W.N. Chemical composition of the essential oil from the aerial parts
of Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium growing in Nepal. Am. J. Essent. Oils Nat. Prod. 2014, 2, 1–3.
97. Agarwal, R.; Pant, A.K.; Prakash, O. Chemical composition and biological activities of essential oils
of Cinnamomum tamala, Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Cinnamomum camphora growing in Uttarakhand.
In Chemistry of Phytopotentials: Health, Energy and Environmental Perspectives; Srivastava, M.M., Khemani, L.D.,
Srivastava, S., Eds.; Springer-Verlag: Berlin, Germany, 2012; pp. 87–92.
98. Hamidpour, R.; Hamidpour, S.; Hamidpour, M.; Shahlari, M. Camphor (Cinnamomum camphora), a traditional
remedy with the history of treating several diseases. Int. J. Case Rep. Images 2013, 4, 86–89. [CrossRef]
99. Pragadheesh, V.S.; Saroj, A.; Yadav, A.; Chanotiya, C.S.; Alam, M.; Samad, A. Chemical characterization and
antifungal activity of Cinnamomum camphora essential oil. Ind. Crop. Prod. 2013, 49, 628–633. [CrossRef]
100. Satyal, P.; Paudel, P.; Poudel, A.; Dosoky, N.S.; Pokharel, K.K.; Setzer, W.N. Bioactivities and
compositional analyses of Cinnamomum essential oils from Nepal: C. camphora, C. tamala, and C. glaucescens.
Nat. Prod. Commun. 2013, 8, 1777–1784. [PubMed]
101. Joshi, S.C.; Padalia, R.C.; Bisht, D.S.; Mathela, C.S. Terpenoid diversity in the leaf essential oils of Himalayan
Lauraceae species. Chem. Biodivers. 2009, 6, 1364–1373. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
102. Shrestha, P.M.; Dhillion, S.S. Medicinal plant diversity and use in the highlands of Dolakha district, Nepal.
J. Ethnopharmacol. 2003, 86, 81–96. [CrossRef]
103. Singh, C.; Singh, S.; Pande, C.; Tewari, G.; Pande, V.; Sharma, P. Exploration of antimicrobial
potential of essential oils of Cinnamomum glanduliferum, Feronia elephantum, Bupleurum hamiltonii and
Cyclospermum leptophyllum against foodborne pathogens. Pharm. Biol. 2013, 51, 1607–1610. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
104. Mikawlrawng, K.; Kumar, S.; Vandana. Current scenario of urolithiasis and the use of medicinal plants as
antiurolithiatic agents in Manipur (north east India): A review. Int. J. Herb. Med. 2014, 2, 1–12.
105. Prakash, B.; Singh, P.; Yadav, S.; Singh, S.C.; Dubey, N.K. Safety profile assessment and efficacy of chemically
characterized Cinnamomum glaucescens essential oil against storage fungi, insect, aflatoxin secretion and as
antioxidant. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2013, 53, 160–167. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
106. Adhikary, S.R.; Tuladhar, B.S.; Sheak, A.; van Beek, T.A.; Posthumus, M.A.; Lelyveld, G.P. Investigation of
Nepalese essential oils. I. The oil of Cinnamomum glaucescens (sugandha kokila). J. Essent. Oil Res. 1992, 4,
151–159. [CrossRef]
107. Baruah, A.; Nath, S.C. Leaf essential oils of Cinnamomum glanduliferum (Wall) Meissn and
Cinnamomum glaucescens (Nees) Meissn. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2006, 18, 200–202. [CrossRef]
108. Chanotiya, C.S.; Yadav, A. Enantioenriched (3S)-(+)-linalool in the leaf oil of Cinnamomum tamala Nees et
Eberm. From Kumaon. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2010, 22, 593–596. [CrossRef]
109. Rai, S.K. Medicinal plants used by Meche people of Jhapa district, eastern Nepal. Our Nat. 2004, 2, 27–32.
[CrossRef]
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 40 of 55

110. Srivastava, A.K.; Srivastava, S.K.; Syamsundar, K.V. Volatile composition of Curcuma angustifolia Roxb.
rhizome from central and southern India. Flavour Fragr. J. 2006, 21, 423–426. [CrossRef]
111. Manandhar, N.P. Native phytotherapy among the Raute tribes of Dadeldhura district, Nepal.
J. Ethnopharmacol. 1998, 60, 199–206. [CrossRef]
112. Eigner, D.; Scholz, D. Ferula asa-foetida and Curcuma longa in traditional medical treatment and diet in Nepal.
J. Ethnopharmacol. 1999, 67, 1–6. [CrossRef]
113. Singh, A.G.; Kumar, A.; Tewari, D.D. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in Terai forest of
western Nepal. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 2012, 8. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
114. Thapa, S. Medico-ethnobotany of Magar community in Salija VDC of Parbat district, central Nepal. Our Nat.
2012, 10, 176–190. [CrossRef]
115. Essien, E.E.; Newby, J.S.; Walker, T.M.; Setzer, W.N.; Ekundayo, O. Chemotaxonomic characterization and
in vitro antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities of the leaf essential oil of Curcuma longa grown in southern
Nigeria. Medicines 2015, 2, 340–349. [CrossRef]
116. Ajaiyeoba, E.O.; Sama, W.; Essien, E.E.; Olayemi, J.O.; Ekundayo, O.; Walker, T.M.; Setzer, W.N. Larvicidal
activity of turmerone-rich essential oils of Curcuma longa leaf and rhizome from Nigeria on Anopheles gambiae.
Pharm. Biol. 2008, 46, 279–282. [CrossRef]
117. Sharma, R.K.; Misra, B.P.; Sarma, T.C.; Bordoloi, A.K.; Pathak, M.G.; Leclercq, P.A. Essential oils of
Curcuma longa L. from Bhutan. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1997, 9, 589–592. [CrossRef]
118. Raina, V.K.; Srivastava, K.S.; Syamsundar, K.V. Rhizome and leaf oil composition of Curcuma longa from the
lower Himalayan region of northern India. J. Essent. Oil. Res. 2005, 17, 556–559. [CrossRef]
119. Paudel, P.; Satyal, P.; Maharjan, S.; Shrestha, N.; Setzer, W.N. Volatile analysis and antimicrobial screening of
the parasitic plant Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. from Nepal. Nat. Prod. Res. 2014, 28, 106–110. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
120. Ullah, S.; Khan, M.R.; Shah, N.A.; Shah, S.A.; Majid, M.; Farooq, M.A. Ethnomedicinal plant use value in the
Lakki Warwat District of Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2014, 158, 412–422. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
121. Zhang, J.S.; Zhao, N.N.; Liu, Q.Z.; Liu, Z.L.; Du, S.S.; Zhou, L.; Deng, Z.W. Repellent constituents of essential
oil of Cymbopogon distans aerial parts against two stored-product insects. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2011, 59,
9910–9915. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
122. Melkani, A.B.; Joshi, P.; Pant, A.K.; Mathela, C.S. Constituents of the essential oils from two varieties of
Cymbopogon distans. J. Nat. Prod. 1985, 48, 995–997. [CrossRef]
123. Lohani, H.; Bhandari, U.; Gwari, G.; Haider, S.Z.; Sah, S.; Chauhan, N.K. Intraspecific chemical variability in
essential oil of Cymbopogon distans (Nees ex Steud.) W. Watson from Uttarakhand Himalaya (India). Indian J.
Nat. Prod. Resour. 2015, 6, 122–126.
124. Radha, B.; Singh, R.D.; Tiwari, J.K.; Tiwari, P.; Gairola, A. Edible plant resources of the Lobha Range of
Kedarnath forest division, Garhwal Himalaya, India. Int. Res. J. Biol. Sci. 2013, 2, 65–73.
125. Joshi, S.C.; Verma, A.R.; Mathela, C.S. Antioxidant and antibacterial activities of the leaf essential oils of
Himalayan Lauraceae species. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2010, 48, 37–40. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
126. Sharma, P.; Samant, S.S. Diversity, distribution and indigenous uses of medicinal plants in Parbati Valley of
Kullu district in Himachal Pradesh, northwestern Himalaya. Asian J. Adv. Basic Sci. 2014, 2, 77–98.
127. Shrestha, P. Contribution to the ethnobotany of the Tamangs of Kathmandu valley. Contrib. Nepal. Stud. 1988,
15, 247–266.
128. Mathela, C.S.; Padalia, R.C.; Joshi, S.C.; Singh, K.K.; Bisht, D.S.; Pant, A.K.; Kharkwal, H. Chemical diversity
in Himalayan Elsholtzia species. Chem. Biodivers. 2009, 6, 2217–2226. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
129. Paul, J.H.A.; Seaforth, C.E.; Tikasingh, T. Eryngium foetidum L.: A review. Fitoterapia 2011, 82, 302–308.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
130. Thakuri, B.C.; Chanotiya, C.S.; Padalia, R.C.; Mathela, C.S. Leaf essential oil of Eryngium foetidum L. from far
western Nepal. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2006, 9, 251–256. [CrossRef]
131. Padalia, R.C.; Bisht, D.S.; Joshi, S.C.; Mathela, C.S. Chemical composition of the essential oil from
Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2009, 21, 522–524. [CrossRef]
132. Poudel, A.; Satyal, P.; Setzer, W.N. Composition and bioactivities of the leaf essential oil of Ficus religiosa
Linn. Am. J. Essent. Oils Nat. Prod. 2015, 2, 16–17.
133. Jeelani, S.M.; Wani, M.P.; Kumari, S.; Gupta, R.C.; Siddique, M.A.A. Ethnobotany of some polypetalous
plants from the Kashmir Himalaya. J. Med. Plants Res. 2013, 7, 2714–2721.
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 41 of 55

