HYDRAULICS BRANCH

OFFICIAL FILE COPY u

vNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF TH [ INTERIOR
BlmE.t,U OF' RZCLAMATION
BUREAU OF RECLAMATION HYDRAULIC LABORATORY
N£1 2m���r.::F�

I
i
THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-HEAD
OUTLET VALVES

Hydraulic Laboratory Report No. Hyd.- 240

RESEARCH AND GEOLOGY DIVISION

.,. BRANCH OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

I •
DENVER, COLORADO
).

MARCH 1948
 UNITED ,STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
BUREAU OF RECLAMATION

THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-HEAD OUTLET VALVES

(Hydraulic Laboratory Report Hyd. 240)

By

J. W. Ball, Hydraulic Engineer

and
D. J. Hebert, Hydraulic Engineer
BRANCH OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
Denver, Colorado
March 1948

(Prepared for presentation at the 1948 meeting

of the International Association of Hydraulic
Structures Research to be held in Stockholm,
Sweden, June 7 to 9, 19480)
 ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure

1 Ensign Balanced Valve

2 Cavitation-erosion of Ensign Valve a nd Conduit, Shoshone Dam, Wyo o

3 Cavitation-erosion of 84-inch Needle Valve, Alcova Dam, Wyo.

4 Internal Differential Needle Valve

5 Interior Differential Needle Valve

6 Revised Needle Valve

7 Revised Tube Valve

8 Hollow-jet Valve

9 Howell-Bunger Valve

10 Radial Gate, Davis Dam Outlet

11 Jet-flow Valve

12 Shasta Tube Valve

13 Discharge from Shasta Dam Outlet at Full Capacity

14 Discharge from Shasta Dam Outlet at Half Capacity

 THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-HEAD OUTLET VALVES

INTRODUCTION

A review of the development of valves, from the crude stone gates

used over 2, 000 years ago, to· the sleek modern giants which are capable
of controlling entire rivers, would be a fascinating topic o Many
countries have contributed to this development. The United States has
made its contribution in the phase dealing with large gates and high­
head regulating valves. A brief historical review of the development
of valves in various countries would be appropriate and would serve as a
background against which the more recent developments could be viewed.
The space allotted this paper and the time available for its preparation
will not permit an adequate treatment. This paper will discuss only the
development of high-head outlet valves in the United States with particular
reference to the work of the Bureau of Reclamation, and it is hoped that
other papers or discussions will contribute material covering the experi­
ence of other countries. Conditions requiring the development of high­
head regulating valves are common to many countries and it would be
interesting and instructive to compare the solutions which have been
reached.
Definition of Outlet Valve
In speaking or writing of devices for controlling or regulating
the flow of water through an outlet in a dam, the words II gate" and "valve"
are used. There is some measure of confusion as to whether the distinc­
tion between gate and valve should be based on function or design form.
For the purpose of discussion in this paper, the terms will be used to
express function. The term II gate, 11 unless qualified as a regulating gate_;
shall be understood to mean a controlling device which is designed and

used principally to allow the passage of the full capacity of an outlet

or to shut it off completely. In a few cases, the term "regulating gate"
will be used to designate a gate which performs the function of a valve.
The requirements introduced by the necessity of operating a gate under
emergency conditions� which must be accommodated in a design, do not

alter the primary func·tion. A gate is predominantly in a fully closed

or fully opened position. The term "valve" will be used to designate

.a controlling device designed primarily for the purpose of regulating
the amount of flow through an outlet from zero to maximum discharge.

It, therefore, is required to operate at partially opened positions and

this.requirement is largely the controlling factor in its design.
Current practice is to calibrate models of valves so that the valves

may be used as metering devices.

NEED FOR HIGH-CAPACITY HIGH-HEAD OUTLET VALVES

As the size of dams and reservoirs was increased, it became necessary
for economic reasons to design projects for multiple use, such as flood
control, irrigation, power development, and river regulation for naviga­
tion. Several dr all of the multiple uses of stored waters might be
involved in one project. The rigorous demands imposed by such multiple
use of a storage dam and reservoir required that the outlets be designed
to give close regulation of the rate at which stored waters be released.
Since the increase in dam height was accompanied by an increase in the

size of outlets, many new design problems were posed not only by the
higher pressures and velocities, but also by the larger size of the

2
 control devices. Many improvements in the-mechanical design of valves

were made to meet the challenge of new conditions.

Regulation was obtained in some cases by providing numerous outlets

controlled by gates such as those used in Grand _Coulee Dam, on the

Columbia River in the State of Washington, where increases or decreases
•
in flow could be obtained in finite increments equal in value to the

capacity of a single outlet. Variation in the value of an increment was

obtained by installing outlets at different levels and thus different

'
heads. This method was not completely satisfactory for reasons which

will be discussed subsequently.

