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Amanda Bass

Prof. Leonard

ENG 1101.505

26 March 2021

Prefrontal Cortex: How Can Caregivers Aid in Development?

How did you learn to regulate your emotions? Who taught you how to focus? Were you

born with these capabilities? Were they inherent or were they learned? The answers to these

questions are found in the prefrontal cortex. This area of the brain plays a predominate part in

who you are and studies unequivocally agree, those caring for children are paramount in aiding

the development of a healthy frontal lobe. In order for the prefrontal

cortex to function optimally, children and adolescents need their

parents and caregivers

(caregivers being those who are actively involved in raising a child

such as grandparents and other guardians), to guide the development

of this part of the brain, enabling children to boost executive function and thrive in adulthood.

Much about the prefrontal cortex remained a mystery until 1868 when, after studying the

change in personality of a man whose frontal lobe had been injured, Dr. J. M. Harlow discovered

there was an actual function of the prefrontal cortex (Garcia-Molina 372). Before this time, it

had been assumed that this part of the brain was non-functional. In 1878, Dr. David Ferrier made

this functional part of the brain a topic of a lecture, using the injured man as proof that the

prefrontal cortex did, indeed, have a function. (Garcia-Molina 373). Since that time, researchers

have developed understanding of how the frontal lobe works and how its development is affected
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from infanthood. Its development begins early and continues into young adulthood which

gives insight into how much childhood experience has an impact on a child’s personality and

cognitive abilities.

The prefrontal cortex (PFC), also called the frontal cortex or the frontal lobe which will

be used interchangably here, is the part of the brain that is responsible for executive brain

function. Located at the front of the brain, its development aids in helping a person focus,

anticipate events, control impulses, make plans, and manage intricate and involved behaviors. It

is also responsible for developing the personality (Prefrontal Cortex). The developing functions

of the prefrontal cortex begins in adolescence and continues until a person is around twenty-five

years old. In fact, according to childhood expert, Yvette Halpin, studies show on MRI that the

frontal cortex had matured by the age of 21 (Halpin). Twenty-one to twenty-five years gives

caregivers plenty of time to help in the development of this intregal portion of the brain.

It’s imperative to know the deeper functions of the frontal lobe if caregivers want to help

their children exercise this mental muscle. A closer look at its functions shows that this part of

the brain is responsible for empathy, kindness, and concern for others. Saying “please”, “thank

you” and “I’m sorry” are part of this function, as well. The prefrontal cortex helps a person have

impulse control, manage intense feelings, and delay gratification. Creativity, imagination,

making choices, reflection, and self-awareness are also attributed to the prefrontal cortex

(Halpin). The frontal lobe is responsible for a person’s executive function. Executive function is

what helps a person focus, organize, plan, and prioritize events.

Helping a child develop these traits is no small feat but is vitally important to help them

blossom and experience success in life. The importance of this issue cannot be overstated: to
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make healthy, functional adults, parents and caregivers have to start intensive care in infanthood

by creating bonds and, later, teaching by example.

Studies show the importance of prenatal and early childhood experiences in creating the

health and proper function of the prefrontal cortex. Findings show that environmental factors do

affect the development of brain structure and indicates effects to the frontal lobes (Sato).

Amanda Hodel, a psychologist who specializes in cognitive development, says that studies in

animals and humans show that frontal lobe development is fashioned from experiences that

happen very early on (113). Within a child’s first year, dramatic growth takes place in the frontal

lobe (Hodel 114). When the prefrontal cortex is affected by the environment through “stress,

drugs, hormones, and social experiences,” the developing prefrontal cortex can go through

diverse changes (Kolb, et al. 17186). Hodel explains, “Early individual differences in prefrontal-

dependent behaviors also show predictive power over the lifespan; EF [executive function] skills

at preschool-age are predictive of long-term measures of well-being, including academic

achievement, social competence, stress resilience, externalizing disorders, divorce rates, and

adult body mass index” (114). Environmental events that happen before birth and after, such as

hormones, relationships with caregivers, stressors, hallucinogens, and sensory stimulus affect

brain development and, in the end, performance in adulthood (Kolb, et al. 17186).

