Gender and society
Introduction to Gender, Sex, and Sexuality
In 2009, the 18-year old South African athlete, Caster Semenya, won the women’s 800-meter world
championship in Track and Field. Her time of 1:55:45, a surprising improvement from her 2008 time of
2:08:00, caused officials from the International Association of Athletics Foundation (IAAF) to question
whether her win was legitimate. If this questioning were based on suspicion of steroid use, the case
would be no different from that of Roger Clemens or Mark McGuire, or even Track and Field Olympic
gold medal winner Marion Jones. But the questioning and eventual testing were based on allegations
that Caster Semenya, no matter what gender identity she possessed, was biologically a male.
You may be thinking that distinguishing biological maleness from biological femaleness is surely a simple
matter — just conduct some DNA or hormonal testing, throw in a physical examination, and you’ll have
the answer. But it is not that simple. Both biologically male and biologically female people produce a
certain amount of testosterone, and different laboratories have different testing methods, which makes
it difficult to set a specific threshold for the amount of male hormones produced by a female that
renders her sex male. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) criteria for determining eligibility for
sex-specific events are not intended to determine biological sex. “Instead these regulations are designed
to identify circumstances in which a particular athlete will not be eligible (by reason of hormonal
characteristics) to participate in the 2012 Olympic Games” in the female category (International Olympic
Committee, 2012).
To provide further context, during the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, eight female athletes with XY
chromosomes underwent testing and were ultimately confirmed as eligible to compete as women
(Maugh, 2009). To date, no males have undergone this sort of testing. Does this not imply that when
women perform better than expected, they are “too masculine,” but when men perform well they are
simply superior athletes? Can you imagine Usain Bolt, the world’s fastest man, being examined by
doctors to prove he was biologically male based solely on his appearance and athletic ability? Can you
explain how sex, sexuality, and gender are different from each other?
In this Module, we will discuss the differences between sex and gender, along with issues like gender
identity and sexuality. What does it mean to “have” a sex in our society? What does it mean to “have” a
sexuality? We will also explore various theoretical perspectives on the subjects of gender and sexuality.
Feminist sociology is particularly attuned to the way that most cultures present a male-dominated view
of the world as if it were simply the view of the world. Androcentricism is a perspective in which male
concerns, male attitudes, and male practices are presented as “normal” or define what is significant and
valued in a culture. Women’s experiences, activities, and contributions to society and history are
ignored, devalued, or marginalized.
As a result the perspectives, concerns, and interests of only one sex and class are represented as
general. Only one sex and class are directly and actively involved in producing, debating, and developing
its ideas, in creating its art, in forming its medical and psychological conceptions, in framing its laws, its
political principles, its educational values and objectives. Thus a one-sided standpoint comes to be seen
as natural, obvious, and general, and a one-sided set of interests preoccupy intellectual and creative
work. (Smith, 1987)
In part this is simply a question of the bias of those who have the power to define cultural values, and in
part it is the result of a process in which women have been actively excluded from the culture-creating
process. It is still common, for example, to read writing that uses the personal pronoun “he” or the word
“man” to represent people in general or humanity. The overall effect is to establish masculine values
and imagery as normal. A “policeman” brings to mind a man who is doing a “man’s job”, when in fact
women have been involved in policing for several decades now.
Sexuality refers to a person’s capacity for sexual feelings and their emotional and sexual attraction to a
particular sex (male or female). Sexuality or sexual orientation is typically divided into four categories:
heterosexuality, the attraction to individuals of the opposite sex; homosexuality, the attraction to
individuals of one’s own sex; bisexuality, the attraction to individuals of either sex; and asexuality, no
attraction to either sex. Heterosexuals and homosexuals may also be referred to informally as “straight”
and “gay,” respectively. North America is a heteronormative society, meaning it supports
heterosexuality as the norm, (referred to as heteronormativity). Consider that homosexuals are often
asked, “When did you know you were gay?” but heterosexuals are rarely asked, “When did you know
that you were straight?” (Ryle, 2011).
According to current scientific understanding, individuals are usually aware of their sexual orientation
between middle childhood and early adolescence (American Psychological Association, 2008). They do
not have to participate in sexual activity to be aware of these emotional, romantic, and physical
attractions; people can be celibate and still recognize their sexual orientation. Homosexual women (also
referred to as lesbians), homosexual men (also referred to as gays), and bisexuals of both genders may
have very different experiences of discovering and accepting their sexual orientation. At the point of
puberty, some may be able to claim their sexual orientations while others may be unready or unwilling
to make their homosexuality or bisexuality known since it goes against North American society’s
historical norms (APA, 2008).