134. Joshi, R.K. Chemical composition of Filipendula vestita from India. Chem. Nat. Compd. 2015, 51, 169–170.
[CrossRef]
135. Joshi, S.; Subedi, P.C. Phytochemical and biological studies on essential oil and leaf extracts of
Gualtheria fragrantissima Wall. Nepal J. Sci. Technol. 2013, 14, 59–64.
136. Jadhav, V.; Kore, A.; Kadam, V.J. In-vitro pediculicidal activity of Hedychium spicatum essential oil. Fitoterapia
2007, 78, 470–473. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
137. Bisht, G.S.; Awasthi, A.K.; Dhole, T.N. Antimicrobial activity of Hedychium spicatum. Fitoterapia 2006, 77,
240–242. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
138. Raina, A.P.; Negi, K.S. Essential oil composition of Hedychium spicatum Buch.-Ham. ex Smith. from
Uttarakhand, India. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2015, 18, 382–388. [CrossRef]
139. Verma, R.S.; Padalia, R.C. Comparative essential oil composition of different vegetative parts of
Hedychium spicatum Smith. from Uttarakhand, India. Int. J. Green Pharm. 2010, 4, 292–295. [CrossRef]
140. Priydarshi, R.; Melkani, A.B.; Mohan, L. Terpenoid composition and antibacterial activity of the essential oil
from Inula cappa (Buch-Ham. ex D. Don) DC. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2016, 28, 172–176. [CrossRef]
141. Kumar, M.; Randhava, N.K. Jasminum mesnyi Hance: Review at a glance. J. Drug Deliv. Ther. 2014, 4, 44–47.
142. Satyal, P.; Paudel, P.; Lamichhane, B.; Setzer, W.N. Volatile constituents and biological activities of the leaf
essential oil of Jasminum mesnyi growing in Nepal. J. Chem. Pharm. Res. 2012, 4, 437–439.
143. Rather, M.A.; Dar, B.A.; Dar, M.Y.; Wani, B.A.; Shah, W.A.; Bhat, B.A.; Ganai, B.A.; Bhat, K.A.; Anand, R.;
Qurishi, M.A. Chemical composition, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of the leaf essential oil of
Juglans regia L. and its constituents. Phytomedicine 2012, 19, 1185–1190. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
144. Paudel, P.; Satyal, P.; Dosoky, N.S.; Maharjan, S.; Setzer, W.N. Juglans regia and Juglans nigra, two trees
important in traditional medicine: A comparison of leaf essential oil compositions and biological activities.
Nat. Prod. Commun. 2013, 8, 1481–1486. [PubMed]
145. Verma, R.S.; Padalia, R.C.; Chauhan, A.; Thul, S.T. Phytochemical analysis of the leaf volatile oil of walnut
tree (Juglans regia L.) from western Himalaya. Ind. Crop. Prod. 2013, 42, 195–201. [CrossRef]
146. Cavaleiro, C.; Pinto, E.; Gonçalves, M.J.; Salgueiro, L. Antifungal activity of Juniperus essential oils against
dermatophytes, Aspergillus and Candida strains. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2006, 100, 1333–1338. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
147. Glišić, S.B.; Milojević, S.Ž.; Dimitrijević, S.I.; Orlović, A.M.; Skala, D.U. Antimicrobial activity of the essential
oil and different fractions of Juniperus communis L. and a comparison with some commercial antibiotics.
J. Serbian Chem. Soc. 2007, 72, 311–320. [CrossRef]
148. Pepeljnjak, S.; Kosalec, I.; Kalodera, Z.; Blažević, N. Antimicrobial activity of juniper berry essential oil
(Juniperus communis L., Cuppressaceae). Acta Pharm. 2005, 55, 417–422. [PubMed]
149. Lohani, H.; Haider, S.Z.; Chauhan, N.K.; Mohan, M. Essential oil composition of leaves and berries of
Juniperus communis and Juniperus indica from Uttarakhand Himalaya. J. Med. Aromat. Plant Sci. 2010, 32,
199–201.
150. Pandey, M.R. Use of medicinal plants in traditional Tibetan therapy system in Upper Mustang, Nepal.
Our Nat. 2006, 4, 69–82. [CrossRef]
151. Adams, R.P.; Chaudhary, R.P. Leaf essential oil of Juniperus indica Bertol. from Nepal. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1996,
8, 677–680. [CrossRef]
152. Chauhan, N.S. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of Himachal Pradesh; Indus Publishing: New Delhi, India, 1999;
pp. 253–254.
153. Bhattacharyya, A. Ethnobotanical observations in the Ladakh Region of northern Jammu and Kashmir state,
India. Econ. Bot. 1991, 45, 305–308. [CrossRef]
154. Stappen, I.; Tabanca, N.; Ali, A.; Wedge, D.E.; Wanner, J.; Kaul, V.K.; Lal, B.; Jaitak, V.; Gochev, V.K.;
Schmidt, E.; et al. Chemical composition and biological activity of essential oils from wild growing aromatic
plant species of Skimmia laureola and Juniperus macropoda from western Himalaya. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2015,
10, 1071–1074. [PubMed]
155. Prajapati, V.; Tripathi, A.K.; Aggarwal, K.K.; Khanuja, S.P.S. Insecticidal, repellent and oviposition-deterrent
activity of selected essential oils against Anopheles stephensi, Aedes aegypti, and Culex quinquefasciatus.
Biores. Technol. 2005, 96, 1749–1757. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
156. Srivastava, D.; Haider, F.; Dwivedi, P.D.; Naqvi, A.A.; Bagchi, G.D. Comparative study of the leaf oil of
Juniperus macropoda growing in Garhwal regions of Uttranchal (India). Flavour Fragr. J. 2005, 20, 460–461.
[CrossRef]
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 42 of 55

157. Adams, R.P.; Thappa, R.K.; Agarwal, S.G.; Kapahi, B.K.; Srivastava, T.N.; Chaudhary, R.P. The leaf essential
oil of Juniperus recurva Buch.-Ham. Ex D. Don from India and Nepal compared with J. recurva var. squamata
(D. Don) Parl. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1998, 10, 21–24. [CrossRef]
158. Dangol, D.R. Economic uses of forest plant resources in western Chitwan, Nepal. Banko Janakari 2002, 12,
56–64. [PubMed]
159. Haq, F.; Ahmad, H.; Ullah, R.; Iqbal, Z. Species diversity and ethno botanical classes of the flora of Allai
valley district Battagram Pakistan. Int. J. Plant Res. 2012, 2, 111–123. [CrossRef]
160. Paudel, P.; Satyal, P.; Khadka, G.; Setzer, W.N. Leaf essential oil composition of Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. from
Nepal. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2012, 15, 854–857. [CrossRef]
161. Morton, J.F. Atlas of Medicinal Plants of Middle America; Charles C. Thomas Publisher: Springfield, IL,
USA, 1981.
162. Satyal, P.; Crouch, R.A.; Monzote, L.; Cos, P.; Ali, N.A.A.; Alhaj, M.A.; Setzer, W.N. The chemical diversity
of Lantana camara: Analyses of essential oil samples from Cuba, Nepal, and Yemen. Chem. Biodivers. 2016,
in press. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
163. Acharya, E.; Pokhrel, B. Ethno-medicinal plants used by Bantar of Bhaudaha, Morang, Nepal. Our Nat. 2006,
4, 96–103.
164. Satyal, P.; Paudel, P.; Poudel, A.; Setzer, W.N. Antimicrobial activities and constituents of the leaf essential oil
of Lawsonia inermis growing in Nepal. PharmacologyOnLine 2012, 1, 31–35.
165. Ogunbinu, A.O.; Ogunwande, I.A.; Walker, T.M.; Setzer, W.N. Study on the essential oil of Lawsonia inermis (L.)
Lythraceae. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2007, 10, 184–188. [CrossRef]
166. Das, S.N.; Patro, V.J.; Dinda, S.C. A review: Ethnobotanical survey of genus Leucas. Pharmacogn. Rev. 2012, 6,
100–106. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
167. Rajakumar, N.; Shivanna, M.B. Traditional herbal medicinal knowledge in Sagar Taluk of Shimoga district,
Karnataka, India. Indian J. Nat. Prod. Res. 2010, 1, 102–108.
168. Satyal, P.; Paudel, P.; Poudel, A.; Setzer, W.N. Microbiological activities of volatile constituents of Leucas aspera
(Willd.) Link from Nepal. J. Nat. Pharm. 2012, 3, 118–119.
169. Comai, S.; Dall’Acqua, S.; Grillo, A.; Castagliuolo, I.; Gurung, K.; Innocenti, G. Essential oil of Lindera neesiana
fruit: Chemical analysis and its potential use in topical applications. Fitoterapia 2010, 81, 11–16. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
170. Singh, R.S.; Kanjila, P.B.; Pathak, M.G.; Ghosh, A.C. Volatiles of Lindera neesiana Benth. leaf and branch.
J. Essent. Oil Res. 1995, 7, 695–696. [CrossRef]
171. Singh, O.; Khanam, Z.; Misra, N.; Srivastava, M.K. Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.): An overview.
Pharmacogn. Rev. 2011, 5, 82–95. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
172. Bruneton, J. Pharmacognosy, 2nd ed.; Lavoisier Publishing: Paris, France, 1999.
173. Singh, S. Ethnobotanical study of some wild herb species Parsa District Forest of Nepal.
J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. 2015, 4, 32–40.
174. Satyal, P.; Shrestha, S.; Setzer, W.N. Composition and bioactivities of an (E)-β-farnesene chemotype of
chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) essential oil from Nepal. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2015, 10, 1453–1457.
[PubMed]
175. Sashidhara, K.V.; Verma, R.S.; Ram, P. Essential oil composition of Matricaria recutita L. from the lower region
of the Himalayas. Flavour Fragr. J. 2006, 21, 274–276. [CrossRef]
176. Khan, Z.S.; Khuroo, A.A.; Dar, G.H. Ethnomedicinal survey of Uri, Kashmir Himalaya. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl.
2004, 3, 351–357.
177. Malik, A.H.; Khuroo, A.A.; Dar, G.H.; Khan, Z.S. Ethnomedicinal uses of some plants in the Kashmir
Himalaya. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 2011, 10, 362–366.
178. Joshi, K.; Joshi, R.; Joshi, A.R. Indigenous knowledge and uses of medicinal plants in Macchegaun, Nepal.
Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 2011, 10, 281–286.
179. Kumar, A.; Shukla, R.; Singh, P.; Singh, A.K.; Dubey, N.K. Use of essential oil from Mentha arvensis L. to
control storage moulds and insects in stored chickpea. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2009, 89, 2643–2649. [CrossRef]
180. Verma, R.S.; Rahman, L.; Verma, R.K.; Chauhan, A.; Yadav, A.K.; Singh, A. Essential oil composition of
menthol mint (Mentha arvensis) and peppermint (Mentha piperita) cultivars at different stages of plant growth
from Kumaon region of western Himalaya. Open Access J. Med. Aromat. Plants 2010, 1, 13–18.
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 43 of 55