Because parents and guardians of a young child are given the opportunity to help the

development of the prefrontal cortex, the dependence that babies and young children have on

their caregivers shows the importance of the caregiver in the role of prefrontal brain growth. The

relationship that infants have with their caregivers “initiate long-term developmental effects” that

carry into adulthood (Kolb, et al. 17189). Since the proper development falls a great deal on

caregivers and the environment, the question then arises in how caregivers can ensure an
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environment that is beneficial to brain development. It is also worth noting that, although

researchers believed that only significant experiences affected the frontal lobe, recent findings

show that even trivial experiences affect its development (Kolb, et al 17187). One way to ensure

a child’s experiences are positive, whether large or small, begins with an initial look at the

relationshp between the caregiver and child. Healthy child and parent interaction is paramount

here. Neuroscientist Alex Korb says, “The prefrontal cortex is one of the areas of the brain most

sensitive to parental interaction; and for kids to be successful (i.e., engaged, motivated, happy,

and productive), a well-developed prefrontal cortex goes a long way” (Korb).

Not everyone believes that the link between the frontal lobe and environment/caregiver

relationship is as straightforward as this. Robbin Gibb, Celeste Halliwell, Brian Kolb, and

Wendy Comeau, specialists from the Canadian Centre for Behavioural Neuroscience, come

together in their article “Factors Influencing Frontal Cortex Development and Recovery from

Early Frontal Injury” to explain that there is no clear evidence showing that the change in the

behavior of a person who has experienced frontal cortex damage (or influence by prenatal drug

use) is due to a neuronal change (Halliwell et al. 272). To put it plainly, they argue that there is

no way to predict that a behavioral change is brought on by a change in neurons and that it is

especially difficult to study this behavioral change in infants. The argument is that the behavioral

and cognitive changes could be due to a morphosis in the child’s genes in utero and not just to

the frontal cortex and that studies still need to be done to show this difference. However, their

conclusion states that “it seems unlikely that a single change in gene expression can tie together

the effects of environmental experiences, psychoactive drugs, play, diet, stress and so on”

(Halliwell et al. 272). It is obvious that, even to those who feel there is not enough evidence to
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blame environment only, environment and other experiences do play an integral part in the

changes to the brain of a child both pre and postnatally.

It’s important to note here that, if a positive environment and upbringing aids in proper

development, it would stand to reason that there are issues that can hinder its development.

Among the factors that can negatively affect the development of a child’s frontal lobe, a

traumatic family/home environment is one of the biggest factors. Abuse has long-term effects on

the prefrontal cortex, as MRI studies have shown (Hodel 128). Additionally, the executive

functions, which are contributed to the prefrontal cortex, are often varied in children that have

experienced abuse and trauma (Hodel 129). During tasks that require cognitive control, error

processing, and management of emotions, children who have experienced

trauma do not show typical activation of the frontal lobe on MRI scans (Hodel 129). Intervening

early in a child’s life, preferably in their first year, can stop the adverse effects of

environmentally-induced imbalances in the prefrontal cortex. Focusing on prevention or

intervention early in a child’s life is advantageous to the development of the child’s frontal lobe

(Hodel 129).

Accepting interventions and resources that are available to the parents and caregivers,

regardless of the struggle, are one way that caregivers can be proactive in helping foster their

children’s mental health (Sato et al. 838). Helpful interventions can be found in art, music,

drama, play, dance, and poetry therapies. These are suggested ways to help a child’s brain

recover from trauma (Malchiodi). These therapies are not just play, but they invite ways for the

child to process past trauma and relearn proper emotional and management skills. Additionally,

help that is focused on the parents or the environment is also available. Whether the caregivers

are struggling with poverty, addiction, anger issues, or mental health issues, social services are
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available for their aid. In finding harmony and balance in the home, the child is set up to grow

and learn in an optimum environment.

