ct-dtm-oct01-printer 4/9/02 3:59 PM Page 4

The effectiveness of driver

training as a road safety measure

INTRODUCTION

There is continuing public debate in Australia and overseas about the value of
training for car drivers as a means of improving driver behaviour and reducing road
crash involvement. This document provides an up-to-date summary of
scientifically-based Australian and international research about the effectiveness of
driver training programs for:
■ learner drivers,
■ young/recently licensed drivers, and
■ experienced drivers.
Effectiveness means the degree to which driver training programs reduce the
participant’s risk of crashing compared with drivers who did not undertake such
programs.
While driver training and driver education are not the same, these terms are
often used synonymously (1-2). This summary deals with driver training rather
than education per se. However, as many driver training programs have been
termed “education” published materials labelled as both “driver education” and
“driver training” are considered.

The effectiveness of driver training for learner drivers

Learner drivers are particular targets for driver training efforts of various types (3-5).

Pre-licence Training Programs

Various organizations or groups operate special driver training programs for
learners and pre-learners. These programs usually aim to encourage the
development of safe driving techniques, and can involve road law knowledge
tuition and some in-car components, either on an off-road track or circuit, or
on-road under supervision.
The research literature suggests that, beyond imparting basic car control and
road law knowledge skills, these courses contribute little to post-licence reductions
in casualty crashes or traffic violations (6-10).
In addition, some of these programs that have been made compulsory and
offered through high schools in countries overseas, have not been found to be
effective and may contribute to increased exposure-to-risk for young drivers,
particularly females, by encouraging early solo licensing (11-14).
There is also considerable evidence that driver training that attempts to impart
advanced skills such as skid control to learner drivers may contribute to increased
crash risk, particularly among young males (15-17). This pattern of results has
been confirmed and replicated across numerous studies conducted in Australia,
New Zealand, North America, Europe and Scandinavia over the last 30 years (eg
18-26).
Evaluations of pre-licence training programs have generally found no significant
differences between learners trained off-road (ie at off-road facilities that are not
part of the road network) and those trained on-road, in real world driving
conditions, in respect of subsequent crash or violation involvement (20, 25,
27-28). Off-road training is more expensive to provide than on-road training as
off-road facilities are costly to build, operate and maintain (18-20). Such facilities
ct-dtm-oct01-printer 4/9/02 3:57 PM Page 1