181. Singh, A.K.; Raina, V.K.; Naqvi, A.A.; Patra, N.K.; Kumar, B.; Ram, P.; Khanuja, S.P.S. Essential oil composition
and chemoarrays of menthol mint (Mentha arvensis L. f. piperascens Malinvaud ex. Holmes) cultivars.
Flavour Fragr. J. 2005, 20, 302–305. [CrossRef]
182. Kumar, M.; Paul, Y.; Anand, V.K. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the locals in Kishtwar,
Jammu and Kashmir, India. Ethnobot. Leafl. 2009, 13, 1240–1256.
183. Mathela, C.S.; Padalia, R.C.; Chanotiya, C.S. Carvone rich Mentha longifolia (Linn.): Chemical variation and
commercial potential. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2005, 8, 130–133. [CrossRef]
184. Singh, H.P.; Batish, D.R.; Mittal, S.; Dogra, K.S.; Yadav, S.; Kohli, R.K. Constituents of leaf essential oil of
Mentha longifolia from India. Chem. Nat. Compd. 2008, 44, 528–529. [CrossRef]
185. Sharopov, F.S.; Sulaimonova, V.A.; Setzer, W.N. Essential oil composition of Mentha longifolia from wild
populations growing in Tajikistan. J. Med. Act. Plants 2012, 1, 76–84.
186. Bisht, V.K.; Rana, C.S.; Negi, J.S.; Bhandari, A.K.; Purohit, V.; Kuniyal, C.P.; Sundriyal, R.C. Lamiaceous
ethno-medico-botanicals in Uttarakhand Himalaya, India. J. Med. Plants Res. 2012, 6, 4281–4291. [CrossRef]
187. İşcan, G.; Kırımer, N.; Kürkcüoğlu, M.; Başer, K.H.C.; Demırcı, F. Antimicrobial screening of Mentha piperita
essential oils. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50, 3943–3946. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
188. Hussain, A.I.; Anwar, F.; Nigam, P.S.; Ashraf, M.; Gilani, A.H. Seasonal variation in content, chemical
composition and antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities of essential oils from four Mentha species. J. Sci.
Food Agric. 2010, 90, 1827–1836. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
189. Chauhan, R.S.; Kaul, M.K.; Shahi, A.K.; Kumar, A.; Ram, G.; Tawa, A. Chemical composition of essential
oils in Mentha spicata L. accession [IIIM(J)26] from north-west Himalayan region. Ind. Crop. Prod. 2009, 29,
654–656. [CrossRef]
190. Phondani, P.C.; Maikhuri, R.K.; Rawat, L.S.; Farooquee, N.A.; Kala, C.P.; Vishvakarma, S.C.R.; Rao, K.S.;
Saxena, K.G. Ethnobotanical uses of plants among the Bhotiya tribal communities of Nitri valley in central
Himalaya, India. Ethnobot. Res. Appl. 2010, 8, 233–244.
191. Malla, B.; Chhetri, R.B. Indigenous knowledge on ethnobotanical plants of Kavrepalanchowk district.
Kathmandu Univ. J. Sci. Eng. Technol. 2009, 5, 96–109.
192. Kumar, A.; Varshney, V.K.; Prasad, R.; Rawat, M.S.M.; Stashenko, E.E. In vitro antioxidant, antifungal and
antibacterial activities of essential oil of Morina longifolia Wall. leaves. J. Biol. Act. Prod. Nat. 2013, 3, 183–193.
193. Joshi, R.K.; Mathela, C.S. Volatile oil composition of Morina longifolia Wall. ex. Dc. from Himalayan region of
Uttarakhand. Asian J. Res. Pharm. Sci. 2013, 3, 12–14.
194. Chauhan, R.S.; Nautiyal, M.C.; Tava, A.; Cecotti, R. Essential oil composition of Morina longifolia Wall. ex.
DC. from the Himalayan region. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2012, 24, 461–463. [CrossRef]
195. Kothiyal, S.K.; Semwal, D.K.; Badoni, R.; Rawat, U.; Sati, S.C.; Rawat, M.S.M. Seasonal variation in the
essential oil composition from Morina longifolia Wallich. Int. J. Essent. Oil. Ther. 2009, 3, 171–174.
196. Uniyal, S.K.; Sharma, V.; Jamwal, P. Fold medicinal practices in Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh, western
Himalaya. Hum. Ecol. 2011, 39, 479–488. [CrossRef]
197. Rana, V.S.; Juyal, J.P.; Rashmi; Blazquez, M.A. Chemical constituents of the volatile oil of Murraya koenigii.
Int. J. Aromather. 2004, 14, 23–25. [CrossRef]
198. Satyal, P.; Chhetri, B.K.; Dosoky, N.S.; Poudel, A.; Setzer, W.N. Chemical composition of
Nardostachys grandiflora rhizome oil from Nepal—A controbution to the chemotaxonomy and bioactivity of
Nardostachys. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2015, 10, 1067–1070. [PubMed]
199. Malla, B.; Gauchan, D.P.; Chhetri, R.B. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by ethnic people in
Parbat district of western Nepal. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2015, 165, 103–117. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
200. Bisht, D.S.; Padalia, R.C.; Singh, L.; Pande, V.; Lal, P.; Mathela, C.S. Constituents and antimicrobial activity of
the essential oils of six Himalayan Nepeta species. J. Serbian Chem. Soc. 2010, 75, 739–747. [CrossRef]
201. Rather, M.A.; Hassan, T. Analysis of the diterpene rich essential oil of Nepeta clarkei Hooke. from Kashmir
Himalayas by capillary GC-MS. Int. J. ChemTech Res. 2011, 3, 959–962.
202. Ballabh, B.; Chaurasia, O.P. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh—Used in treatment of cold,
cough and fever. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2007, 112, 341–349. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
203. Dutt, H.C.; Bhagat, N.; Pandita, S. Oral traditional knowledge on medicinal plants in jeopardy among Gaddi
shepherds in hills of northwestern Himalaya, J & K, India. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2015, 168, 337–348. [PubMed]
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 44 of 55

204. Hassan, T.; Rather, M.A.; Shawl, A.S.; Bhat, K.A.; Bhat, H.M.; Dar, B.A.; Dar, G.H.; Qurishi, M.A. Chemical
composition of the essential oils of Nepeta laevigata and Nepeta elliptica from India. Chem. Nat. Compd. 2011,
47, 456–458. [CrossRef]
205. Bano, A.; Ahmad, M.; Zafar, M.; Sultana, S.; Rashid, S.; Khan, M.A. Ethnomedicinal knowledge of the most
commonly used plants from Deosai Plateau, western Himalayas, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol.
2014, 155, 1046–1052. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
206. Sharma, P.; Agnihotry, A.; Sharma, P.P. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Murari Devi and
surrounding areas (Mandi district, Himachal Pradesh), India. Indian For. 2015, 141, 68–78.
207. Kayani, S.; Ahmad, M.; Sultana, S.; Shinwari, Z.K.; Zafar, M.; Yaseen, G.; Hussain, M.; Bibi, T. Ethnobotany
of medicinal plants among the communities of Alpine and sub-Alpine regions of Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol.
2015, 164, 186–202. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
208. Mathela, C.S.; Kharkwal, H.; Laurent, R. Investigations on Himalayan Nepeta species. V. Essential oil of
Nepeta govaniana Benth. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1994, 6, 425–428. [CrossRef]
209. Hassan, T.; Rather, M.A.; Sofi, S.N.; Dar, B.A.; Dar, G.H. GC-FID and GC-MS analysis of the sesquiterpene
rich essential oil of Nepeta govaniana (Wall. ex Benth.) Benth. from Jammu and Kashmir. Int. J. ChemTech Res.
2011, 3, 1194–1199.
210. Inouye, S.; Uchida, K.; Yamaguchi, H.; Miyara, T.; Gomi, S.; Amano, M. Volatile aroma constituents of three
Labiatae herbs growing wild in the Karakoram-Himalaya district and their antifungal activity by vapor
contact. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2001, 13, 68–72. [CrossRef]
211. Qureshi, R.A.; Ghufran, M.A.; Gilani, S.A.; Sultana, K.; Ashraf, M. Ethnobotanical studies of selected
medicinal plants of Sughan Gali and Ganga Chotti Hills, District Bagh, Azad Kashmir. Pak. J. Bot. 2007, 39,
2275–2283.
212. Khan, S.M.; Page, S.; Ahmad, H.; Shaheen, H.; Ullah, Z.; Ahmad, M.; Harper, D.M. Medicinal flora and
ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley, western Himalaya, Pakistan. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 2013, 9.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
213. Joshi, R.K. Antioxidant activity of essential oil of Nepeta laevigata (D. Don) Hand.-Mazz from Himalayan
region of Uttarakhand. Am. J. Essent. Oils Nat. Prod. 2014, 2, 15–18.
214. Joshi, R.K.; Mathela, C.S. Chemical constituents of leaf essential oil from Nepeta laevigata (D. Don) Hand.-Mazz
from Kumaun Himalaya. Am. J. Essent. Oils Nat. Prod. 2013, 1, 7–10.
215. Manandhar, N.P. Ethnobotanical note on folk-lore remedies of Baglung district, Nepal. Contrib. Nepal. Stud.
1993, 20, 183–196.
216. Rather, M.A.; Hassan, T.; Dar, B.A.; Shawl, A.S.; Qurishi, M.A.; Ganai, B.A. Essential oil composition of
Nepeta raphanorhiza Benth growing in Kashmir valley. Rec. Nat. Prod. 2012, 6, 67–70.
217. Thappa, R.K.; Agarwal, S.G.; Srivastava, T.N.; Kapahi, B.K. Essential oils of four Himalayan Nepeta species.
J. Essent. Oil Res. 2001, 13, 189–191. [CrossRef]
218. Bisht, M.; Sharma, S.; Mathela, C.S. Investigation on Himalayan Nepeta species VII: Essential oil of
Nepeta spicata Benth. Asian J. Chem. 1997, 9, 612–615.
219. Agrawal, J.; Pal, A. Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn—A critical ethnopharmacological review. J. Ethnopharmacol.
2013, 146, 645–658. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
220. Satyal, P.; Paudel, P.; Poudel, A.; Setzer, W.N. Chemical composition and biological activities of essential oil
from leaf and bark of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. from Nepal. Open Access J. Med. Aromat. Plants 2012, 3, 1–4.
221. Sharopov, F.S.; Satyal, P.; Ali, N.A.A.; Pokharel, S.; Zhang, H.; Wink, M.; Kukaniev, M.A.; Setzer, W.N.
The essential oil compositions of Ocimum basilicum from three different regions: Nepal, Tajikistan, and
Yemen. Chem. Biodivers. 2016. in press. [CrossRef]
222. Singh, G.; Rawat, G.S. Ethnomedicinal survey of Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary in western Himalaya, India.
Indian J. Fundam. Appl. Life Sci. 2011, 1, 35–46.
223. Uniyal, B.; Shiva, V. Traditional knowledge on medicinal plants among rural women of the Garhwal
Himalaya, Uttaranchal. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 2005, 4, 259–266.
224. Tiwari, J.K.; Ballabha, R.; Tiwari, P. Ethnopaediatrics in Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India
(psychomedicine and medicine). N. Y. Sci. J. 2010, 3, 123–126.
225. Kapathi, B.K.; Srivastava, T.N.; Sarin, Y.K. Traditional medicinal plants of Gurez (Kashmir)—An
ethnobotanical study. Anc. Sci. Life 1993, 13, 119–124.
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 45 of 55