A more economical method of accomplishing regulation consisted of
providing fewer and larger outlets with valves which could be used to

regulate the quantity of flow to any required value. The requirements

of.val ves for such a use were that they could be built and used in
large sjzes (high capacity when fully opened) and could be operated
under high heads and at any opening without damage to the valves.
Valves which had been developed and used for relatively low heads,

that is, heads up to 100 feet, proved to be entirely inadequate, expensive

to maintain, and often dangerous when they were used for high heads (1)1,.
The development of valves to perform this function of regulating high­

capacity high-head outlets will be discussed in this paper.

EARLY EXPERIENCE WITH BALANCED VALVES

One of the first improvements in the design of large outlet valves

was that of reducing the external power required for operation. The
•
forces involved were the hydraulic thrust on the shut-off element and

�<Numbers in parentheses refer to bibliography at end.

3
 the sliding friction between this element and the stationary parts. In

the early designs large mechanisms, in some cases approaching the size of
the valve itself, supplied the power for operation. In later designs,

the po�er for operation was obtained by supplying pressure to special

compartments within the valves and utilizing the shut-off elements as

hydraulic pistons. This method of overcoming the hydraulic thrust is

known as balancing, and the valves using this principle are known as
balanced valves. In general, a balanced valve is one in which the

hydraulic thrust on the regulating element is non-existent or is

. balanced automatically at all openings of the valve, making it neces­

sary only to overcome sliding friction to attain different dBgrees of

regulation. From this definition it is evident that the term "balanced

valve" does not define a particular type, but signifies a feature of

design. A valve is c· onsidered to be balanced partially when the

pressures from the discharging fluid do not counteract completely the
hydraulic thrust on the shut-off plunger.
The needle valve and its variations, particularly that known as
the Ensign valve, named for the prominent engineer who contributed much
to its development, were among the first of the balanced type used in
the United States. Generally, the needle valve was used at the end of
a conduit while the Ensign valve was mounted on the reservoir face of

a dam or placed at some intermediate point in the outlet tunnel. The

Ensign valve was used most extensively in early high-head installations
by the Bureau of Reclamation. Tne use of large needle valves, such as
• the Larner-Johnson and others, placed at the ends of conduits, followed

as a result of difficulties experienced with the Ensign valve.

4
 Ensign Valve

The Ensign valve consisted essentially of� a body, or stationary

bull-ring cylinder; a hollow cylindrical plunger having a bull ring at

one end and a needle tip with a seat ring at the other; a support ring

with ribs to support the body of the valve; and a discharge throat connected
to a steel or concrete discharge conduit, Figure lA.

Usually the valve was mounted on the reservoir face of a dam with the
throat embedded in concrete and the discharge conduit extending to the

downstream face, but in some special cases it was installed in a large

pipe or· tunnel. In either setting the water surrounding the valve flowed

between the support ribs, past the seat, support, and sealing rings, onto

the needle-tip surface where it was·directed axially through the throat

into the discharge conduit. Regulation was attained by varying the

position of the cylindrical plunger. The hydraulic thrust on the needle

tip was balanced by regulating the pressure in the chamber at the back
of the plunger. Water reached this chamber by way of a clearance gap
at the downstream end of the bull-ring cylinder, through the clearance
space between the plunger and the bull-ring cylinder. The pressure at

the back of the plunger for any opening was regulated either by an
ordinary valve and drain pipe or a special device connected through
the closed end of the bull-ring cylinder. With sufficient pressure
at the clearance gap, it would be possible to move the plunger in either
direction by controlling the flow through the drain line or resetting the

special control device. Increasing the flow through the drain lowered
•
the operating pressure and opened the valve while decreasing the flow

raised the pressure and closed it. This ·system was effective for opening

5
 the valves but not always for closing them. In some cases, the

pressure at the clearance gap was insufficient to overcome hydraulic

thrust and friction and auxiliary pressure systems were required.

The Bureau's experience with the opera- tion of the Epsign valves
• with respect to co· ntrol problems and cavitation erosion will be discussed

in some detail because it strongly influenced subsequent develop- ments of

outlet valves.

Control Problems

When the need developed for closer regulation of the discharge, as

a result of attempts to use stored waters more economically, the simple

valve control proved to be inadequate, and a definite effort was made

to devise a better means for maintaining the valve plunger in any
intermediate position. The simple valve in the control pipe was
inadequate because the force balance on the plunger was so sensitive
that any accumulation of sediment or washing out of such material from

the point of throttling caused the plunger to creep open or shut. It

was, therefore, necessary to provide some more positive means of bringing
about a balance of forces to maintain the plunger in partially open.
positions e
One of the devices used in early installations was known as the

resistance tube. It consisted of a stationary corrugated tube attached

to the closed end of the bull-ring cy�inder forming an extension of the

control pipe into the cylinder, Figure lD. The tube was groove::l. on its
outer surface and fitted into a recess in the plunger. The resistance
•
tube entered the recess as the valve opened, and a resistance proportional

to the opening was introduced into the drain passage. This resistance

6
 increased the pressure in the clinder and tended to prevent further

movement of the plunger. If for any reason the plunger should start to

close, the movement would withdraw the resistance tube from the recess
in back of the plunger. The resulting reduction in the flow in the drain
• passage would lower the pressure in the cylinder and check the closing

movement. Although of simple and apparent sound design, the device

proved unreliable in practice and only by careful manipulation of the

control valve was it possible to attain even approximate regulation of

the flow. Apparently the point of balance wa.s not well-defined and
small accunru.lations of sediment in the clearance gap around the bull
I
ring, in the control tube itself, or the c·ontrol valve, resulted in an
unbalancing of forces which caused movement of the valve plunger. The

use of the resistance tube control was abandoned in later installations

because 0f these difficulties, and a new device known as the sleeve control
was developed to replace it, Figure lC.