Alfred Kinsey was among the first to conceptualize sexuality as a continuum rather than a strict
dichotomy of gay or straight. To classify this continuum of heterosexuality and homosexuality, Kinsey
created a six-point rating scale that ranges from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual (see
Figure 12.4). In his 1948 work Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, Kinsey writes, “Males do not
represent two discrete populations, heterosexual and homosexual. The world is not to be divided into
sheep and goats … The living world is a continuum in each and every one of its aspects” (Kinsey et al,
1948).
A scale from 0-6 with 0 being exclusively heterosexual and 6 being exclusively homosexual.
Figure 8.4. The Kinsey scale indicates that sexuality can be measured by more than just heterosexuality
and homosexuality.
Click the Link below to experience the Kinsey scale
https://www.idrlabs.com/kinsey-scale/test.php (Links to an external site.)
Discussion Question:
Note: You may not reveal your actual score for privacy purposes.
1. Do you agree with the result of your Kinsey scale test about your sexuality? Give a brief preview on
the experience while taking the test & after the results was analyzed. Please answer without revealing
your actual result. 5 points
Later scholarship by Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick expanded on Kinsey’s notions. She coined the term
“homosocial” to oppose “homosexual,” describing nonsexual same-sex relations. Sedgwick recognized
that in North American culture, males are subject to a clear divide between the two sides of this
continuum, whereas females enjoy more fluidity. This can be illustrated by the way women in Canada
can express homosocial feelings (nonsexual regard for people of the same sex) through hugging, hand-
holding, and physical closeness. In contrast, Canadian males refrain from these expressions since they
violate the heteronormative expectation. While women experience a flexible norming of variations of
behaviour that spans the heterosocial-homosocial spectrum, male behaviour is subject to strong social
sanction if it veers into homosocial territory because of societal homophobia (Sedgwick, 1985).
There is no scientific consensus regarding the exact reasons why an individual holds a heterosexual,
homosexual, or bisexual orientation. There has been research conducted to study the possible genetic,
hormonal, developmental, social, and cultural influences on sexual orientation, but there has been no
evidence that links sexual orientation to one factor (APA, 2008). Research, however, does present
evidence showing that homosexuals and bisexuals are treated differently than heterosexuals in schools,
the workplace, and the military. The 2009 Canadian Climate Survey reported that 59% of LGBT (lesbian,
gay, bisexual, or transgendered) high school students had been subject to verbal harassment at school
compared to 7% of non-LGBT students; 25% had been subject to physical harassment compared to 8%
of non-LGBT students; 31% had been subject to cyber-bullying (via internet or text messaging) compared
to 8% of non-LGBT students; 73% felt unsafe at school compared to 20% of non-LGBT students; and 51%
felt unaccepted at school compared to 19% of non-LGBT students (Taylor and Peter, 2011).
Much of this discrimination is based on stereotypes, misinformation, and homophobia — an extreme or
irrational aversion to homosexuals. Major policies to prevent discrimination based on sexual orientation
have not come into effect until the last few years. In 2005, the federal government legalized same-sex
marriage. The Civil Marriage Act now describes marriage in Canada in gender neutral terms: “Marriage,
for civil purposes, is the lawful union of two persons to the exclusion of all others” (Civil Marriage Act,
S.C. 2005, c. 33). The Canadian Human Rights Act was amended in 1996 to explicitly prohibit
discrimination based on sexual orientation, including the unequal treatment of gay men, lesbians, and
bisexuals. Organizations such as Egale Canada (Equality for Gays And Lesbians Everywhere) advocate for
LGBT rights, establish gay pride organizations in Canadian communities, and promote gay-straight
alliance support groups in schools. Advocacy agencies frequently use the acronym LGBTQ, which stands
for “lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered,” and “queer” or “questioning.”
Discussion Question:
2. What is LGBTQIA means? 6 points
What Does the Kinsey Scale Have to Do with Your Sexuality?
What is it?
The Kinsey Scale, also known as the Heterosexual-Homosexual Rating Scale, is one of the oldest and
most widely used scales to describe sexual orientation.
Though outdated, the Kinsey Scale was groundbreaking at the time. It was among the first models to
suggest that sexuality isn’t a binary where people could either be described as heterosexual or
homosexual.
Instead, the Kinsey Scale acknowledges that many people aren’t exclusively heterosexual or exclusively
homosexual — that sexual attraction can fall somewhere in the middle.
What does it look like?
10 Kinsey Scale FAQs: What It Is, How to Use It, Accuracy, and More
Where did it come from?
The Kinsey Scale was developed by Alfred Kinsey, Wardell Pomeroy, and Clyde Martin. It was first
published in Kinsey’s book, “Sexual Behavior in the Human Male,” in 1948.
The research used to create the Kinsey Scale was based on interviews with thousands of people about
their sexual histories and behaviors.
How is it used?
It’s used to describe sexual orientation. However, it’s considered outdated nowadays, so it isn’t really
used much outside of academia.