226. Prakash, O.; Kanyal, L.; Chandra, M.; Pant, A.K. Chemical diversity and antioxidant activity of essential oils
among different accessions of Origanum vulgare L. from Uttarakhand region. Indian J. Nat. Prod. Res. 2013, 4,
212–218.
227. Bisht, D.; Chanotiya, C.S.; Rana, M.; Semwal, M. Variability in essential oil and bioactive chiral
monoterpenoid compositions of Indian oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) populations from northwestern
Himalaya and their chemotaxonomy. Ind. Crop. Prod. 2009, 30, 422–426. [CrossRef]
228. Verma, R.S.; Padalia, R.C.; Chauhan, A. Volatile constituents of Origanum vulgare L., “thymol” chemotype:
Variability in north India during plant ontogeny. Nat. Prod. Res. 2012, 26, 1358–1362. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
229. Verma, R.S.; Padalia, R.C.; Chauhan, A.; Verma, R.K.; Yadav, A.K.; Singh, H.P. Chemical diversity in Indian
oregano (Origanum vulgare L.). Chem. Biodivers. 2010, 7, 2054–2064. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
230. Verma, R.S.; Chauhan, A.; Verma, R.K.; Yadav, A.K. Volatile terpenoid composition of Origanum vulgare L.
derived from top, middle and lower portions of the plant cultivated in Uttarakhand. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants
2010, 13, 692–698. [CrossRef]
231. Guridatt, P.S.; Priti, V.; Shweta, S.; Ramesha, B.T.; Ravikanth, G.; Vasudeva, R.; Amna, T.; Deepika, S.;
Ganeshaiah, K.N.; Uma Shaanker, R.; et al. Changes in the essential oil content and composition of
Origanum vulgare L. during annual growth from Kumaon Himalaya. Curr. Sci. 2010, 98, 1010–1012.
232. Pande, C.; Tewari, G.; Singh, S.; Singh, C. Chemical markers in Origanum vulgare L. from Kumaon Himalayas:
A chemosystematic study. Nat. Prod. Res. 2012, 26, 140–145. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
233. Kaul, V.K.; Singh, B.; Sood, R.P. Essential oil of Origanum vulgare L. from north India. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1996,
8, 101–103. [CrossRef]
234. Negi, C.S. Socio-cultural and ethnobotanical value of a sacred forest, Thal Ke Dhar, central Himalaya. Indian J.
Tradit. Knowl. 2005, 4, 190–198.
235. Rijal, A. Surviving on knowledge: Ethnobotany of Chepang community from mid-hills of Nepal.
Ethnobot. Res. Appl. 2011, 9, 181–215.
236. Turin, M. Ethnobotanical notes on Thangmi plant names and their medicinal and ritual uses.
Contrib. Nepal. Stud. 2003, 30, 19–52.
237. Sigdel, S.R.; Rokaya, M.B.; Timsina, B. Plant inventory and ethnobotanical study of Khimti Hydropower
Project, central Nepal. Sci. World 2013, 11, 105–112. [CrossRef]
238. Kala, C.P. Medicinal plants used for dermatological disorders: A study of Uttarakhand state in India. Aust. J.
Med. Herb. 2011, 23, 132–137.
239. Satyal, P.; Paudel, P.; Raut, J.; Deo, A.; Dosoky, N.S.; Setzer, W.N. Volatile constituents of Pinus roxburghii
from Nepal. Pharmacogn. Res. 2013, 5, 43–48.
240. Guha, P. Betel leaf: The neglected green gold of India. J. Hum. Ecol. 2006, 19, 87–93.
241. Satyal, P.; Setzer, W.N. Chemical composition and biological activities of Nepalese Piper betle L. Int. J. Prof.
Holist. Aromather. 2012, 1, 23–26.
242. Nautiyal, S.; Maikhuri, R.K.; Rao, K.S.; Saxena, K.G. Medicinal plant resources in Nanda Devi Biosphere
Reserve in the central Himalayas. J. Herbs Spices Med. Plants 2001, 8, 47–64. [CrossRef]
243. Mathela, C.S.; Joshi, R.K.; Bisht, B.S.; Joshi, S.C. Nothoapiole and α-asarone rich essential oils from Himalayan
Pleurospermum angelicoides Benth. Rec. Nat. Prod. 2015, 9, 546–552.
244. Shrestha, N.; Prasai, D.; Shrestha, K.K.; Shrestha, S.; Zhang, X.C. Ethnomedicinal practices in the highlands
of central Nepal: A case study of Syaphru and Langtang village in Rasuwa district. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2014,
155, 1204–1213. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
245. Rawat, B.; Sekar, K.C.; Gairola, S. Ethnomedicinal plants of Sunderdhunga Valley, western Himalaya,
India—Traditional use, current status and future scenario. Indian For. 2013, 139, 61–68.
246. Innocenti, G.; Dall’Acqua, S.; Scialino, G.; Banfi, E.; Sosa, S.; Gurung, K.; Barbera, M.; Carrara, M. Chemical
composition and biological properties of Rhododendron anthopogon essential oil. Molecules 2010, 15, 2326–2338.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
247. Dutt, B.; Nath, D.; Chauhan, N.S.; Sharma, K.R.; Sharma, S.S. Ethno-medicinal plant resources of tribal Pangi
Valley in district Chamba, Himachal Pradesh, India. Int. J. Bio-Res. Stress Manag. 2014, 5, 416–421. [CrossRef]
248. Chauhan, R.S.; Nautiyal, M.C.; Tava, A.; Mella, M. Chemical composition of the volatile oil from the roots of
Selinum tenuifolium Wall. Helv. Chim. Acta 2012, 95, 780–787. [CrossRef]
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 46 of 55

249. Mohan, M.; Singh, P.; Gupta, V.K.; Lohani, H.; Gupta, S. Chemical composition of Selinum tenuifolium Wall ex
C.B. Clarke: A new source of α-bisabolol from north-western Himalaya. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2013, 16,
439–442. [CrossRef]
250. Kumari, P.; Joshi, G.C.; Tewari, L.M. Diversity and status of ethno-medicinal plants of Almora district in
Uttarakhand, India. Int. J. Biodivers. Conserv. 2011, 3, 298–326.
251. Sharma, P.; Shah, G.C. Composition and antioxidant activity of Senecio nudicaulis Wall. ex DC. (Asteraceae):
A medicinal plant growing wild in Himachal Pradesh, India. Nat. Prod. Res. 2015, 29, 883–886. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
252. Jain, S.K.; Saklani, A. Observations on the ethnobotany of the Tons valley region in the Uttarkashi district of
the northwest Himalaya, India. Mt. Res. Dev. 1991, 11, 157–161. [CrossRef]
253. Thakuri, B.C.; Padalia, R.C.; Chanotiya, C.S.; Tiwari, A.; Mathela, C.S.; Kharkwal, H. Sesquiterpene rich oils
from leaves and roots of Senecio rufinervis DC. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2008, 20, 435–436.
254. Gondwal, M.; Prakash, O.; Punetha, H.; Kanaujia, S.; Pant, A.K. Effect of essential oils of Skimmia anquetilia
N.P. Taylor & Airy Shaw on fecundity, growth and development of Caryedon serratus. Int. J. Biol. Pharm.
Allied Sci. 2012, 1, 124–132.
255. Gondwal, M.; Prakash, O.; Vivekanand; Pant, A.K.; Padalia, R.C.; Mathela, C.S. Essential oil composition and
antioxidant activity of leaves and flowers of Skimmia anquetilia N.P. Taylor & Airy Shaw. J. Essent. Oil Res.
2012, 24, 83–90.
256. Ahmad, M.; Sultana, S.; Fazl-i-Hadi, S.; ben Hadda, T.; Rashid, S.; Zafar, M.; Khan, M.A.; Khan, M.P.Z.;
Yaseen, G. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in high mountainous region of Chail valley (District
Swat-Pakistan). J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 2014, 10. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
257. Shah, W.A.; Dar, M.Y.; Zagar, M.I.; Agnihotri, V.K.; Qurishi, M.A.; Singh, B. Chemical composition and
antimicrobial activity of the leaf essential oil of Skimmia laureola growing wild in Jammu and Kashmir, India.
Nat. Prod. Res. 2013, 27, 1023–1027. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
258. Barkatullah; Ibrar, M.; Muhammad, N.; De Feo, V. Chemical composition and biological activities of the
essential oil of Skimmia laureola leaves. Molecules 2015, 20, 4735–4745. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
259. Satyal, P.; Maharjan, S.; Setzer, W.N. Volatile constituents from the leaves, fruits (berries), stems and roots of
Solanum xanthocarpum from Nepal. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2015, 10, 361–364. [PubMed]
260. Bisht, D.S.; Padalia, R.C.; Joshi, S.C.; Singh, K.K.; Mathela, C.S. Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons rich essential oil
of Stachys sericea Wall. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2008, 11, 586–590. [CrossRef]
261. Verma, M.; Singh, S.K.; Bhushan, S.; Pal, H.C.; Kitchlu, S.; Koul, M.K.; Thappa, R.K.; Saxena, A.K. Induction
of mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis by an essential oil from Tanacetum gracile. Planta Med. 2008, 74,
515–520. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
262. Kitchlu, S.; Bakshi, S.K.; Kaul, M.K.; Bhan, M.K.; Thapa, R.K.; Agarwal, S.G. Tanacetum gracile Hook. F & T.
A new source of lavandulol from Ladakh Himalaya (India). Flavour Fragr. J. 2006, 21, 690–692.
263. Lohani, H.; Chauhan, N.; Andola, H.C. Chemical composition of the essential oil of two Tanacetum species
alpine region in Indian Himalaya. Natl. Acad. Sci. Lett. 2012, 35, 95–97. [CrossRef]
264. Joshi, R.K. Antifungal activity of essential oil of Tanacetum longifolium growing wild in Uttrakhand, India.
J. Biol. Act. Prod. Nat. 2013, 3, 97–100.
265. Prakash, R. Traditional uses of medicinal plants in Uttarakhand Himalayan region. Sch. Acad. J. Biosci. 2014,
2, 345–353.
266. Haider, S.Z.; Tiwari, S.C.; Sah, S.; Mohan, M. Antimicrobial activities of essential oils from different
populations of Tanacetum nubigenum Wallich ex. DC. and Tanacetum dolichophyllum (Kitam.) Kitam.
in Uttarakhand (India). Med. Plants Int. J. Phytomed. Relat. Ind. 2011, 3, 319–321. [CrossRef]
267. Haider, S.Z.; Mohan, M.; Pandey, A.K.; Singh, P. Repellent and fumigant activities of Tanacetum nubigenum
Wallich. ex DC essential oils against Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). J. Oleo Sci.
2015, 64, 895–903. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
268. Beauchamp, P.; Dev, V.; Kashyap, T.; Melkani, A.; Mathela, C.; Bottini, A.T. Composition of the essential oil
of Tanacetum nubigenum Wallich ex DC. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2001, 13, 319–323. [CrossRef]
269. Chanotiya, C.S.; Mathela, C.S. Two distinct essential oil bearing races of Tanacetum nubigenum Wallich ex DC
from Kumaon Himalaya. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2007, 2, 785–788.
270. Ghildiyal, J.C.; Juyal, P.; Sadana, G. Indigenous uses of plants in different women ailments in Garhwal region.
Indian J. Pharm. Biol. Res. 2014, 2, 39–44.
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 47 of 55