The sleeve control received its name from a peculiarity of its

design. A movable tube or sleeve within the control pipe was attached

to the back of the cylinder. This externally controlled sleeve could

be extended into or retracted from the cylinder, against or away from

a special seat attached to the back of the valve plunger. The withdrawal
of the sleeve from the seat increased the flow from the back of the valve
plunger, reduced the pressure, and allowed the hydraulic thrust on the
plunger tip to open the valve. As the valve opened, the seat again
approached the end of the sleeve 9 decreased the flow, increased the
• pressure in the cylinder, and again balanced the hydraulic thrust on
the plunger tip. The plunger stopped at a point where the space between

7
 the seat and the end of the sleeve was such that the pressure within the

cylinder just balanced the hydraulic forces on the plunger tip. Closure
of the valve was accomplished by extending the sleeve toward the seat.

This control proved so successful that the principle, with slight

variations and improvements, has been adapted to many of the more recent
control d evices. The developnent of this control took place during the
,
period from 1909 to 1923, when the Ensign valve was being used for Bureau
of Reclamation projects.

Cavitation Erosion

Operation of the valves during the same period disclosed another an

· d
more serious problem. Several high-pressure outlet structures, designed

by the Bureau of Reclamation in the early part of the twentieth century,

were provided with 58-inch Ensign balance valves for flow regulation.

The outlets at the Roosevelt Dam in Arizona, the Arrowrock Dam in Idaho,

the Pathfinder and Shoshone Dams in Wyoming, and the Elephant Butte D am
in New Mexico are typical installations. The outlets were similarly

arranged with the valves placed on or near the upstream faces of the dams.
In all cases the valves discharged into the outlet conduits. After short
periods of operation, particularly where the head was in excess of 100
feet, inspection revealed considerable damage to the needle tips and to
the throat liners and discharge conduits immediately downstream. The
damage was so severe in many cases, as shown in Figure 2, that it was
considered dangerous to continue operation of the outlet facilities.
It was recognized that the destruction was in some way connected
• with the presence of low absolute pressures (high vacuums). The term

11 cavitation11 was actually used to describe erosion instead of the

8
 action which produced it, as in the current theory of cavitation-erosion.

Many attempts were made to eliminate or minimize the damage but few were
effective. At first, the outlets were maintained by replacing certain
damaged parts or by patching the pitted areas. The corrc-rete surfaces

were chipped and the holes filled with various concrete mortars, while
the pits in the metal surfaces were filled with a material consisting

of powdered iron, ammonium chloride, and sulphur, known as 11 smooth-on. 11

The latter proved unsatisfactory and arc-welding various metals into

the cavities was tried. With few exceptions, the patches eroded more
rapidly than the parent materials. When it was reali�ed that the pitting
was connected with sub-atmospheric pressures, attempts were made to
eliminate them. Concrete liners of various shapes and sizes were placed
in the conduits below the valves to reduce the jet expansion and thus

raise the pressures. When the liners were of sufficient thickness and
extended to the end of the discharge conduit, no damage occurred when

the valve operated at full capacity. The liners were ineffective at

partial openings. The possibilities of relieving the sub-atmospheric
pressures by introducing air were also explored. Several venting
arrangements were tried with little success because they were improperly
located. After the apparent failure of most of these attempts, the
outlets were operated as little as possible.

As the multiple use of stored waters increased, it became more and

more difficult to avoid unrestricted use of the valves. A method for

avoiding some of the restrictions was devised as a result of model

0 studies of the Shoshone outlet. These studies established that most of •
the damage resulted from operation within a fairly well defined zone.
An operational schedule avoiding the critical va.lve settings has helped

9
 to minimize additional damage to the Shoshone valve. Tests on a model

valve with a re-designed needle and vent system, a.s shown in Figure lB,
have indicated that if existing Ensign valves are altered to conform,

they could be operated without restriction. These alterations would

be considered only for existing valves since the Ensign valve has been
long abandoned for other reasons, such as cost and inaccessibility.

DEVELOPMENT OF NEEDLE AND TUBE VALVES

Since the valves installed at the dam faces or in the conduits were

subject to serious damage, the design of outlets was revised to that of

needle valves placed at the downstream end of the conduit. Large balanced
needle valves were undergoing deve:)..opment about the time the trouble was
experienced with the Ensign valve, and the Bureau of Reclamation began

using them in structures built in the early 1920 1 s.