may also divert scarce funds away from more effective behavioural rather than crash-based methods have
road safety initiatives and countermeasures. been undertaken. However, there is little evidence
thus far that this type of training reduces
Professional Driving Instruction for learners crash/violation risk among novices as few crash-based
Basic driver training works at an instructional level. studies of these newer approaches to training have
Most people are initially trained to drive by a driving been completed.
instructor, friends, relatives, or a combination of these,
in order to obtain their driver licence. This type of The effectiveness of driver training for
driver training concentrates on basic car control skills,
experienced drivers
driving techniques, road law knowledge and initial
driver licensing (6). There is no sound evidence that either advanced or
Greater levels of supervised, real world experience defensive driving courses reduce the crash
during the learner period have been shown to reduce involvement of experienced drivers who attend them
post-licence crash involvement by up to about 35% (3-5). This is perhaps not surprising as such drivers,
(29). Comparisons of the post-licence crash particularly those between the age of 25 and 59 years,
experience of learners who were trained exclusively are quite experienced and already have a relatively
by professional driving instructors and those trained low crash risk per distance travelled.
exclusively by parents, relatives or friends, is much the There is evidence from US studies that some
same (30). However, research shows that programs designed to reduce offence rates among
encouraging cooperation between driving schools and drivers with a history of traffic violations may be
parents in teaching learners how to drive may be effective, but this does not seem to translate into
beneficial in increasing the quality of instruction, and reduced crash involvement (42-44)
the quantity of learner driver experience (31). Driver training may be more effective in fleet
Research studies suggest that the best learning settings than for drivers in general (4, 45-47).
environment for the beginning driver is the real road However, crash reductions among fleets that have
system under the supervision of an experienced driver been attributed to driver training programs often
or instructor (17, 32). Learner drivers under disappear when the effects of other factors are taken
supervision on-road have a low risk of crash into account (45). Swedish research suggests that
involvement, probably the lowest of all driver groups other more economical measures, such as group
(33). The accumulation of an on-road driving discussion on safety issues and incentive programs
“experience bank” is perhaps the major potential may be more effective in crash reduction terms than
contributor to reduced crash risk in solo driving for driver training programs (5, 48).
novice drivers.
Why does driver training not seem to be
Some young or recently
effective in reducing craches?
The effectiveness licensed drivers attend
of driver training post-licence driver training Promoting driver training as a means of improving
for young and/or courses with the belief that driving skills and knowledge assumes that there are
recently licensed this may improve their deficiencies in the skills or knowledge of drivers, and
drivers driving skills and reduce that these can be improved via training. It also
crash risk. At face value, assumes that these skill deficiencies increase the risk
this has some intuitive appeal. New drivers are at of crash involvement. These assumptions are largely
greatest crash risk in the first six months of solo false and based on beliefs not supported by research
driving (34). However, there would appear to be little evidence (13, 49).
evidence that training programs undertaken by young It may be unreasonable to expect driver training to
and/or recently licensed drivers are effective in deliver crash reductions (4, 50). Improving knowledge
reducing crash risk or traffic violations (35-37). Such and skill does not always lead to a change in behaviour
training often leads to an increase in confidence and among drivers. Furthermore, a driver trainer has little
optimism bias (ie where novices can believe that they control over the post-course behaviour of trainees, the
are more skillful than they actually are) and motivation of trainees to apply what has been learned
sometimes an increase in crash risk for novices, or the many other risk factors that may contribute to
particularly young males (10, 13, 30). crash causation. Drivers, particularly young drivers,
From a theoretical perspective, there is support for can and do take risks that have little to do with how
the development and application of programs that much skill and/or knowledge they have, but much to
target optimism bias, over-confidence and attitudinal do with motivation and psychological factors (4, 51-
or motivational factors that influence driving 52). There is little real world evidence to suggest that
behaviour (17, 29, 38-39). Several programs using this driver training accelerates the development of hazard
approach - sometimes referred to as “Insight” training perception skills, or other cognitive skills. These skills
- have been trialled in Sweden (40) and the can be developed via the experience of real world
Netherlands (41) in recent years. Evaluations using driving (10, 53). There is some emerging evidence
ct-dtm-oct01-printer 4/9/02 3:58 PM Page 2

based on simulator research that some skills may be learned. organization to influence fleet vehicle selection, education about
Some recent driver training programs claim to modify safe vehicle use for employees, incentives for crash free driving
“attitudes”. Even if attitudes could be changed it would not (not rewards) and the promotion of a safety culture within the
necessarily be helpful as there is a poor causal relationship organisation (60).
between attitude and actual behaviour (49, 54). In addition,
driver training is unlikely to undo firmly established past learning Enforcement: Police enforcement is effective, particularly when
nor alter motivation or change underlying personal values. drivers understand that they will get caught and perhaps lose their
license if they break the law (4). The most effective enforcement
targets behaviour such as drink-driving, speeding and red light
running.
Alternatives to conventional driver training

Recent research suggests that alternative road safety initiatives may

be more beneficial than conventional driver training, particularly Conclusions
among novice drivers. Alternatives worth considering include:

Increasing the amount of supervised on-road experience that learner Overall, the research evidence suggests that most current driver
drivers receive: training contributes little to reductions in accident involvement or
Recent research shows that learners who received about 118 hours crash risk among drivers of all age and experience groups. Low
of supervised experience had up to 35% fewer crashes than those individual crash risk and decay of learning work against the
who received only 41-47 hours (29). VicRoads, TAC, RACV and potential effectiveness of driver training programs that
other road safety organisations are encouraging this approach in concentrate on car control skills or deal with rare events such as
Victoria, where a minimum of 120 hours of supervised, on-road emergencies. The high motivation which trainees usually bring to
instruction/ experience prior to solo driving is advocated. Programs driver training does not compensate for these factors.
developed by VicRoads, TAC, and RACV encourage learners to Improving driver knowledge and skill does not always lead to a
gain greater supervised experience through cooperation between change in on-road behaviour or reduced crash risk among trainees.
parents and driving instructors (33, 55-56). While skill and knowledge are important, particularly for novice
drivers, they have little influence on the driving environment or
A Different Type of Training: conditions under which driving behaviour occurs post-training.
Improvements in driver training may be achieved in the longer On-road driving experience is the way most higher-order
term by concentrating on cognitive and perceptual skills, together cognitive skills related to driving (eg hazard perception) are
with a greater emphasis on how factors such as beliefs and developed and maintained. Conventional driver training is
motivation shape driver behaviour (9, 16). This would require a unlikely to undo firmly established past learning laid down over
different type of training program than is currently offered. weeks, months and years of practice and experience, nor alter
Education programs delivered over several years, perhaps though motivation or personal values.
secondary schools, to foster development of safe belief It is of concern that the provision of conventional driver training
/motivational factors, has also been suggested as an alternative to beyond that required to gain an initial driver licence often leads to
short-term driver training (57). While theoretically sound, the increased crash risk among novice drivers. Research suggests that
effectiveness of such programs in effecting changes in attitude, this is because the training can encourage earlier licensing,
behaviour or crash risk is yet to be proven. increase exposure-to-risk and/or unduly increase the confidence
of novices about their driving abilities.
Higher Order Testing within a Graduated Driver Licensing Program: Resources committed to traditional driver education/ training
Some graduated driver licensing (GLS) programs require novices may also divert scarce funds and community attention away from
to pass additional tests of higher-order skills to progress to less more effective initiatives likely to reduce crash risk.
restricted licensing levels and to “graduate” to full licence status. A better alternative for novice drivers is to promote extensive
Preliminary research from Victoria’s use of hazard perception supervised driving experience among learners. This approach has
testing within the probationary licensing system suggests that been taken up by most Australian driver licensing jurisdictions
such tests can predict novice drivers likely to be at greater crash and some in North America via the implementation of Graduated
risk (59). Licensing schemes (GLS) which provide for and encourage
learner drivers to gain more supervised, on-road driving
Comprehensive Fleet Management Safety Programs: experience before solo driving. However, this approach requires
A combination of approaches can help reduce crash risk and cooperation between novice drivers, parents (or supervisors) and
involvement within company fleets (46, 48). A multifaceted professional driving instructors over a period of months and
approach to fleet safety dealing with the selection of vehicles (ie perhaps years.
purchasing only vehicles with good crashworthiness features) and Research and development in respect of driver training may
management of where, when and how vehicles are used may help eventually show some approaches to be useful in reducing
reduce crash risk. Recent studies have identified ways of casualty accident risk/involvement. In the interim, other
increasing fleet safety via the application of best practice approaches such as increased supervision and graduated licensing
approaches. This includes the implementation of integrated for novice drivers are likely to make greater and more lasting
occupational health and safety policy and practices within the contributions to road safety.
ct-dtm-oct01-printer 4/9/02 3:59 PM Page 1