271. Khan, A.A.; Ali, F.; Ihsan, M.; Hayat, K.; Nabi, G. Ethnobotanical study of the medicinal plants of Tehsil
Charbagh, district Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Am.-Eurasian J. Agric. Environ. Sci. 2015, 15,
1464–1474.
272. Guleria, S.; Kumar, A.; Tiku, A.K. Chemical composition and fungitoxic activity of essential oil of
Thuja orientalis L. grown in the north-western Himalaya. Z. Naturforsch. C 2008, 63, 211–214. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
273. Hussain, A.I.; Anwar, F.; Chatha, S.A.S.; Latif, S.; Sherazi, S.T.H.; Ahmad, A.; Worthington, J.; Sarker, S.D.
Chemical composition and bioactivity studies of the essential oils of two Thymus species from the Pakistani
flora. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2013, 50, 185–192. [CrossRef]
274. Verma, R.S.; Padalia, R.C.; Chanotiya, C.S.; Chauhan, A. Chemical investigation of the essential oil of
Thymus linearis (Benth. ex Benth) from western Himalaya, India. Nat. Prod. Res. 2010, 24, 1890–1896.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
275. Kumari, P.; Joshi, G.C.; Tewari, L.M. Indigenous uses of threatened ethno-medicinal plants used to cure
different diseases by ethnic people of Almora district of western Himalaya. Int. J. Ayurvedic Herb. Med. 2012,
2, 661–678.
276. Aziz, S.; Habib-ur-Rehman; Irshad, M.; Asghar, S.F.; Hussain, H.; Ahmed, I. Phytotoxic and antifungal
activities of essential oils of Thymus serpyllum grown in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. J. Essent. Oil
Bear. Plants 2010, 13, 224–229. [CrossRef]
277. Verma, R.S.; Verma, R.K.; Chauhan, A.; Yadav, A.K. Seasonal variation in essential oil content and composition
of thyme, Thymus serpyllum L. cultivated in Uttarakhand hills. Indian J. Pharm. Sci. 2011, 73, 233–235.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
278. Verma, R.S.; Rahman, L.; Chanotiya, C.S.; Verma, R.K.; Singh, A.; Yadav, A.; Chauhan, A.; Yadav, A.K.;
Singh, A.K. Essential oil composition of Thymus serpyllum cultivated in the Kumaon region of western
Himalaya, India. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2009, 4, 987–988. [PubMed]
279. Das, J.; Mao, A.A.; Handique, P.J. Volatile constituents of Valeriana hardwickii Wall. root oil from Arunachal
Pradesh, eastern Himalaya. Rec. Nat. Prod. 2011, 5, 70–73.
280. Mathela, C.S.; Chanotiya, C.S.; Sati, S.; Sammal, S.S.; Wray, V. Epoxysesquithujene, a novel sesquiterpenoid
from Valeriana hardwickii var. hardwickii. Fitoterapia 2007, 78, 279–282. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
281. Sati, S.; Mathela, C.S. Essential oil composition of Valeriana hardwickii var. arnottiana from the Himalayas.
Flavour Fragr. J. 2005, 20, 299–301. [CrossRef]
282. Mathela, C.S.; Chanotiya, C.S.; Sammal, S.S.; Pant, A.K.; Pandey, S. Compositional diversity of terpenoids in
the Himalayan Valeriana genus. Chem. Biodivers. 2005, 2, 1174–1182. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
283. Burlakoti, C.; Kunwar, R.M. Folk herbal medicines of Mahakali watershed area, Nepal. In Medicinal Plants
in Nepal: An Anthology of Contemporary Research; Jha, P.K., Karmacharya, S.B., Chhetri, M.K., Thapa, C.B.,
Shrestha, B.B., Eds.; Ecological Society: Kathmandu, Nepal, 2008; pp. 187–193.
284. Joshi, A.R.; Edington, J.M. The use of medicinal plants by two village communities in the central development
regions of Nepal. Econ. Bot. 1990, 44, 71–83. [CrossRef]
285. Kunwar, R.M.; Adhikari, N. Ethnomedicine of Dolpa district, Nepal: The plants, their vernacular names and
uses. Lyonia 2005, 8, 43–49.
286. Irshad, M.; Aziz, S.; Habib-ur-Rehman; Hussain, H. GC-MS analysis and antifungal activity of essential
oils of Angelica glauca, Plectranthus rugosus, and Valeriana wallichii. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2012, 15, 15–21.
[CrossRef]
287. Mathela, C.S.; Tiwari, M.; Sammal, S.S.; Chanotiya, C.S. Valeriana wallichii DC, a new chemotype from
northwestern Himalaya. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2005, 17, 672–675. [CrossRef]
288. Raina, A.P.; Negi, K.S. Essential oil composition of Valeriana jatamansi Jones from Himalayan regions of India.
Indian J. Pharm. Sci. 2015, 77, 218–222. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
289. Bhatt, I.D.; Dauthal, P.; Rawat, S.; Gaira, K.S.; Jugran, A.; Rawal, R.S.; Dhar, U. Characterization of
essential oil composition, phenolic content, and antioxidant properties in wild and planted individuals of
Valeriana jatamansi Jones. Sci. Hortcult. 2012, 136, 61–68. [CrossRef]
290. Singh, S.K.; Katoch, R.; Kapila, R.K. Genetic and biochemical diversity among Valeriana jatamansi populations
from Himachal Pradesh. Sci. World J. 2015. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 48 of 55

291. Verma, R.S.; Verma, R.K.; Padalia, R.C.; Chauhan, A.; Singh, A.; Singh, H.P. Chemical diversity in the
essential oil of Indian valerian (Valeriana jatamansi Jones). Chem. Biodivers. 2011, 8, 1921–1929. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
292. Mathela, C.S.; Padalia, R.C.; Chanotiya, C.S. Kanokonyl acetate-rich Indian valerian from northwestern
Himalaya. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2009, 4, 1253–1256. [PubMed]
293. Sati, S.; Chanotiya, C.S.; Mathela, C.S. Comparative investigations on the leaf and root oils of Valeriana wallichii
DC from northwestern Himalaya. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2005, 17, 408–409. [CrossRef]
294. Khokra, S.L.; Prakash, O.; Jain, S.; Aneja, K.R.; Dhingra, Y. Essential oil composition and antibacterial studies
of Vitex negundo Linn. extracts. Indian J. Pharm. Sci. 2008, 70, 522–526. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
295. Ahmad, A.; Misra, L.N.; Gupta, M.M. Hydroxyalk-(4Z)-enoic acids and volatile components from the seeds
of Zanthoxylum armatum. J. Nat. Prod. 1993, 56, 456–460. [CrossRef]
296. Bisht, D.; Chanotiya, C.S. 2-Undecanone rich essential oil from Zanthoxylum armatum. Nat. Prod. Commun.
2011, 6, 111–114. [PubMed]
297. Guleria, S.; Tiku, A.K.; Koul, A.; Gupta, S.; Singh, G.; Razdan, V.K. Antioxidant and antimicrobial properties
of the essential oil and extracts of Zanthoxylum alatum grown in north-western Himalaya. Sci. World J.
2013, 2013. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
298. Shah, N.C. Chemical composition of the pericarp oil of Zanthoxulum armatum DC. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1991, 3,
467–468. [CrossRef]
299. Mabberley, D.J. Mabberley’s Plant-Book, 3rd ed.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2008.
300. Bora, K.S.; Sharma, A. The genus Artemisia: A comprehensive review. Pharm. Biol. 2011, 49, 101–109.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
301. Lachenmeier, D.W.; Walch, S.G.; Padosch, S.A.; Kröner, L.U. Absinthe—A review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.
2006, 46, 365–377. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
302. Klayman, D.L. Qinghaosu (artemisinin): An antimalarial drug from China. Science 1985, 228, 1049–1055.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
303. Obolskiy, D.; Pischel, I.; Feistel, B.; Glotov, N.; Heinrich, M. Artemisia dracunculus L. (tarragon): A critical
review of its traditional use, chemical composition, pharmacology, and safety. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2011, 59,
11367–11384. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
304. Winward, A.H. Taxonomy and Ecology of Sagebrush in Oregon; Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State
University: Corvallis, OR, USA, 1980.
305. Setzer, W.N.; Vogler, B.; Schmidt, J.M.; Leahy, J.G.; Rives, R. Antimicrobial activity of Artemisia douglasiana
leaf essential oil. Fitoterapia 2004, 75, 192–200. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
306. Pande, P.C.; Tiwari, L.; Pande, H.C. Ethnoveterinary plants of Uttaranchal—A review. Indian J. Tradit. Knowl.
2007, 6, 444–458.
307. Rashmi, T.R.; Francis, M.S.; Soumya, M. Essential oil composition of Artemisia japonica Thunb. from Kerala.
J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. 2014, 3, 160–163.
308. Srivastava, T.N.; Rajasekharan, S.; Badola, D.P.; Shah, D.C. An index of the available medicinal plants, used
in Indian system of medicine from Jammu and Kashmir State. Anc. Sci. Life 1986, 6, 49–63. [PubMed]
309. Shah, A.J.; Gilani, A.H.; Abbas, K.; Rasheed, M.; Ahmed, A.; Ahmad, V.U. Studies on the chemical
composition and possible mechanisms underlying the antispasmodic and brochodilatory activities of the
essential oil of Artemisia maritima L. Arch. Pharm. Res. 2011, 34, 1227–1238. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
310. Albert-Puleo, M. Mythobotany, pharmacology, and chemistry of thujone-containing plants and derivatives.
Econ. Bot. 1978, 32, 65–74. [CrossRef]
311. Höld, K.M.; Sirisoma, N.S.; Ikeda, T.; Narahashi, T.; Casida, J.E. α-Thujone (the active component of absinthe):
γ-Aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
2000, 97, 3826–3831. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
312. Caius, J.F.; Mhaskar, K.S. The correlation between the chemical composition of anthelmintics and their
therapeutic values in connection with the hookworm inquiry in the Madras presidency. XIX. Drugs allied to
thymol. Indian J. Med. Res. 1923, 11, 337–346.
313. Köppel, C.; Tenczer, J.; Shirop, T.; Ibe, K. Camphor poisoning—Abuse of camphor as a stimulant. Arch. Toxicol.
1982, 51, 101–106. [CrossRef]
314. Patra, C.; Sarkar, S.; Dasgupta, M.K.; Das, A. Camphor poisoning: An unusual cause of seizure in children.
J. Pediatr. Neurosci. 2015, 10, 78–79. [PubMed]
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 49 of 55