Needle Valves
A needle valve (2) usually consists of an outer shell, or body; a
stationary cylinder supported on ribs or vanes; and a closing or regulat­
ing element telescoping either inside or outside the stationary cylinder,

Figure 4. In the case of a balanced valve, provision is made for

regulating the pressure in chambers behind the plunger.
Many of the early needle valves were quite large for the amoun't of
water handled and most of them were satisfactory for operation at moderate

heads with respect to cavitation erosion. Consideration of cost and size

stimulated changes in design directed toward reducing the weight per

• second-foot of water handled. An appreciable reduction in the size of

the valve proper was accomplished by eliminating the annular external
ring around the plunger. In addition the introduction of balancing

10
 materially reduced the bulk of the operating mechanism and decreased

the overall length o A design incorporating these changes resulted in

a valve known as the internal differential needle valve, Figure 4.

Movement of the plunger was accomplished by manipulating·the

• pressures in the chambers inside the valve. The pressure in the inter­

connected Chambers A and C was regulated by varying the capacity of a

drain in the·needle with a manually controlled slide valve. Pressure

in Chamber B, which was connected to the conduit, remained fixed.

Leakage into and from the chambers through various clearances prevented

operation of the control as intended. The difficulties were corrected

by separating Chambers A and C and controlling the pressure in Chamber B

as well as that in Chamber C. In addition Chamber A was connected to a
fixed capacity drain. The multiported control device for accomplishing
the required chamber pressures was known as the paradox control and it
was affixed to the bottom of the valve. A separate water supply line
was brought to the paradox control and this permitted hydraulic
operation of the valve in the absence of water in the conduit.
Further changes in the valve, including a major rearrangement of
the components resulted in a valve known as the interior differential
needle valve. The principal change 11 as shown in Figure 5, was a revision
in the method of supporting the plunger which permitted the use of a
needle telescoping over the fixed cylinder instead of inside. This
permitted t-he use of a smaller diameter and reduced the overall diameter

and length of the valve. The change resulted in a saving of about 25

percent in valve weight. No basic change was made in the control
system.

11
 In both the internal and interior types of needle valves, the
proportioning of the water passages was accomplished by using a technique
known as area shaping. Area shaping consisted of proportioning the flow
passages in such a way that the area normal to flow varied with location
according to some predetermined rate. In general, the area was held

constant except for the downstream portion uf the valve. In this portion
the area was decreased according to some smooth curve. Usually the

ratio of discharge to area, or mean velocity, was plotted against

distance from a reference point for the fully open position only.
This plot provided a means of judging the design; 8 smooth curve, with

no reversals, being the criterion of good design. The procedure,

however, did' not take into account the effect of curvilinear flow or
local high velocitj_es, or the nature of the area shaping curve at

openings other than 100 percent, thus its use did not always assure
a satisfactory design. The water passages of some of the first designs
prepared using this procedure contained comparatively abrupt curves
and slightly divergent boundaries at the downstream ends of the valves
for certain positions of the regulating plunger, Figure L�. The valves
operated smoothly regardless of these characteristics until they were
subjected to high heads. The discharge coefficient was 0.54 based on
the total head immediately upstream and the area of a conduit with a
diameter 1. 2 times that of the valve exit.
Severe subatmospheric pressures occurred just downstreRm from the

curved boundaries and in the sections where the boundaries diverged,

when these valves were operated under high heads. As a result, there

was much damage to the boundary surface due to cavitation, Figure 3.

12
The first large valves of this design were used in the outlet facilities
at Hoover Dam on the Colorado River and the Alcova Dam on the North

Platte River in Wyoming o The drunage to the valves at these projects

motivated a program of model tests which revealed the source of the

cavitation-erosion and provided information for revising the shape of

the boundary surfaces to eliminate it ( 3) o A 6-inch model was used

for the initial studies which established that the improvement would

be made at the expense of capacity, reducing it about 17 percent. The

d ischarge coefficient of the d esign shown in Figure 6 was 0. 59 based on

the total head and--area one diameter upstream from the valve, or 0.45

based on the total head and the area of a conduit 1.2 times that of the

valve for comparison with the coefficient of the previous design. The

model served also to demonstrate the defects of the area-shaping proce­

dure and helped to introduce the flow net as a tool for studying the
details of flow in the passages. To demonstrate that the improvement
was real, two small valves, one patterned after the initial design, Figure 4 ,

and the other shaped to include the desirable features indicated by tests
on the 6-inch model, Figure 6� were tested under heads up to 550 feet.
Both valves were operated at the most critical openings indicated by the
initial model tests. Cavitation erosion of appreciable extent was noted
within 6 days on the original design, whereas there was no sign of erosion
on the revised design after 84 days of operation.

A testing program was planned with the objective of realizing the

optimum balance arnong the factors of size, cost, capacity, jet stability,

and freedom from cavitation erosion. Before such a program was initiated

13
the need for it was virtually eliminated by the development of new and
more economical types of valves which will be discussed later.