may also divert scarce funds away from more effective behavioural rather than crash-based methods have
road safety initiatives and countermeasures. been undertaken. However, there is little evidence
thus far that this type of training reduces
Professional Driving Instruction for learners crash/violation risk among novices as few crash-based
Basic driver training works at an instructional level. studies of these newer approaches to training have
Most people are initially trained to drive by a driving been completed.
instructor, friends, relatives, or a combination of these,
in order to obtain their driver licence. This type of The effectiveness of driver training for
driver training concentrates on basic car control skills,
experienced drivers
driving techniques, road law knowledge and initial
driver licensing (6). There is no sound evidence that either advanced or
Greater levels of supervised, real world experience defensive driving courses reduce the crash
during the learner period have been shown to reduce involvement of experienced drivers who attend them
post-licence crash involvement by up to about 35% (3-5). This is perhaps not surprising as such drivers,
(29). Comparisons of the post-licence crash particularly those between the age of 25 and 59 years,
experience of learners who were trained exclusively are quite experienced and already have a relatively
by professional driving instructors and those trained low crash risk per distance travelled.
exclusively by parents, relatives or friends, is much the There is evidence from US studies that some
same (30). However, research shows that programs designed to reduce offence rates among
encouraging cooperation between driving schools and drivers with a history of traffic violations may be
parents in teaching learners how to drive may be effective, but this does not seem to translate into
beneficial in increasing the quality of instruction, and reduced crash involvement (42-44)
the quantity of learner driver experience (31). Driver training may be more effective in fleet
Research studies suggest that the best learning settings than for drivers in general (4, 45-47).
environment for the beginning driver is the real road However, crash reductions among fleets that have
system under the supervision of an experienced driver been attributed to driver training programs often
or instructor (17, 32). Learner drivers under disappear when the effects of other factors are taken
supervision on-road have a low risk of crash into account (45). Swedish research suggests that
involvement, probably the lowest of all driver groups other more economical measures, such as group
(33). The accumulation of an on-road driving discussion on safety issues and incentive programs
“experience bank” is perhaps the major potential may be more effective in crash reduction terms than
contributor to reduced crash risk in solo driving for driver training programs (5, 48).
novice drivers.
Why does driver training not seem to be
Some young or recently
effective in reducing craches?
The effectiveness licensed drivers attend
of driver training post-licence driver training Promoting driver training as a means of improving
for young and/or courses with the belief that driving skills and knowledge assumes that there are
recently licensed this may improve their deficiencies in the skills or knowledge of drivers, and
drivers driving skills and reduce that these can be improved via training. It also
crash risk. At face value, assumes that these skill deficiencies increase the risk
this has some intuitive appeal. New drivers are at of crash involvement. These assumptions are largely
greatest crash risk in the first six months of solo false and based on beliefs not supported by research
driving (34). However, there would appear to be little evidence (13, 49).
evidence that training programs undertaken by young It may be unreasonable to expect driver training to
and/or recently licensed drivers are effective in deliver crash reductions (4, 50). Improving knowledge
reducing crash risk or traffic violations (35-37). Such and skill does not always lead to a change in behaviour
training often leads to an increase in confidence and among drivers. Furthermore, a driver trainer has little
optimism bias (ie where novices can believe that they control over the post-course behaviour of trainees, the
are more skillful than they actually are) and motivation of trainees to apply what has been learned
sometimes an increase in crash risk for novices, or the many other risk factors that may contribute to
particularly young males (10, 13, 30). crash causation. Drivers, particularly young drivers,
From a theoretical perspective, there is support for can and do take risks that have little to do with how
the development and application of programs that much skill and/or knowledge they have, but much to
target optimism bias, over-confidence and attitudinal do with motivation and psychological factors (4, 51-
or motivational factors that influence driving 52). There is little real world evidence to suggest that
behaviour (17, 29, 38-39). Several programs using this driver training accelerates the development of hazard
approach - sometimes referred to as “Insight” training perception skills, or other cognitive skills. These skills
- have been trialled in Sweden (40) and the can be developed via the experience of real world
Netherlands (41) in recent years. Evaluations using driving (10, 53). There is some emerging evidence
ct-dtm-oct01-printer 4/9/02 3:59 PM Page 2

based on simulator research that some skills may be learned. organization to influence fleet vehicle selection, education about
Some recent driver training programs claim to modify safe vehicle use for employees, incentives for crash free driving
“attitudes”. Even if attitudes could be changed it would not (not rewards) and the promotion of a safety culture within the
necessarily be helpful as there is a poor causal relationship organisation (60).
between attitude and actual behaviour (49, 54). In addition,
driver training is unlikely to undo firmly established past learning Enforcement: Police enforcement is effective, particularly when
nor alter motivation or change underlying personal values. drivers understand that they will get caught and perhaps lose their
license if they break the law (4). The most effective enforcement
targets behaviour such as drink-driving, speeding and red light
running.
Alternatives to conventional driver training

Recent research suggests that alternative road safety initiatives may

be more beneficial than conventional driver training, particularly Conclusions
among novice drivers. Alternatives worth considering include:

Increasing the amount of supervised on-road experience that learner Overall, the research evidence suggests that most current driver
drivers receive: training contributes little to reductions in accident involvement or
Recent research shows that learners who received about 118 hours crash risk among drivers of all age and experience groups. Low
of supervised experience had up to 35% fewer crashes than those individual crash risk and decay of learning work against the
who received only 41-47 hours (29). VicRoads, TAC, RACV and potential effectiveness of driver training programs that
other road safety organisations are encouraging this approach in concentrate on car control skills or deal with rare events such as
Victoria, where a minimum of 120 hours of supervised, on-road emergencies. The high motivation which trainees usually bring to
instruction/ experience prior to solo driving is advocated. Programs driver training does not compensate for these factors.
developed by VicRoads, TAC, and RACV encourage learners to Improving driver knowledge and skill does not always lead to a
gain greater supervised experience through cooperation between change in on-road behaviour or reduced crash risk among trainees.
parents and driving instructors (33, 55-56). While skill and knowledge are important, particularly for novice
drivers, they have little influence on the driving environment or
A Different Type of Training: conditions under which driving behaviour occurs post-training.
Improvements in driver training may be achieved in the longer On-road driving experience is the way most higher-order
term by concentrating on cognitive and perceptual skills, together cognitive skills related to driving (eg hazard perception) are
with a greater emphasis on how factors such as beliefs and developed and maintained. Conventional driver training is
motivation shape driver behaviour (9, 16). This would require a unlikely to undo firmly established past learning laid down over
different type of training program than is currently offered. weeks, months and years of practice and experience, nor alter
Education programs delivered over several years, perhaps though motivation or personal values.
secondary schools, to foster development of safe belief It is of concern that the provision of conventional driver training
/motivational factors, has also been suggested as an alternative to beyond that required to gain an initial driver licence often leads to
short-term driver training (57). While theoretically sound, the increased crash risk among novice drivers. Research suggests that
effectiveness of such programs in effecting changes in attitude, this is because the training can encourage earlier licensing,
behaviour or crash risk is yet to be proven. increase exposure-to-risk and/or unduly increase the confidence
of novices about their driving abilities.
Higher Order Testing within a Graduated Driver Licensing Program: Resources committed to traditional driver education/ training
Some graduated driver licensing (GLS) programs require novices may also divert scarce funds and community attention away from
to pass additional tests of higher-order skills to progress to less more effective initiatives likely to reduce crash risk.
restricted licensing levels and to “graduate” to full licence status. A better alternative for novice drivers is to promote extensive
Preliminary research from Victoria’s use of hazard perception supervised driving experience among learners. This approach has
testing within the probationary licensing system suggests that been taken up by most Australian driver licensing jurisdictions
such tests can predict novice drivers likely to be at greater crash and some in North America via the implementation of Graduated
risk (59). Licensing schemes (GLS) which provide for and encourage
learner drivers to gain more supervised, on-road driving
Comprehensive Fleet Management Safety Programs: experience before solo driving. However, this approach requires
A combination of approaches can help reduce crash risk and cooperation between novice drivers, parents (or supervisors) and
involvement within company fleets (46, 48). A multifaceted professional driving instructors over a period of months and
approach to fleet safety dealing with the selection of vehicles (ie perhaps years.
purchasing only vehicles with good crashworthiness features) and Research and development in respect of driver training may
management of where, when and how vehicles are used may help eventually show some approaches to be useful in reducing
reduce crash risk. Recent studies have identified ways of casualty accident risk/involvement. In the interim, other
increasing fleet safety via the application of best practice approaches such as increased supervision and graduated licensing
approaches. This includes the implementation of integrated for novice drivers are likely to make greater and more lasting
occupational health and safety policy and practices within the contributions to road safety.
ct-dtm-oct01-printer 4/9/02 3:59 PM Page 3