315. Jalizadeh-Amin, G.; Maham, M. The application of 1,8-cineole, a terpenoid oxide present in medicinal plants,
inhibits castor oil-induced diarrhea in rats. Pharm. Biol. 2015, 53, 594–599. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
316. Santos, F.A.; Rao, V.S.N. 1,8-Cineole, a food flavoring agent, prevents ethanol-induced gastric injury in rats.
Dig. Dis. Sci. 2001, 46, 331–337. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
317. Santos, F.A.; Silva, R.M.; Campos, A.R.; de Araújo, R.P.; Lima-Júnior, R.C.P.; Rao, V.S.N. 1,8-Cineole
(eucalyptol), a monoterpene oxide attenuates the colonic damage in rats on acute TNBS-colitis.
Food Chem. Toxicol. 2004, 42, 579–584. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
318. Abad, M.J.; Bedoya, L.M.; Apaza, L.; Bermejo, P. The Artemisia L. genus: A review of bioactive essential oils.
Molecules 2012, 17, 2542–2566. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
319. Gupta, R.C.; Himshikha; Rana, P.K.; Kumar, P.; Singhal, V.K. First report of structural heterozygosity in
Artemisia parviflora (Asteraceae) from Parvati Valley in Kullu district (Himachal Pradesh, India). Bot. Serbica
2010, 34, 63–66.
320. Kumari, P.; Singh, B.K.; Joshi, G.C.; Tewari, L.M. Veterinary ethnomedicinal plants in Uttarakhand Himalayan
Region, India. Ethnobot. Leafl. 2009, 13, 1312–1327.
321. Singh, V.; Gaur, R.D.; Bohra, B. A survey of fodder plants in mid-altitude Himalayan rangelands of
Uttarakhand, India. J. Mt. Sci. 2008, 5, 265–278. [CrossRef]
322. Ahuja, J.; Suresh, J.; Paramakrishnan, N.; Mruthunjaya, K.; Naganandhini, M.N. An ethnomedical,
phytochemical and pharmacological profile of Artemisia parviflora Roxb. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2011, 14,
647–657. [CrossRef]
323. Adnan, M.; Begum, S.; Khan, A.L.; Tareen, A.M.; Lee, I.J. Medicinal plants and their uses in selected temperate
zones of Pakistani Hindukush-Himalaya. J. Med. Plants. Res. 2012, 6, 4113–4127.
324. Kapoor, R.; Ali, M.; Mir, S.R.; Rafiullah, M.R.M. Essential oil constituents of aerial parts of Artemisia scoparia
Waldst. & Kit. Flavour Fragr. J. 2004, 19, 109–111.
325. Ajaib, M.; Haider, S.K.; Zikrea, A.; Siddiqui, M.F. Ethnobotanical studies of herbs of Agra Valley, Parachinar,
Upper Kurram Agency, Pakistan. Int. J. Biol. Biotechnol. 2014, 11, 71–83.
326. Yashina, O.G.; Vereshchagin, L.I. Natural and synthetic acetylenic antimycotics. Russ. Chem. Rev. 1978, 47,
307–317. [CrossRef]
327. Christensen, L.P. Bioactivity of polyacetylenes in food plants. In Bioactive Food in Promoting Health: Fruits and
Vegetables; Watson, R.R., Preedy, V.R., Eds.; Academic Press: London, UK, 2010; pp. 285–306.
328. Waseem, M.; Shah, M.A.U.; Qureshi, R.A.; Muhammad, I.; Afza, R.; Yousaf, S. Ethnopharmacological survey
of plants used for the treatment of stomach, diabetes, and ophthalmic diseases in Sudhan Gali, Kashmir,
Pakistan. Acta Bot. Yunnanica 2006, 28, 535–542.
329. Bhatt, L.R.; Lim, J.A.; Chai, K.Y.; Kang, J.I.; Oh, H.K.; Baek, S.H. Antioxidative and antimicrobial activities of
essential oil from Artemisia vulgaris. Nat. Prod. Sci. 2006, 12, 226–231.
330. Annotated Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Nepal. Available online: http://www.Efloras.org (accessed
on 5 December 2015).
331. Singh, R.; Jawaid, T. Cinnamomum camphora (Kapur): Review. Pharmacogn. J. 2012, 4, 1–5. [CrossRef]
332. Ho, C.; Wang, E.; Su, Y. Essential oil compositions and bioactivities of the various parts of
Cinnamomum camphora Sieb. var. linaloolifera Fujuta. For. Res. Q. 2009, 31, 77–96.
333. Laude, E.A.; Morice, A.H.; Grattan, T.J. The antitussive effects of menthol, camphor and cineole in conscious
Guinea-pigs. Pulm. Pharmacol. 1994, 7, 179–184. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
334. Paul, I.M.; Beiler, J.S.; King, T.S.; Clapp, E.R.; Vallati, J.; Berlin, C.M. Vapor rub, petrolatum, and no treatment
for children with nocturnal cough and cold symptoms. Pediatrics 2010, 126, 1092–1099. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
335. Inouye, S.; Yamaguchi, H.; Takizawa, T. Screening of the antibacterial effects of a variety of essential oils on
respiratory tract pathogens, using a modified dilution assay method. J. Infect. Chemother. 2001, 7, 251–254.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
336. Worth, H.; Schacher, C.; Dethlefsen, U. Concomitant therapy with cineole (eucalyptol) reduces exacerbations
in COPD: A placebo-controlled double-blind trial. Respir. Res. 2009, 10. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
337. Juergens, U.R. Anti-inflammatory properties of the monoterpene 1,8-cineole: Current evidence for
co-medication in inflammatory airway diseases. Drug Res. 2014, 64, 638–646.
338. Kotan, R.; Kordali, S.; Cakir, A. Screening of antibacterial activity of twenty-one oxygenated monoterpenes.
Z. Naturforsch. C 2007, 62, 507–513. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 50 of 55

339. Van Vuuren, S.F.; Viljoen, A.M. Antimicrobial activity of limonene enantiomers and 1,8-cineole alone and in
combination. Flavour Fragr. J. 2007, 22, 540–544. [CrossRef]
340. Mulyaningsih, S.; Sporer, F.; Zimmermann, S.; Reichling, J.; Wink, M. Synergistic properties of the terpenoids
aromadendrene and 1,8-cineole from the essential oil of Eucalyptus globulus against antibiotic-susceptible
and antibiotic-resistant pathogens. Phytomedicine 2010, 17, 1061–1066. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
341. Kubo, I.; Muoi, H.; Kubo, A. Antibacterial activity of long-chain alcohols against Streptococcus mutans. J. Agric.
Food Chem. 1993, 41, 2447–2450. [CrossRef]
342. Togashi, N.; Hamashima, H.; Shiraishi, A.; Inoue, Y.; Takano, A. Antibacterial activities against
Staphylococcus aureus of terpene alcohols with aliphatic carbon chains. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2010, 22, 263–269.
[CrossRef]
343. Sthapit, V.M.; Tuladhar, P.M. Sugandha kokila oil: A gift to perfumers from the Himalayan Kingdom of
Nepal. J. Herbs Spices Med. Plants 1993, 1, 31–35. [CrossRef]
344. Ravindran, P.N.; Babu, K.; Shylaja, M. Cinnamon and Cassia. The Genus Cinnamomum; CRC Press: Boca Raton,
FL, USA, 2004.
345. Admed, A.; Choudhary, M.I.; Farooq, A.; Demirci, B.; Demirci, F.; Başer, K.H.C. Essential oil constituents of
the spice Cinnamomum tamala (Ham.) Nees & Eberm. Flavour Fragr. J. 2000, 15, 388–390.
346. Pandey, A.K.; Mishra, A.K.; Mishra, A. Antifungal and antioxidative potential of oil and extracts derived
from leaves of Indian spice plant Cinnamomum tamala. Cell. Mol. Biol. 2012, 58, 142–147. [PubMed]
347. Bor, N.L. The Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan; Pergamon Press: London, UK, 1960.
348. Soenarko, S. The genus Cymbopogon. Reinwardtia 1997, 9, 225–226.
349. Rao, B.L. Scope for development of new cultivars of Cymbopogons as a source of terpene chemicals.
In Supplement to Cultivation and Utilization of Aromatic Plants; Handa, S.S., Kaul, M.K., Eds.; National
Institute of Science and Communication: New Delhi, India, 1997.
350. Kumar, S.; Dwivedi, S.; Kukreja, A.K.; Sharma, J.R.; Bagchi, G.D. Cymbopogon: The Aromatic Grass Monograph;
CIMAP Publication: Lucknow, India, 2000.
351. Gupta, B.K.; Jain, N. Cultivation and utilization of genus aromatic Cymbopogon in India. Indian Perfum. 1978,
22, 55–68.
352. Gupta, B.K.; Daniel, P. Aromatic grasses of India and their utilization: A plea for further research. Pafai J.
1982, 4, 13–27.
353. Rao, B.R.R.; Kaul, P.N.; Bhattacharya, A.K. Yield and chemical composition of the essential oils of three
Cymbopogon species suffering from iron chloride. Flavour Fragr. J. 1996, 11, 289–293.
354. Dabadghao, P.M.; Shankaranarayanan, K.A. The Grass Covers of India; Indian Council of Agriculture Research
(ICAR) Publication: New Delhi, India, 1973.
355. Mathela, C.S.; Pant, A.K.; Melkani, A.B.; Pant, A. Aromatic grasses of U.P. Himalaya: A new wild species as
a source of aroma chemicals. Sci. Cult. 1986, 52, 342–344.
356. Lawrence, B.M. Progress in essential oil: Citronella oil. Perfum. Flavorist 1988, 23, 80–82.
357. Husain, A. Essential Oil Bearing Plants and Their Cultivation; Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants (CIMAP) Publication: Lucknow, India, 1994.
358. Khanuja, S.P.S.; Shasany, A.K.; Pawar, A.; Lal, R.K.; Darokar, M.P.; Naqvi, A.A.; Rakumar, S.; Sundaresan, V.;
Lal, N.; Kumar, S. Essential oil constituents and RAPD markers to establish species relationship in Cymbopogon
Spreng. (Poaceae). Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 2005, 33, 171–186. [CrossRef]
359. Arctander, S. Perfume and Flavour Materials of Natural Origin; Allured Publishing: Elizabeth, NJ, USA, 1960.
360. Han, I.K.; Kim, K.L.; Park, S.H.; Kim, B.H.; Ahn, B.H. Nutritive values of the native grasses and legumes in
Korea V. Chemical determination of the mineral content of native herbage plants. Han‘guk Chuksanak’hoe Chi
1971, 13, 329–334.
361. Boelens, M.H. Sensory and chemical evaluation of tropical grass oils. Perfum. Flavorist 1994, 19, 29–45.
362. Bhattacharya, A.K.; Kaul, P.N.; Rao, B.R.R.; Mallavarapu, G.R.; Ramesh, S. Interspecific and inter cultivar
variations in the essential oil profiles of lemongrass. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1997, 9, 361–364. [CrossRef]
363. Nath, S.C.; Saha, B.N.; Bordoloi, D.N.; Mathur, R.K.; Leclercq, P.A. The chemical composition of the essential
oil of Cymbopogon flexuosus Steud. Wats. growing in northeast India. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1994, 6, 85–87.
[CrossRef]
364. Cherian, S.; Chattattu, G.J.; Viswanathan, T.V. Chemical composition of lemongrass varieties. Indian Perfum.
1993, 37, 77–80.
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 51 of 55