Tube Valves
A reduction in the weight of the needle valve as well as a reduction
in the operating power was realized by substit�ting a tube for the needle

plunger. There werP two reasons for using the tube, from which the valve

received its n-ame, tube valve (2) . First, it eliminated part of the area

of the needle that was subject to cavitation-erosion, and secondly, it

reduced the hydraulic thrust against which the valve had to be operated.

The profile of its flow passage, designed to prevent negative pressures,

was determined through model tests and a ratio diagram established,
Figure 7. The discharge coefficient of this valve was O o 52 based on

the total head and area one diameter upstream from the valve. The per­
formance of the tube valve with respect to jet stability and cavitation­
erosion was in��stinguishable from that of the revised �eedle valve
except for openings less than 30 percent. At openings less than
30 percent there was a fluttering of the jet which was due to the
absence of the stabilizing influence of the needle tip. The design
was used in a few installations wh�re this unstable characteristic at
small openings could be tolerated. This type of valve was operated
mechanically by means of a large screw geared within the fixed up­
stream cone and extending downstream through a tube nut in the spider
'
attached to the tube plunger.
A tube valve designed specifically for installatio in the outlet

conduits of Shasta Dam on the Sacramento River in California will be

described later unr .ler the heading of 11 Valves in Conduits. 11

14
 OTH.till TYPE:S OF REGULATING VALVES
The dema.nd for a. further decrease in the cost-discharge ratio prompted

the Bureau of Reclamation to initiate a program of valve development which

has continued intermittently for the past 8 years with much success. One

of the most notable accomplishments during this period has been the
development of the r'Jllow-jet valve, a regulating control for use
exclusively at the end of an outlet conduit, which not only weighs less

than the tube valve but discharges about 35 percent more wa.ter.
Hollow-.jet Valve
The hollow-jet valve (4) is essentially a needle valve with the needle,
or closure element, pointed upstream and the nozzle or downstream end of
the body eliminated as shown by the ratio diagram in Figure 8. Water

discharges from the short bell-shaped body in a tubular, or hollow-jet,

the outside diameter of which remains unchanged regardless of the valve
opening. The v�t leaves the valve with very little dispersion at any
opening, but the effect of the hollow form is to distribute the energy
over a comparatively large area, facilitating its dissipa.tion and
lessening the destructive action in a stilling pool. The coefficient
of discharge for full valve opening is 0.70, based on total head and
area one diameter upstream from the valve. The proportions of the
water passage through the valve to prevent subatmospheric pressure and
cavitation were evolved from extensive laboratory tests using aerodynamic

and hydraulic models. Also, the tests indicated that an increase of

3-1/2 percent in capacity could be obtained by increas� '-i� the travel of

the shut�off plunger 5�1/2 percent. Although the pressures on the

plunger and body near the seat were decreased by this chimge, they

15
remained slightly above atmospheric. A regulating outlet valve seldom
operates in the fully open position JI thus a further increase in travel

to allow slight negative pressures in the valve might not be objectionable.

At present, this valve is designed to be operated mechanically with the
assistance of partial balancing. Complete balance was not attainable

without special facilities external to the valve, but partial balance,

within 13 percent greater or lesser than the total hydraulic thrust,

was attained by providing fixed openings in the face of the needle of
the shut-off plunger. Pressure from the flowing water is transmitted

to the inner compartment by way of the fixed openings to counteract the

hydraulic force on the needle tip. The correct location· of the openings

was established through tests on 6-inch and 24-inch valves to give the
minimum unbalanced force. A desirable characteristic of the hollow-jet
valve is the fact that the body shell downstream from the seat is never
subjected to reservoir head, and need not be as heavy as a needle or
tube valve. In addition, the valve has been arranged to facilitate
removal of all mechanical parts which might require maintenance. The

entire needle assembly which contains the operating mechanism may be

removed without disturbing the shell. Large castings and considerable
machining are required and the design is undergoing further investiga­
tions invoiving a re-shaping of the water passages and changes which will
permit fabrication of. the main parts of the valve by welding rolled steel

plates.
Howell-Bunger Valve
Although the hollow-jet valve has replaced most other types for
installation at the ends of outlet conduits in Bureau of Reclamation