Rothengatter, J.A. and de Bruin, R.A. (Eds). Road

References 22. Wynne-Jones, J.D. & Hurst, P. (1985). The AA
Driver Training Evaluation. Traffic Research Report
Users and Traffic Safety, Assen/Maastricht, The
Netherlands: Van Gorcum.
No. 33. Wellington, New Zealand: NZ Ministry of
1. Horneman, C. (1993) Driver education and Transport. 43. Struckman-Johnson, D.L. Lund, A.K. Williams,
training: A review of the literature. Research Note A.F. and Osborne, D.W. (1989). Comparative
RN 6/93. Rosebery, NSW: Roads and Traffic 23. Lund, A.K. Williams, A.F., Zador, P. (1986). High effects of driver improvement programs on crashes
Authority (NSW) Road Safety Bureau. school driver education. Further evaluation of the De and violations. Accident Analysis and Prevention,
Kalb county study, Accident Analysis and Prevention, 21(3), 203-215.
2. Palmer, J.W. (1995). Prospects for improving 18 (4), 349-357.
driver training in the United States. In H.S. Simpson 44. McKnight, A.J. & Stewart, M.A. (1990). Final
(Ed) (1996). New to the Road: Reducing the Risks 24. Langford, J. (1998). Further Evaluation of report: Development of a competency based driver
for Young Motorists. Proceedings of the First Annual Tasmania’s Pre-Driver Education program. Hobart: licence testing system. Sacramento, California.:
International Conference of the Youth Enhancement Road Safety Branch, Department of Transport, Department of Motor Vehicles.
Service, June 8-11 1995. (pp 115-120). University of Tasmania.
California: Los Angeles. 45. Manders, S.A. (1986). Fleet management
25. Haworth, N., Kowaldo, N. & Tingvall, C. (2000). techniques. An investigation of the effectiveness of
3. Saffron, D.G. (1981). Driver and rider education, Evaluation of pre-driver education program. Report various techniques on vehicle collision prevention.
training and licensing: A brief review. Report No. No. 167. Clayton, Victoria: Monash University Report GR 86/17. Hawthorn, Victoria: Road Traffic
4/81. Rosebery: Traffic Accident Research Unit, New Accident Research Centre. Authority.
South Wales.
26. McKenna, C.K., Yost.,B., Muzenrider, R.F & 46. Christie, R. (1991). Driver Training/Education:
4. Christie, R. (1996). Driver training - What have we Young, M.L. (2000). Program evaluation of The Wrong Place to Start in Safe Fleet
learned? NRMA Today, Edition 12, 20-24. Pennsylvania’s Driver Education Program. Management?, Paper presented to Australian Fleet
Harrisburg, PA.: Pennsylvania Department of Magazine’s Fleet Management Conference.
5. Watson,B., Fresta,J., Whan. H., McDonald, J., Transportation. Melbourne and Sydney, September.
Dray, R., Beuermann, C., & Churchward, R. (1996).
Enhancing driver management in Queensland. 27. Roads & Traffic Authority (RTA) (1996). 47. Lord, P. (2000). Advanced blindness: Advanced
Brisbane: Land transport & Safety Division, Defensive and advanced driver training. In driver training produces safer drivers, right? Maybe,
Queensland Transport. Proceedings of Drivers as Workers, Vehicles as maybe not, say the experts. Wheels Magazine, 21-
Workplaces: Issues in Fleet Management seminar, 23.
6. McKnight, A.J (1992) Driver licensing in Victoria. Staysafe Report No 9/51, Parliament of NSW Joint
Report No. 27. Clayton, Victoria, Monash University Standing Committee on Road Safety: Sydney. 129- 48. VTI - Swedish Road and Traffic Research
Accident Research Centre, 135 Institute (1990). Traffic safety in the
Telecommunications Administration, in VTI Annual
7. Henderson, M. (1991) Education, publicity and 28. Christie, R. (2000). Off-road facilities for traffic Report 1989/90. Linkoping, Sweden: Author.
training in road safety: A literature review, Report No. safety education and novice driver training- A
22. Clayton, Victoria: Monash University Accident cautionary tale. In Proceedings of the Saferoads, 49. Watson, B. (1997). When common sense just
Research Centre. Local Government Road Safety Conference, won’t do: misconceptions about changing the
Melbourne, Australia, 20-21 July. behaviour of road users. In Bullen & Troutbeck
8. Lourens, P.F. (1993) Looking for evidence that (Eds). The Second International Conference on