It is obvious that a child’s environment and relationship with their caregivers is largely

important for proper brain development. Relationship building with a child

begins in infanthood. Although the regular caretaking of an infant may seem as

simple as a primal need for survival, the impacts are far greater. Affectionate

relationships with a mother or caregiver are a

foundation for the emotional and cognitive development of a child (Krone

150).
Mother: Kelly Sikkema

Dr. Gerry Leisman and Dr. Robert Melillo, both experts on neurobehavior in

children, say that restricting distress in an infant is a task that is important for the caregiver to

undertake in the beginning of life (Leismen & Melillo 2). This is done by holding, comforting,

and rocking the child. As time passes, the caregiver will need to work with the child in finding

ways to connect their attention to external stimuli when the child is in distress. To put it plainly,

the caregiver should be distracting the child during their distress to redirect their attention and

emotions. These interactions with the child will aid the child in developing stress regulation and

help the frontal lobe to develop in this area. Later, when needed, the child should be able to

recall the emotional regulation in this part of the brain (Leismen & Melillo 8).

As children mature, a major role that caregivers have in this development is by modeling

their own cognitive function. Yvette Halpin says that a child needs an adult to imitate. She says

that if a positive role model is not given to the child, the child cannot develop the pathways

needed for proper functioning of this portion of the brain and this can cause the child to rely too

heavily on emotions and a flight-or-fight response. Halpin advises that caregivers should decide
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what they would like their child to do, say, and think and then “model their own executive

functioning capacities of knowing what to say, do and think in life’s situations.” As early as three

or four years old, children are able to develop mirror neurons that aid in feeling empathy and

understand the consequences of their actions. When caregivers model positive behaviors, it is

around this age that children are able to mirror, or imitate, those behaviors. By age five,

children’s brains are beginning to create the pathways in the frontal lobe that aid in decision

making. Therefore, modeling good decisions, as well as talking through how a decision is being

made, is a part of the process of helping children develop decision making abilities (Halpin).

Another name of this behavior is “scaffolding.”

Scaffolding is a term defining the adult’s behavior in personal management influencing a child.

This act helps children achieve problem solving skills that they would lack without the adult

example (Krone 151).

` Another important part of helping executive function develop is through social

interaction. Social interaction is a major facilitator in executive function development (Krone

151). Halpin also touches on the effects of play in her writings. Interactive play helps stimulate

the frontal lobe. She says that “rough and tumble” play is essential in activating the frontal lobe.

When children do not get enough of this play, they are prone to hyperactivity and have less

impulse control (Halpin). Another way that parents and

caregivers can exercise this part of the brain is by activating the

cerebellum. Since the frontal lobe needs proper stimulation and

can get this from the cerebellum, rhythmic movement is one

way to activate the pathways between the cerebellum and

prefontal Children Playing: Cape May MAC

cortex (Halpin).

Lastly, Halpin advises caregivers to create stimulating environments that promote a

dynamic learning experience. Active use of the imagination and play that encourages exploration

can enhance the brain’s upper and lower lobe connections (Halpin). The effects of play in brain

development should not be overlooked. Play has long been a tool that psychologists and teachers

have used to help children grow cognitively.

Marcus Veerman, CEO and founder of Playground Ideas, gives us a look at the important

effects of play:

Play is the tool that the brain uses to learn whatever it is developmentally ready to learn.

Whether it is stacking blocks to explore the physical properties of the universe or to

simply make a friend. Play is there to help explore, compare, evaluate, practice, and so

on, until the goal is mastered. To prompt children to play, the brain rewards them with

generous doses of positive hormones such as endorphins, dopamine, and adrenaline. The

result is often happiness, joy, energetic and loud behavior which unfortunately is not

always enjoyed by adults seeking didactic outcomes for interventions. Yet it is precisely

the organic messiness of play that is its strength (38).