365. Choudhary, D.K.; Kaul, B.L. Radiation-induced methyl eugenol deficient mutant of Cymbopogon flexuosus
(Nees ex Steud.) Wats. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 1979, 88B, 225–228.
366. Kulkarni, R.N.; Mallavarapu, G.R.; Bhaskaran, K.; Ramesh, S.; Kumar, S. Essential oil composition of
citronella-like variant of lemongrass. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1997, 9, 393–395. [CrossRef]
367. Kuriakose, K.P. Genetic variability in East Indian lemongrass (C. flexuosus Stapf.). Indian Perfum. 1995, 39,
76–83.
368. Mathela, C.S.; Chittattu, G.I.; Thomas, J. A lemongrass chemotype rich in geranyl acetate. Indian Perfum.
1996, 40, 9–12.
369. Nair, B.V.G.; Chinnamma, N.P.; Pushpakumari, R. Investigations on some types of lemongrass (C. flexuosus
Stapf.). Indian Perfum. 1980, 24, 20–21.
370. Patra, P.; Dutta, P.K. Evaluation of improved lemongrass strains for herb and oil yield and citral content
under Bhubaneswar condition. Res. Ind. 1986, 31, 358–360.
371. Rao, B.N.; Pandita, S.; Kaul, B.L. Gamma radiation as a mean of inducing variation in Cymbopogon flexuosus a
chemotype for α-bisabolol. Indian Perfum. 1995, 39, 84–87.
372. Bhattacharya, S.C. Perfumery chemicals from indigenous raw materials. J. Indian Chem. Soc. 1970, 47,
307–313.
373. Guenther, E. The Essential Oils; Van Nostrand: London, UK, 1950; Volume IV, pp. 3–153.
374. Opdyke, D.L.J. Monographs on fragrance raw materials: Lemongrass oil: East Indian. Food Cosmet. Toxicol.
1976, 14, 455. [CrossRef]
375. Alam, K.; Agua, T.; Manen, H.; Taie, R.; Rao, K.S.; Burrows, I.; Huber, M.E.; Rali, T. Preliminary screening of
seaweeds, seagrass and lemongrass oil from Papua New Guinea for antimicrobial and antifungal activity.
Int. J. Pharmacogn. 1994, 32, 169–399. [CrossRef]
376. Mehmood, Z.; Ahmad, S.; Mohammed, F. Antifungal activity of some essential oils and their major
constituents. Indian J. Nat. Prod. 1997, 13, 10–13.
377. Ramdan, F.M.; EI-Zanfaly, H.T.; Allian, A.M.; EI-Wakeil, F.A. On the antibacterial effects of some essential
oils. I. Use of agar diffusion method. Chem. Mikrobiol. Technol. Lebensm. 1972, 2, 51–55.
378. Ramdan, F.M.; El-Zanfaly, H.T.; Allian, A.M.; El-Wakeil, F.A. On the antibacterial effects of some essential
oils. II. Studies on semi-solid agar phase. Chem. Mikrobiol. Technol. Lebensm. 1972, 1, 96–102.
379. Rao, B.G.V.; Narsimha, J.P.L. Activity of some essential oils towards phytopathogenic fungi.
Riechest Aromas Koffler 1971, 21, 405.
380. Shadab-Qamar, E.; Hanif, M.; Choudhary, F.M. Antifungal activity of lemongrass essential oils. Pak. J. Sci.
Ind. Res. 1992, 35, 246–249.
381. Wannissom, B.; Jarikasen, S.; Soontorn, T.T. Antifungal activity of lemongrass oil and lemongrass oil cream.
Phytother. Res. 1996, 10, 551–554. [CrossRef]
382. Akhila, A. Essential Oil-Bearing Grasses. The Genus Cymbopogon; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2010.
383. Acharya, R.; Shrestha, B.B. Vegetation structure, natural regeneration and management of Parroha
Community Forest in Rupandehi district, Nepal. Sci. World 2011, 9, 70–81. [CrossRef]
384. Padalia, R.C.; Verma, R.S.; Chanotiya, C.S.; Yadav, A. Chemical fingerprinting of the fragrant volatiles of
nineteen Indian cultivars of Cymbopogon Spreng. (Poaceae). Rec. Nat. Prod. 2011, 5, 290–299.
385. Mathela, C.S.; Lohani, H.; Pande, C.; Mathela, D.K. Chemosystematics of terpenoids in Cymbopogon martini.
Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 1988, 16, 167–169. [CrossRef]
386. Mathela, C.S.; Pant, A.K. Production of essential oils from some new Himalayan Cymbopogon species.
Indian Perfum. 1988, 32, 40–50.
387. Bottini, A.T.; Dev, V.; Garfagnoli, D.J.; David, J.; Hope, H.; Joshi, P.; Lohani, H.; Mathela, C.S.; Nelson, T.B.
Isolation and crystal structure of a novel dihemiacetal bis monoterpenoid from Cymbopogon martinii.
Phytochemistry 1987, 26, 2301.
388. Prasad, C.; Singh, D.; Shukla, O.; Singh, U.B. Cymbopogon jwarancusa—An important medicinal plant:
A review. Pharma Innov. J. 2014, 3, 13–19.
389. Saeed, T.; Sandra, P.J.; Verzele, M.J.E. Constituents of the essential oil of Cymbopogon jwarancusa.
Phytochemistry 1978, 17, 1433–1434. [CrossRef]
390. Shahi, A.K.; Tava, A. Essential oil composition of three Cymbopogon species of Indian Thar desert. J. Essent.
Oil Res. 1993, 5, 639–643. [CrossRef]
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 52 of 55

391. Dhar, R.S.; Dhar, A.K. Ontogenetic variation in the essential oil concentration and its constituents in the five
genotypes of Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones) Schultz. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1997, 9, 433–439. [CrossRef]
392. Dar, M.Y.; Shah, W.A.; Rather, M.A.; Qurishi, Y.; Hamid, A.; Gurishi, M.A. Chemical composition, in vitro
cytotoxic and antioxidant activities of the essential oil and major constituents of Cymbopogon jawarancusa
(Kashmir). Food Chem. 2011, 129, 1606–1611. [CrossRef]
393. Akhila, A. Chemistry and biogenesis of essential oil from the genus Cymbopogon. In Essential Oil-Bearing
Grasses: The Genus Cymbopogon; Akhila, A., Ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2010; pp. 25–106.
394. Verma, R.S.; Padalia, R.C.; Chauhan, A. Introduction of Cymbopogon distans (Nees ex Steud.) Wats to
the sub-tropical India: Evaluation of essential-oil yield and chemical composition during annual growth.
Ind. Crop. Prod. 2013, 49, 858–863. [CrossRef]
395. Beauchamp, P.S.; Dev, V.; Docter, D.R.; Ehsani, R.; Vita, G.; Melkani, A.B.; Mathela, C.S.; Bottini, A.T.
Comparative investigation of the sesquiterpenoids present in the leaf oil of Cymbopogon distans (Steud.) Wats.
Var. Loharhket and the root oil of Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones) Schult. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1996, 8, 117–121.
[CrossRef]
396. Mathela, C.S.; Melkani, A.B.; Pant, A.; Pande, C. Chemical variations in Cymbopogon distans and their
chemosystematic implications. Biothem. Syst. Ecol. 1988, 16, 161–165. [CrossRef]
397. Adams, R.P. Junipers of the World: The Genus Juniperus, 4th ed.; Trafford Publishing: Bloomington, IN,
USA, 2014.
398. Thomas, P.A.; El-Barghathi, M.; Polwart, A. Biological flora of the British Isles: Juniperus communis L. J. Ecol.
2007, 95, 1404–1440. [CrossRef]
399. El-Ghorab, A.; Shaaban, H.A.; El-Massry, K.F.; Shibamoto, T. Chemical composition of volatile extract and
biological activities of volatile and less-volatile extracts of juniper berry (Juniperus drupacea L.) fruit. J. Agric.
Food Chem. 2008, 56, 5021–5025. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
400. Wyman, L.C.; Harris, S.K. Navajo Indian Medical Ethnobotany; University of New Mexico Press: Albuquerque,
NM, USA, 1941.
401. Loizzo, M.R.; Tundis, R.; Conforti, F.; Saab, A.M.; Statti, G.A.; Minichini, F. Comparative chemical
composition, antioxidant and hypoglycaemic activities of Juniperus oxycedrus ssp. oxycedrus L. berry and
wood oils from Lebanon. Food Chem. 2007, 105, 572–578.
402. Stewart, C.D.; Jones, C.D.; Setzer, W.N. Essential oil compositions of Juniperus virginiana and Pinus virginiana,
two important trees in Cherokee traditional medicine. Am. J. Essent. Oil Nat. Prod. 2014, 2, 17–24.
403. Adams, R.P.; Turuspekov, Y. Taxonomic reassessment of some Central Asian and Himalayan scale-leaved
taxa of Juniperus (Cuppressaceae) supported by random amplication of polymorphic DNA. Taxon 1998, 47,
75–83. [CrossRef]
404. Dar, G.H.; Christensen, K.I. Gymnosperms of the western Himalaya. 1. The genus Juniperus (Cupressaceae).
Pak. J. Bot. 2003, 35, 283–311.
405. Tiwari, S.P.; Chauhan, D.K. Gymnospermous biodiversity of Himalayas, their economic importance and
conservation. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 2006, 30, 803–809.
406. Dar, A.R.; Dar, G.H. Taxonomic appraisal of conifers of Kashmir Himalaya. Pak. J. Biol. Sci. 2006, 9, 859–867.
407. Farjon, A. Juniperus communis, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T42229A2963096.
Available online: http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42229A2963096.en (accessed on
5 December 2015).
408. Santos, F.A.; Rao, V.S.N.; Silveira, E.R. Investigations on the antinociceptive effects of Psidium guajava leaf
essential oil and its major constituents. Phytother. Res. 1998, 12, 24–27. [CrossRef]
409. Him, A.; Ozbek, H.; Turel, I.; Oner, A.C. Antinociceptive activity of α-pinene and fenchone.
Pharmacologyonline 2008, 3, 363–369.
410. Do Amaral, J.F.; Silva, M.I.G.; Neto, M.R.A.; Neto, P.F.T.; Moura, B.A.; de Melo, C.T.V.; de Araujo, F.L.O.;
de Sousa, D.P.; de Vasconcelos, P.F.; de Vasconcelos, S.M.M.; et al. Antinociceptive effect of the monoterpene
R-(+)-limonene in mice. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2007, 30, 1217–1220. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
411. Sharma, P.K.; Lal, B. Ethnobotanical notes on some medicinal and aromatic plants of Himachal Pradesh.
Indian J. Tradit. Knowl. 2005, 4, 424–438.
412. Loughlin, R.; Gilmore, B.F.; McCarron, P.A.; Tunney, M.M. Comparison of the cidal activity of tea tree oil and
terpinene-4-ol against clinical bacterial skin isolates and human fibroblast cells. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 2008,
46, 428–433. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 53 of 55

413. Inouye, S.; Takizawa, T.; Yamaguchi, H. Antibacterial activity of essential oils and their major constituents
against respiratory tract pathogens by gaseous contact. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2001, 47, 565–573. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
414. Calcabrini, A.; Stringaro, A.; Toccacieli, L.; Meschini, S.; Marra, M.; Colone, M.; Salvatore, G.; Mondello, F.;
Arancia, G.; Molinari, A. Terpinen-4-ol, the main component of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil inhibits the
in vitro growth of human melanoma cells. J. Investig. Dermatol. 2004, 122, 349–360. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
415. Hammer, A.; Carson, C.F.; Riley, T.V. Antifungal activity of the components of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree)
oil. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2003, 95, 853–860. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
416. Hamid, A.; Raina, A.K. Ethnobotanical uses of plants in and around Kanji Wildlife Sanctuary, north west
Himalaya. Int. J. Sci. Res. 2014, 3, 538–545.
417. Choedon, T.; Kumar, V. Medicinal plants used in the practice of Tibetan medicine. Rec. Prog. Med. Plants
2012, 34, 385–402.
418. Ballabh, B.; Chaurasia, O.P. Herbal formulations from cold desert plants used for gynecological disorders.
Ethnobot. Res. Appl. 2011, 9, 59–66.
419. Ballabh, B.; Chaurasia, O.P.; Ahmed, Z.; Singh, S.B. Traditional medicinal plants of cold desert Ladakh—Used
against kidney and urinary disorders. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2008, 118, 331–339. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
420. Chopra, R.N.; Nayar, S.L.; Chopra, I.C. Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants; CSIR: New Delhi, India, 1956;
p. 1747.
421. Hedge, I.C. Nepeta. In Flora of Pakistan; No. 192; Ali, S.I., Nasir, Y.J., Eds.; University of Karachi: Karachi,
Sindh, 1990; pp. 59–117.
422. Hassan, T.; Dar, G.H.; Khuroo, A.A. Taxonomic status of genus Nepeta L. (Lamiaceae) in Kashmir Himalaya,
India. Iran. J. Bot. 2011, 17, 181–188.
423. Sharma, A.; Cannoo, D.S. Phytochemical composition of essential oils isolated from different species of
genus Nepeta of Labiatae family: A review. Pharmacophore 2013, 4, 181–211.
424. Tucker, A.O.; Tucker, S.S. Catnip and catnip response. Econ. Bot. 1998, 42, 214–231. [CrossRef]
425. Schultz, G.; Simbro, E.; Belden, J.; Zhu, J.; Coats, J. Catnip, Nepeta cataria (Lamiales: Lamiaceae)—A closer
look: Seasonal occurrence of nepetalactone isomers and comparative repellency of three terpenoids to insects.
Environ. Entomol. 2004, 33, 1562–1569. [CrossRef]
426. Smith, R.M.; Brophy, J.J.; Cavill, G.W.K.; Davies, N.W. Iridodials and nepetalactone in the defensive secretion
of the coconut stick insects, Graeffea crouani. J. Chem. Ecol. 1979, 5, 727–735. [CrossRef]
427. Blum, M.S.; Severson, R.F.; Arrendale, R.F.; Whitman, D.W.; Escoubas, P.; Adeyeye, O.; Jones, C.G.
A generalist herbivore in a specialist mode: Metabolic, sesquestrative, and defensive consequences.
J. Chem. Ecol. 1990, 16, 223–244. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
428. Asgarpanah, J.; Sarabian, S.; Ziarati, P. Essential oil of Nepeta genus (Lamiaceae) from Iran: A review. J. Essent.
Oil Res. 2014, 26. [CrossRef]
429. Aydin, S.; Beis, R.; Öztürk, Y.; Baser, K.H.C. Nepetalactone: A new opioid analgesic from Nepeta caesarea
Boiss. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 1998, 50, 813–817. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
430. Shafaghat, A.; Oji, K. Nepetalactone content and antibacterial activity of the essential oils from different
parts of Nepeta persica. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2010, 5, 625–628. [PubMed]
431. Kumar, V.; Mathela, C.S.; Tewari, G.; Singh, D. Antifungal activity of Nepeta elliptica Royle ex Benth. oil and
its major constituent (7R)-trans,trans-nepetalactone: A comparative study. Ind. Crop. Prod. 2014, 55, 70–74.
[CrossRef]
432. Sonboli, A.; Gholipour, A.; Yousefzadi, M.; Mojarrad, M. Antibacterial activity and composition of the
essential oil of Nepeta menthoides from Iran. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2009, 4, 283–286. [PubMed]
433. Gavliakova, S.; Dolak, T.; Licha, H.; Krizova, S.; Plevkova, J. Cineole, thymol and camphor nasal challenges
and their effect on nasal symptoms and cough in an animal model. Acta Med. Martiniana 2013, 13, 5–13.
[CrossRef]
434. Kehrl, W.; Sonnemann, U.; Dethlefsen, U. Therapy for acute nonpurulent rhinosinusitis with cineole:
Results of a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Laryngoscope 2004, 114, 738–742. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
435. Caldas, G.F.R.; Oliveira, A.R.S.; Araújo, A.V.; Lafayette, S.S.L.; Albuquerque, G.S.; Silva-Neto, J.C.;
Costa-Silva, J.H.; Ferreira, F.; da Costa, J.G.M.; Wanderley, A.G. Gastroprotective mechanisms of the
monoterpene 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol). PLoS ONE 2015, 10. [CrossRef]
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 54 of 55