driver education works, Driver/Education (Canada), 29. Gregersen, N.P. (1997). Evaluation of 16-years Accident Investigation, Reconstruction, Interpretation
March, 4-5. age limit for Driver training. First report No. 418A. & the Law: Proceedings, 20-23 October 1997
Linkoping, Sweden: VTI (Swedish National Road & (pp347-359): Brisbane.
9. Twisk, D. (1994) Experiences from Transport Research Institute;
countermeasures, including the role of driver 50. Smith, D.L. (1983). The De Kalb driver education
instruction and training. In Proceedings - 30. Lynam, D. and Twisk, D. (1995). Car Driver project. The same mistakes: improper criteria.
FERSI/OECD Driver Education and Training Training and Licensing Systems in Europe - Report Journal of Traffic Safety Education. 2, 14.
Workshop, October, Warsaw, Poland. prepared by members of Forum of European Road
Research Institutes (FERSI) and supported by 51. McKnight, A.J & Resnick, J. (1993). Youthful
10. Mayhew, D. R. & Simpson, H.M. (1996). The European Commission Transport Directorate (DG driver at risk workshop: Background issue paper. In
Effectiveness and Role of Driver Education and VII), Report No. 147. Crowthorne (UK): Transport K.Young (Ed). (1993). Workshop to Identify Training
training in a Graduated Licensing System. Ottawa, Research Laboratory (TRL). Requirements Designed to Reduce Young Driver
Ontario: Traffic Injury Research Foundation. Risk Taking and improve Decision Making Skills.
31. Gregersen, N.P. (1994). Systematic co-operation Report No. DOT HS 808 066. Washington, DC: US
11. Levy, D.T. (1990). Youth and traffic safety: The between driving schools and parents in driver Dept of Transportation, National Highway Traffic
effects of driving age, experience and education. education. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 26(4), safety Administration.
Accident Analysis and Prevention, 22(4), 327-334. 453-461.
52. Catchpole, J., Cairney, P. & Macdonald, W.
12. Potvin, L. (1991). The Evaluation of a 32. Mayhew, D. R. & Simpson, H.M. (1995). The (1994). Why are young drivers over-represented in
compulsory driver training policy: Quebec 1980- Role of Driving Experience: Implications for the traffic accidents? Special Report No. 50. Vermont
1984. In Proceedings - New to the Road Training and Licensing of New Drivers. Insurance South, Victoria.: Australian Road Research Board.
Symposium: Prevention Measures for Young or New Bureau of Canada: Toronto.
Drivers, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. 53. Williams, A.F. & Mayhew, D.R. (1999).
33. VicRoads (1998). , Getting there from Ls to Ps : Graduated Licensing: A Blueprint for North America.
13. Woolley, J. (2000). In-car driver Training at High A Step-by-Step Guide for Learners and Supervising Arlington, VA, USA: Insurance institute for Highway
schools: A Literature Review. Report No. 6/2000. Drivers Author: Kew. Safety.
Adelaide: Transport SA:
34. VicRoads. (2000) Road Safety Strategy for 54. Elliot, B. (1992). Report on Achieving High
14. Roberts, I., Kwan, I., & the Cochrane Injuries Victoria 2000-2005 Discussion Paper. Kew: Author. Levels of compliance with road safety Laws - A
Group Driver Education Reviewers. School based review of road user behaviour modification. Report
driver education for the prevention of traffic crashes 35. Holubowycz, O.T., and McLean, A.J. (1980). No. 6. Brisbane: Travelsafe Committee, Legislative
(Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue Evaluation of a road safety program for automotive Assembly of Queensland.
3, 2001. Oxford: Update Software. apprentices. Adelaide, SA: Road Accident Research
Unit, University of Adelaide. 55. Cavallo, A. & Harrison, W. (1998). Guidelines
15. Glad, A. (1988). Phase 2 Driver education, Effect and logbooks for learner drivers. In I.J. Faulks, K.B.
on accident risk. , Oslo, Norway: Transport Institute. 36. Payne, S., Brownlea, & Hall, A. (1984). Smith & K.P. Smith (Eds). Young drivers:
Evaluation of Queensland defensive driving course. Proceedings of a conference on young drivers held