Ensuring that children have a proper amount of play is going to be beneficial to their

mental health and the development of their brain. According to Dr. Claudia Mincemoyer,

Director of the Better Kid Care Program at Penn State, there are a few good ways to make this

happen. Not surprisingly, play is first on the list. Enriched playtime will be a place that is

flexible, not rushed, encourages freedom of expression, avoids rigid expectations, and the

imagination is activated. Additionally, she advises modeling pausing and thinking before acting,
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storytelling to and with the child, and creating a calming space for the child as a place to reset.

Lastly, Dr. Mincemoyer suggests asking a lot of thought-provoking questions to keep the child’s

brain engaged and thinking. She says that questions help a child explore further into whatever

they are facing (Mincemoyer).

More practical guidance is provided by clinical psychologist, Ilona Krone, in her

dissertation on parent-child interaction and how it impacts executive function. Krone gives three

courses of action for caregivers. The first is waiting, where a caregiver uses patience and time to

wait on a child to complete a task at their own pace. Waiting creates a safe space for the child to

think through and complete tasks on their own, causing the executive function “muscle” to

strengthen. By waiting, a child is not overstimulated and has time to think through their

processes (Krone 151).

Confirmation is the second step in this process. Positive reinforcement is another name

for this activity. This can look like affirming words when a child has done something positive

such as, “Good job” or “You did it.” The positive experience of completing a task reinforces the

child’s ability to complete tasks in the future. It has also been shown that children who are not

given positive feedback lack independence and are prone toward depression. It is imperative that

a child feel their successes. A low chance at experiencing success is linked to depression and

elevated cortisol and a rise in cortisol levels negatively affects memory (151).

The third step is called naming, or verbal support, which encourages activation of the

frontal lobe. Parent’s verbal support is a major predictor in developing a child’s executive

function. The caregiver, in a positive emotional tone, names the child’s feelings, behaviors,

experiences, and activities. In doing so, the child is able to create an “inner map” that guides

them in social settings apart from their caregivers. Krone says that by naming a child’s activities,
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the parent supports the brain in forming language with actions. This later becomes inner, or

private, speech that helps direct the child without the assistance of an adult. Three-year-olds

whose mothers gave verbal support had more developed executive function at six years old

(151). Krone also emphasises that this act of naming helps children identify their actions and

emotions and, without being able to do this, children have restricted self-regulation which causes

difficulties with peer interactions (Krone 151).

The studies are unmistakably the same in their view of a caregiver’s role in developing

executive function in children: home life and core environments, which include how the

caregivers relate to the children as well as the stability of the environment, are one of the most

impactful ways that caregivers affect the child’s ability to develop the frontal lobe. Once a

nurturing environment is put in place for a child, the next steps are seen in process and practice.

There is no doubt about it, parents and other caregivers have a great responsibility in helping

children grow their executive function skills and help them become capable and well-rounded

adults.
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Works Cited

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Cape May MAC. “Children Playing.” Flickr.com

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García-Molina, A. “Phineas Gage and the Enigma of the Prefrontal Cortex.” Neurología

(English Edition), vol. 27, no. 6, 2012, p. 373.

Halliwell, Celeste, et al. “Factors Influencing Frontal Cortex Development and Recovery from

Early Frontal Injury.” Developmental Neurorehabilitation, vol. 12, no. 5, 2009, p. 272.

Halpin, Yvette. “The Development of Your Child's Frontal Lobe – The Control Center of the

Brain.” Nimble Kids - Developmental Support, www.nimblekids.ca/blog/the-development-

of-your-childs-frontal-lobe-the-control-center-of-the-brain.

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Kolb, Bryan et al. “Experience and the developing prefrontal cortex.” Proceedings of the

National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America vol. 109 Suppl 2, (2012) pp.

17186-89.
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Cape May MAC: https://www.flickr.com/photos/visit_cape_may/with/7295135524/