436. Magalhães, P.J.C.; Criddle, D.N.; Tavares, R.A.; Melo, E.M.; Mota, T.L.; Leal-Cardoso, J.H. Intestinal
myorelaxant and antispasmodic effects of the essential oil of Croton nepetaefolius and its constituents cineole,
methyl-eugenol and terpineol. Phytother. Res. 1998, 12, 172–177. [CrossRef]
437. Ghelardini, C.; Galeotti, N.; Di Cesare Mannelli, L.; Mazzanti, G.; Bartolini, A. Local anaesthetic activity of
β-caryophyllene. Farmaco 2001, 56, 387–389. [CrossRef]
438. Dahham, S.S.; Tabana, Y.M.; Ahamed, M.B.K.; Majid, A.M.S.A. In vivo anti-inflammatory activity of
β-caryophyllene, evaluated by molecular imaging. Mol. Med. Chem. 2015, 1. [CrossRef]
439. Bakir, B.; Him, A.; Özbek, H.; Düz, E.; Tütüncü, M. Investigation of the anti-inflammatory and analgesic
activities of β-caryophyllene. Int. J. Essent. Oil Ther. 2008, 2, 41–44.
440. Cho, J.Y.; Chang, H.J.; Lee, S.K.; Kim, H.J.; Hwang, J.K.; Chun, H.S. Amelioration of dextran sulfate
sodium-induced colitis in mice by oral administration of β-caryophyllene, a sesquiterpene. Life Sci. 2007, 80,
932–939. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
441. Bento, A.F.; Marcon, R.; Dutra, R.C.; Claudino, R.F.; Cola, M.; Leite, D.F.P.; Calixto, J.B. β-Caryophyllene
inhibits dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in mice through CB2 receptor activation and PPARγ pathway.
Am. J. Pathol. 2011, 178, 1153–1166. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
442. Leonhardt, V.; Leal-Cardoso, J.H.; Lahlou, S.; Albuquerque, A.A.C.; Porto, R.S.; Celedônio, N.R.;
Oliveira, A.C.; Pereira, R.F.; Silva, L.P.; Garcia-Teófilo, T.M.N.; et al. Antispasmodic effects of
essential oil of Pterodon polygalaeflorus and its main constituent β-caryophyllene on rat isolated ileum.
Fundam. Clin. Pharmacol. 2010, 24, 749–758. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
443. Chavan, M.J.; Wakte, P.S.; Shinde, D.B. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of caryophyllene oxide
from Annona squamosa L. bark. Phytomedicine 2010, 17, 149–151. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
444. Ietswaart, J.H. A Taxonomic Revision of the Genus Origanum (Labiatae); Leiden Botanical Series;
Leiden University Press: The Hague, The Netherlands, 1980; Volume 4.
445. Kintzios, S.E. Profile of the multifaceted prince of the herbs. In Oregano: The Genera Origanum and Lippia;
Kintzios, S.E., Ed.; Taylor & Francis: London, UK, 2002.
446. Mukerjee, S.K. A revision of the Labiatae of the Indian empire. Rec. Bot. Surv. India 1940, 14, 94–95.
447. Lukas, B.; Schmiderer, C.; Novak, J. Essential oil diversity of European Origanum vulgare L. (Lamiaceae).
Phytochemistry 2015, 119, 32–40. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
448. Didry, N.; Dubreuil, L.; Pinkas, M. Antibacterial activity of thymol, carvacrol and cinnamaldehyde alone or
in combination. Pharmazie 1993, 48, 301–304. [PubMed]
449. Franova, S.; Nosalova, G.; Mokry, J. Phytotherapy of cough. Adv. Phytomed. 2006, 2, 111–131.
450. Basch, E.; Ulbricht, C.; Hammerness, P.; Bevins, A.; Sollars, D. Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), thymol.
J. Herb. Pharmacother. 2004, 4, 49–67. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
451. Boskabady, M.H.; Tabanfar, H.; Gholamnezhad, Z.; Sadeghnia, H.R. Inhibitory effect of Zataria multiflora
Boiss and carvacrol on histamine (H1 ) receptors of guinea-pig tracheal chains. Fundam. Clin. Pharmacol. 2012,
26, 609–620. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
452. Can Baser, K.H. Biological and pharmacological activities of carvacrol and carvacrol bearing essential oils.
Curr. Pharm. Des. 2008, 14, 3106–3119. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
453. Dorman, H.J.D.; Deans, S.G. Antimicrobial agents from plants: Antibacterial activity of plant volatile oils.
J. Appl. Microbiol. 2000, 88, 308–316. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
454. Schmidt, J.M.; Noletto, J.A.; Vogler, B.; Setzer, W.N. Abaco bush medicines: Chemical composition of the
essential oils of four aromatic medicinal plants from Abaco Island, Bahamas. J. Herbs. Spices Med. Plants
2007, 12, 43–65. [CrossRef]
455. Houghton, P.I. The scientific basis for the reputed activity of valerian. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 1999, 51, 505–512.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
456. Dweck, A.C. An introduction to valerian: Valeriana officinalis and related species. In Valerian: The Genus
Valeriana; Houghton, P.J., Ed.; Harwood Academic Publishers: Amserdam, The Netherlands, 1997; pp. 1–20.
457. Hölzl, J. The pharmacology and therapeutics of Valeriana. In Valerian: The Genus Valeriana; Houghton, P.J.,
Ed.; Harwood Academic Publishers: Amserdam, The Netherlands, 1997; pp. 55–76.
458. Grant, K.L. Top-selling herbal supplements. J. Manag. Care Pharm. 1999, 5, 357–366.
459. Murti, K.; Kaushik, M.; Sangwan, Y.; Kaushik, A. Pharmacological properties of Valeriana officinalis—A
review. Pharmacologyonline 2011, 3, 641–646.
460. Khare, C.P. Indian Herbal Remedies; Springer-Verlag: Berlin, Germany, 2004; pp. 467–468.
Medicines 2016, 3, 6 55 of 55

461. Devi, V.S.; Rao, M.G. Valeriana wallichii—A rich aroma root plant—A review. World J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci.
2014, 3, 1516–1525.
462. Tang, Y.P.; Liu, X.; Yu, B. Two new flavone glycosides from Valeriana jatamansi. J. Asian Nat. Prod. Res. 2003, 5,
257–261. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
463. Thies, P.W. Linarin-isovalerianate, a currently unknown flavonoid from Valeriana wallichii. Planta Med. 1968,
16, 363–371. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
464. Chen, Y.G.; Yu, L.L.; Huang, R.; Lu, Y.P.; Gui, S.H. 11-Methoxyviburtinal, a new iridoid from
Valeriana jatamansi. Arch. Pharm. Res. 2005, 28, 1161–1163. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
465. Lin, S.; Chen, T.; Liu, X.H.; Shen, Y.H.; Li, H.L.; Shan, L.; Liu, R.H. Iridoids and lignans from Valeriana jatamansi.
J. Nat. Prod. 2010, 73, 632–638. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
466. Xu, J.; Zhao, P.; Guo, Y.; Xie, C.; Jin, D.Q.; Ma, Y.; Hou, W. Iridoids from the roots of Valeriana jatamansi and
their neuroprotective effects. Fitoterapia 2011, 82, 1133–1136. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
467. Subhan, F.; Karim, N.; Ibrar, M. Antiinflammatory activity of methanolic and aqueous extracts of
Valeriana wallichii DC rhizome. Pak. J. Plant Sci. 2007, 13, 103–108.
468. Yan, Z.; Zhang, T.; Xiao, T.; Pan, L.; Qin, J.; Zhang, Z.; Zuo, C. Antianxiety effect of Valeriana jatamansi Jones
extract via regulation of the hypothalamus pituitary adrenal axis. Neural Regen. Res. 2010, 5, 1071–1075.
469. Khan, A.; Gilani, A.H. Antidiarrhoeal and bronchodilatory potential of Valeriana wallichii. Nat. Prod. Res.
2012, 26, 1045–1049. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
470. Bos, R.; Hendricks, H.; Scheffer, J.J.C.; Woerdenbad, H.J. Cytotoxic potential of valerian constituents, and
valerian tinctures. Phytomedicine 1998, 5, 219–225. [CrossRef]
471. Ghosh, S.; Debnath, S.; Hazra, S.; Hartung, A.; Thomale, K.; Schultheis, M.; Kapkova, P.; Schurigt, U.;
Moll, H.; Holzgrabe, U.; et al. Valeriana wallichii root extracts and fractions with activity against Leishmania
spp. Parasitol. Res. 2011, 108, 861–871. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
472. Suri, S.; Thind, T.S. Antibacterial activity of some essential oils. Indian Drugs Pharm. Ind. 1978, 13, 25–28.
473. Sati, S.; Mathela, C.S. Volatile constituents in the root and leaf oils of Valeriana pyrolaefolia Decne. J. Essent.
Oil Res. 2006, 18, 29–31. [CrossRef]
474. Badola, H.K.; Aitken, S. The Himalayas of India: A treasury of medicinal plants under siege. Biodiversity
2003, 4, 3–13. [CrossRef]

© 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons by Attribution
(CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).