16. Lynam, D. (1995). Prospects of improving driver Report No. CR 27. Canberra: Federal Office of Road by the Staysafe Committee of the Parliament of New
training in Europe. In H.S. Simpson (Ed) (1996). Safety. South Wales and the Australian College of Road
New to the Road: Reducing the Risks for Young safety; Parliament House, Sydney(NSW), 30 April
Motorists. Proceedings of the First Annual 37. Watson, B. (1994). Driver education and 1997 ( pp111-118): Parliament of New South Wales.
International Conference of the Youth Enhancement training: An overview of the evidence and the
Service, June 8-11 1995. (pp121-126). Los Angeles: implications for young drivers. Brisbane.Queensland 56. Cockfield, S. & Healy, D. (1999). HELP - An
University of California. Transport. integrated communications approach targetting
young driver safety. In Proceedings of Road Safety
17. Gregersen, N.P. (1996). Young drivers’ 38. Gregersen, N.P. (1995). What should be taught? Research, Policing & Education Conference 1999
overestimation of their own skill: An experiment on Basic vehicle control skills or higher order skills? In (Volume 1, pp299-304). November, University
the relation between training strategy and skill. H.S. Simpson (Ed) (1996). New to the Road: House, Canberra.
Accident Analysis & Prevention, 28(2), 243-250. Reducing the Risks for Young Motorists.
Proceedings of the First Annual International 57. Brown,I.D. (1997). How traffic and transport
18. Council, F.M., Roper, R.B. & Sadof, M.G. (1975). Conference of the Youth Enhancement Service, systems can benefit from psychology. In T.
An evaluation of North Carolina’s multi-range June 8-11 1995. (pp103-114.).University of Rothengatter & E. Carbonell Vaya (Eds). Traffic and
program in driver education: A comparison of driving California: Los Angeles. Transport Psychology: Theory and Application (pp 9-
histories of range and non-range students. Chapel 20). Amsterdam: Pergamon.
Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Highway Safety 39. Gregersen, N.P. & Bjurulf, P. (1996). Young
Research Center. novice drivers own skill: Towards a model of their 58. Roads & Traffic Authority (RTA) (2000). New
accident involvement. Accident Analysis & Drivers’ Handbook. Surry Hills, Sydney: Author.
19. Dreyer, D. & Janke, M. (1979). The effects of Prevention, 28(2), 229-241.
range versus non-range driver training on the 59. Congdon, P. (1999). VicRoads Hazard
accident and conviction frequencies of young 40. Nyberg, A. & Engstrom, I. (1999). The driver perception test, can it predict accidents?
drivers. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 11(3), 179- training concept “The Insight” - an evaluation. VTI Camberwell, Victoria: Australian Council for
198. Report No. 443A (English Summary). Linkoping: Educational Research (ACER).
Swedish National Road & transport Research
20. Strang, P.M., Deutsch, K.B., James R.S., and Institute (VTI). 60. Haworth, N., Tingvall, C. & Kowaldo, N. (2000a).
Manders S.M., (1982). A comparison of on-road and Review of best practice road safety initiatives in the
off-road driver training. Report No. 1/82 SR. 41. Siegrist, S (Ed) (1999). Driver Training, Testing & corporate and/or business environment. Report No.
Hawthorn, Victoria: Road Safety & Traffic Authority. Licensing - towards theory-based management of 166. Clayton, Victoria.: Monash University
young drivers’ injury risk in road traffic. Results of Accident Research Centre.
21. Stock, J.R., Weaver, I.K., Ray, H.W., Brink, T.R. EU Project GADGET, Work Package 3. Berne: November 2001
and Sadof, M.G. (1983). Evaluation of safe Schweizererische Beratungsstelle fur
performance, secondary school driver education Unfaliverhutung (BFU).
curriculum demonstration project. Final Report.
Springfield, VA, USA: National Technical Information 42. Brown, I.D., Grueger J.A. and Biehl, B. (1987). Is
Services. driver training contributing enough to road safety? In

This monograph is based on a report prepared for RACV by Dr Ron Christie of RCSC Services called
“The Effectiveness of Driver training as a Road Safety Measure: A review of the literature”.