16
 structures, other types are in general use tn the United States. A

balanced valve of simple design and lightweight construction, pa.tented

under the name of Howell-Bunger (5), has been used in several structures.
It has a discharge coefficient of 0. 85 based on total head and area one
.. diameter upstream from the valve. The valve consists of a section of

pipe having a 90-degree cone and valve seat atta.ched to the downstream

end by a spider of ribs or vanes; a sliding closure cylinder telescoping

on the outside of the pipe section and outer surface of the ribs, which
closes against the seat on the cone; and an operating mechanism consisting

of a system of shafts and gears, Figure 9. Water passes through the space
between the ribs and discharges outward between the downstream edge of the
closure cylinder and the seat cone. The discharging jet has the shape of
a cone with the apex within the valve. Because of this characteristic,

the valve is best adapted to conditions where the confinement of the jet
and excessive spray a.re not important considerations. The valve has not
been used extensively in the United States because most structures
include facilities for the generation of power and such jet conditions
are undesirable where exposed electrical equipment is involved. In some

applications the unruly jet has been contained by concrete walls which
added appreciably to the cost of the valve installation. The possi­
bility of improving the quality of the jet by attaching the simple
fabricated hood shown in Figure 9 has been investigated by model tests.
Tests have shown that unless the hood is vented adequately at its

upstream end cavitation pressures are induced on certain parts of the

valve and hood. The hood also introduced a hydraulic thrust which
unbalanced the valve and added tremendously to the power required to

17
 operate it. Separate stationary hoods have been used also, but

intense vibration in this design for the higher heads has required
excessive bracing and stiffening. Moreover, the addition of a hood
increased the cost to an amount comparable to that of other valves.

Where the quality of the jet is not an important consideration, the

Howell-Bunger valve, without the hood, is an economical, high-capacity
' control device.
The Butterfly Valve

The butterfly valve (2), used principally for closure of power

penstocks, has been adapted as a regulating control at the end of large

outlet conduits in a limited number of cases in the United States. The

butterfly valve, deriving its name from the shape of the shut-off element,
is essentially a short tube containing a flat circular leaf which is
rotated, by an external mechanism, about a diametrical axis of the tube

to attain regulation.

The details of butterfly valves vary according to the manufacturers

who design, construct, and sell them. All of them ?perate on the same
basic principle and thus_the discussion which follows is applicable
generally. A dispersion of the discharging jet a.t small openings and
the presence of excessive spray make the butterf�y valve objectionable
for most free discharge installations. This objectionable characteristic
may be minimized by the use of a hood or a special confining structure
containing adequate aeration facilities. The addition of such auxiliary

features add to the cost of a valve installation. The capacity of this

valve is low compared with the newer valves of the same size. The dis­

charge coefficient for the designs in which the valve diameter is the
18
same as that of the conduit is about o . 60 . In nearly every butterfly

valve, cavitation on the downstream surfaces of the valve leaf is a

definite possibility when it is operated near the wide-open position

and at high heads. This is due to the shape of the circular leaf, which

is quite thick on the axis containing the pivot shaft and decreases in
thickness from this a.xis to its outer circumference. Near the wide-open

position, the leaf presents a shape similar to an airfoil which causes

a local zone of intense subatmospheric pressure and cavitation .

The Regulating Radial Gate

The radial gate and its variations have been used extensively for
controlling the flow in spillways and the flow from large outlets under
low heads. In 1941+ a radial gate was designed by the Bureau of Reclamation
for use in a conduit to control the flow from the large high-head outlets
in Davis Dam on the Colorado Rive r, Figure 10. Studies on a 1 to 30 scale
model (6) of a gate and outlet indicated that the radial gate was suitable
for such use. The gate offered no resistance to flow at the fully opened
position·. Therefore, the discharge coefficient of 0. 90 resulted from
the design of conduit upstream. There was no measurable vibration and
the flow was smooth at all openings. Although the Davis Dam is in the
construction stage and it will be many months before the outlets will
be placed in operation ., it is the consensus that the design has excellent
possibilities. However, the problem of sealing radial gates under high
heads has not been satisfactorily solved. The same problem exists in

the case. of coaster gates and ring seal gates. The seal design now being
used most extensively, the so-called music-note seal, is not entirely
satisfactory. Tests are now being conducted by different organizations
to obtain a solution to the problem.

19
Jet-flow Regulating Gate
One of the most recent developments in valves, regulating the flow
from large high-head outlets, is one known at the present time as the

jet-flow gate or valve ( 7) . It was developed by the Bureau of Reclamation

for use in the intermediate and upper tiers of outlets in Shasta Dam in

California when the special tube valve developed previously for this
purpose and used in the lower tie r proved to be too costly . The valve

consists of a slide gate in a special housing having an orifice at the

upstream side, and a circular, rectangular, or horseshoe opening at the

downstream side. It was designed to fit a conduit with a diameter 1 . 2
times the diameter of the orifice. As shown i n Figure 11, the required
size of conduit at this point may be obtained by expanding from a smaller
conduit in an easy transition. The conduit downstream may be of any

desired shape, so long as a satisfactory transition is made and an

adequate vent s ystem is provided to aerate the jet at partial openings.

The venting system shown in the figure is an adaptation � o conditions

in the Shasta outlet where the expander and the vent conduit were
already installed when the valve type was changed. It serves to demon­
strate the marked reduction in valve size. �n a new installation the
vent system would be more simply designed to deliver air at a point
immediately downstream from the gate.
The unique feature of the valve is the use of a carefully planned

jet contraction. As water flows from the larger conduit through the
orifice a contraction of the jet around its entire periphery is produced
at any opening. This permits complete ventilation of the j et and

eliminates flow into the gate grooves which is the usual source of damage
and vibration in the case of a slide gate.