Does it have any limitations?
As the Kinsey Institute at Indiana University (Links to an external site.) notes, the Kinsey Scale has
numerous limitations.
It doesn’t account for differences between romantic and sexual orientation
It’s possible to be sexually attracted to people of one gender and romantically attracted to people of
another. This is known as a mixed or cross orientation.
It doesn’t account for asexuality
While there’s an “X” on the Kinsey scale to describe “no sociosexual contacts or reactions,” it doesn’t
necessarily account for someone who’s had sexual relationships but is asexual.
Many are uncomfortable identifying with (or being identified as) a number on a scale
There are only 7 points on the scale. There’s a much wider diversity when it comes to sexual orientation.
There are arguably infinite ways to experience sexual attraction.
Two people who are a 3 on the Kinsey Scale, for example, may have very different sexual histories,
feelings, and behaviors. Flattening them into a single number doesn’t account for those differences.
It assumes that gender is binary
It doesn’t take anyone who isn’t (Links to an external site.) exclusively masculine or exclusively feminine
into account.
It reduces bisexuality to a point between homosexuality and heterosexuality
According to the Kinsey Scale, when interest in a person of one gender increases, interest in a person of
other decreases — as if they were two competing feelings and not experiences that are independent of
each other.
Bisexuality is a sexual orientation (Links to an external site.) in its own right.
Is there a ‘test’ based on the Kinsey scale?
No. The term “Kinsey Scale test” is commonly used, but according to the Kinsey Institute (Links to an
external site.), there’s no actual test based on the scale.
There are various online quizzes based on the Kinsey Scale, but these aren’t supported by data or
endorsed by the Kinsey Institute.
How do you determine where you fall?
If you do use the Kinsey Scale to describe your sexual identity, you can identify with whatever number
feels comfortable to you.
If you aren’t comfortable using the Kinsey Scale to describe yourself, you can use other terms. Our guide
to different orientations (Links to an external site.) includes 46 different terms for orientation, behavior,
and attraction.
Some terms used to describe sexual orientation include:
Asexual. You experience (Links to an external site.) little to no sexual attraction to anyone, regardless of
gender.
Bisexual. You’re sexually attracted to (Links to an external site.) people of two or more genders.
Graysexual. You experience (Links to an external site.) sexual attraction infrequently.
Demisexual. You experience (Links to an external site.) sexual attraction infrequently. When you do, it’s
only after developing a strong emotional connection to someone.
Heterosexual. You’re only sexually attracted to people of a different gender to you.
Homosexual. You’re only sexually attracted to (Links to an external site.) people who are the same
gender as you.
Pansexual. You’re sexually attracted to (Links to an external site.) people of all genders.
Polysexual. You’re sexually attracted to people of many — not all — genders.
The same can also apply to romantic orientation. Terms to describe romantic orientation include:
Aromantic. You experience (Links to an external site.) little to no romantic attraction to anyone,
regardless of gender.
Biromantic. You’re romantically attracted to (Links to an external site.) people of two or more genders.
Grayromantic. You experience romantic attraction infrequently.
Demiromantic. You experience romantic attraction infrequently. When you do, it’s only after developing
a strong emotional connection to someone.
Heteroromantic. You’re only romantically attracted to people of a different gender to you.
Homoromantic. You’re only romantically attracted to people who are the same gender as you.
Panromantic. You’re romantically attracted to (Links to an external site.) people of all genders.
Polyromantic. You’re romantically attracted to people of many — not all — genders
Discussion Question:
3. What terms about sexual orientation & romantic orientation you find interesting & that is new to
you?Explain 10 points
Can your number change?
Yes. The researchers behind the Kinsey Scale found that the number can shift over time, as our
attraction, behavior, and fantasies (Links to an external site.) can change.
Has the scale been further defined?
Yes. There are a few different scales or measurement tools that were developed as a response to the
Kinsey Scale.
As it stands, there are more than 200 scales used to measure sexual orientation nowadays. Here are a
few:
Klein Sexual Orientation Grid (KSOG). Proposed by Fritz Klein, it includes (Links to an external site.) 21
different numbers, measuring past behavior, present behavior, and ideal behavior for each of the seven
variables.
Sell Assessment of Sexual Orientation (SASO). Proposed by Randall L. Sell, it measures (Links to an
external site.) various attributes — including sexual attraction, sexual orientation identity, and sexual
behavior — separately.
Storms Scale. Developed by Michael D. Storms, it plots (Links to an external site.) eroticism on an X- and
Y-axis, describing a wider range of sexual orientations.
Each of these scales has their own limitations and advantages.
What’s the bottom line?
The Kinsey Scale was groundbreaking when it was first developed, laying the foundation for further
research into sexual orientation.
Nowadays, it’s considered outdated, though some still use it to describe and understand their own
sexual orientation.