20
 The upstream face of the gate is a smooth, planed surface which

remains in contact with a special seal contained in the orifice side of

the valve housing. Sealing at the upstream face virtually eliminates

the hydraulic downpull force so trouble some in gate valves with the
conventional downstream seal. The proportions o f this valve were

established through extensive tests on a 6-inch model under heads up

to 350 feet to insure against cavitation-erosion. The valve is of

simple construction, is capable of operating at any opening, and has a
relatively high capacity. The discharge coefficient is about 0 . 80 for
the fully open position, based on total head in · and the area of a conduit
with a diame te r equal to that of the valve orifice . The first valves
of this design have been placed in operation very recently at Shasta

Dam and unofficial reports indicate that the design promises to be one
of the best used by the Bureau of Reclamation for regulating the flow
from large high-head outlets. The Shasta valves operated with very

little back pressure so the suitability of the valve in outle ts with

high back pressure is still open to question. Its adaptability for
the latter type of installation will no doubt be explored in the future

whe n its use under these conditions i s desired.

/ The possible use of the je t-flow valve for adaptation to free

discharge conditions was also studied in the model. The jet was rough
compared to those of the nyedle and hollow-jet valves and for installa­
tions requiring a well-contained j et plunging into a pool it would be
definitely inferior except for special cases with unusually large,
.. isolated pools. However, it did show promise for installations where

it would discharge tangentially onto an apron because its shape was

roughly rectangular.

21
 Cylinder Gate

The usual cylinder gate installation consiets of a concrete tower

structure located in the reservoir and one or more cylinder gates which
slide up and down ove r openings through the wall of the tower to regulate
• the outlet discharge. The gate has been used in a limited number of

Bureau of Reclamati on structures to regulate the release of water- from

reservoirs ( 1) . , The design gave very satisfactory service under low

he ads, but trouble was experienced with cavitation-erosion at higher

heads. It has been possible however to eliminate the erosion by making

minor changes in design. The main disadvantage of the cylinder gate is

its inacce ssibility. The large tower structure and difficulty of aeration
might be considered disadvantageous also.

Plug Valve
The plug valve is essentially a cone-shaped plug which fits snugly
into a housing o A hole through the plug, perpendicular to its axis,
forms a passage which connects two openings in the housing or body of
the valve. A 90-degree rotation of the plug closes or opens the passage.

Although used extensively for small lines, or where three-WAY or four­

way installations are required and where regulation is unnecessary, the
plug valve has been adapted as a regulating device for the outlets in
a few American installations o In· most of these cases the valve was
placed at the downstre em end of the outlet conduit and discharged into

the atmosphere. The discharging jet disperses widely at partial

openings making it ne cessary to provide a confining structure when
this condition cannot be tolerated . The water passage for partial

opening contains abrupt changes in the boundary surfaces which are

22
 conducive to the formation of zones of subatmospheric pressure and

cavitation. Special venting systems have been provided to aerate

some of these zones but it is questionable if the problem has been

solved satisfactorily. The plug valve merits consideration because

• of its high discharge capacity. The coefficient of discharge for the
fully open position is nearly unity.

INS TALLA TION OF OUTLET VALVES IN A CONDUIT

The e arly e xperience of the Bureau of Reclamation with valves

installed at the beginning of outlets using Ensign valves was discourag­
ing. S ome of the troubles which were experienced have be en described
previously. Damage to the valves and conduits resulted in a departure
from the practice of using valves at the entrance of conduits. Instead,

the larger valves operating under high heads were placed at the ends of
conduits and discharged freely into the atmosphere. The design of such

outlets was more complicated and the longer conduits required to bring

the outlets to a suitable position for installation of free discharge

valves added to their cost. However, the higher costs appeared to be
justified by the more trouble-free operation.
During the past 10 years there has been a trend towards returning
to the practice of placing regulating valves ne ar the entrance to an

· outlet. The most important single advantage of installing a control

valve near the beginning of an outlet is the fact that only that portion

of the conduit upstream from the valve is under full reservoir pressure
during shutoff. The conduit downstream from the valve is subjected to
only nominal pressures resulting from frictional losses and back pressure
from any construction at the end of the outlet. The cost benefits that

23
may be realized from the low-pres s ure condition in the outlet conduit

accrue to a greater or les ser degree depending on the type of dam. ,

Other pos sible advantages such as the eliminating of emergency gates
and t he s hortening of outlets , as well as possible dis advantages such as
inaccess ibility and venting difficulties , are s ubject to diverging
opinion and will not be discus sed.

In s ome cases the free..'.discharge valves w-ere replaced by ring

follower gates placed near the upstream ends of the outlets. Operation

of these gates was restricted to the fully opened or closed positions.

An arrangement of this type was used for Grand Coulee D am. The outlets
were placed at three different levels s eparated by approximately 100 feet.

There were 20 outlets in each tier arranged in 10 pairs. The large number
of outlets, s ixty, and the fact that they were subject to three different
heads permitted regulation by relatively small increments. Each outlet

was provided with two gates similar in design, one for service and the
other for emergency operat�on. The severe conditions of stres s and
vibration exerted on the servic e gate during its operation fully justi­
fie d the emergency gate.
A return to the use of valves in a conduit was made in the case

of the S hasta Dam outlets. Each outlet was 102 inches in diameter and
cons isted of a rounded entrance, a horizontal s egment of steel-lined
conduit, and a deflector elbow at the end where it pierced the s pillway
face. A s pecially des igned tube valve w as installed in the outlet a

few diameters downstream from the entrance. It was intended to be

operated at any opening for regulation and to have a capacity that would
fill the conduit downstre&� when fully opened. At the end of the valve

24
was a large ventilation or aeration chamber attached to a 36-inch dia.n1eter

air conduit which supplied air during valve operation at partial openings.
Because the valve was designed for operation at partial opening the need

for an emergency gate was virtually eliminated. A coaster gate that could
be transferred to any outlet by a gantry crane served as a means of closing

it under emergency -conditions, or for the purpose of carrying out mainte­

nance work on the valve.
A special tube ' v alve, Figure 12, with a long, slim shape and operated

by an internal hydraulic cylinder was developed by extensive tests using

a 1 �o 17 scale model and a 1 to 5. 1 scale model (8) . The model testing

included a study of air requ�rements and the determination of the

appropriate size of air supply conduit. Development work was curtailed
before a completely satisfactory design was evolved because the need for
the valves developed sooner than anticipated. Only four of the valves
were installed in the four lowest outlets at Shasta D am for the purpose

of regulating releases during the filling of the reservoir. The model

tests demonstrated that there was a range of openings varying from zero
at low heads to the range from 6 5 to 90 percent opening at maximum head

of 323 feet wherein operation should be restricted because of the

cavitation-erosion which would result. This restriction in operating
range is the reason for the statement made previously that the design
was not completely satisfactory. Experience with these four valves
has indicated that they were quite satisfactory and that the restricted

range was easily circumvented by using different combinations among the

four valves.

D uring construction, one of the valves was provided with piezometer

openings so that pressure measurements could be made after it was installed.

25
Field tests of the valve, including pressure meas urements and determinations

of air flo w, which rea ched a maximum of 40 percent of maximum water

dis charge, checked closely with the respective values predicted from the

model tests. Operation of the valves at partial openings was reported

to be smooth and satisfactory s o far as conditions at the valve were

concerned. Inspe ction of the outlet conduit downstream from the valve
after a s eas on I s operation indicated no evidence of damage in the

s traight s ection due to the operation of the valve in a conduit.

The invert of the elbow deflector at the end of the outlet showed
some evidence of cavitation-erosion. This was not unexpected as the
model tests s howed that negative press ures would prevail in this region
for operation at partial gate opening. The damage was not great, probably

becaus e the water contained a relatively high percentage of entrained air

which would dis courage cav itation-eros ion. The s ituation may be corrected

by ventilating the critical area or the erosion resis ted by weld-filling

the damaged areas with a material such as stainless s teel.

The quality of the jet for s uch an ins tallation� where a mixture of

air and water is dis charged fro m an outlet, at high velocity, is s uch
that its us e would be s ubject to some restri:ction. The deflector elbow
and its setting in the face of the s pillway were des igned to place the

jet along the s pillway face with comparatively little dis turbance and
it so operated when the valve was fully opened, Figure 13. When the jet

contained a large portion of air, as it did at partial valve openings,

the action of the elbow deflector was largely nullified. Shortly after

emerging from the outlet the mixed fluid jet dis persed and a considerable
amount of s pray was. generated, Figure 14.

26
 The spray was bad enough that the valve nearest the powerhouse was

not operated at partial openings except when absolutely necessary. The

spray from the other three valves did not reach the powerhouse so they
were operated as required. Every effort was made to accomplish the

required total discharge by setting the valves at openings where the jet
had the best quality. For example, two valves would be operated at 30-

percent capacity, rather than one at 60-percent capacity because there

was less spray.

Spray conditions made it undesirable to consider regulated flow for

the higher outlets so the possibilities of using a less expensive valve

or a non-regulating gate were investigated in lieu of equipping the
remaining outlets with regulating tube valves. The regulating gate or
jet-flow valve developed in the course of this investigation has been
described previously. Although it is not intended that the j et-flow
valve be used as a regulating device at Shasta Dam, its performance in
this respect was studied in the model. Its performance closely paralleled

that of the other valves with respect to flow conditions in the conduit

and the appearance and action of the jet at the end of the conduit. A
field test of one of the Shasta valves is planned.
During the studies relating to the special tube valves, regular tube
valves, and needle valves were investigated in an attempt to generalize the

information on the performance of valves placed in an outlet. They showed

promise of operating more satisfactorily than the special tube valve
because they could be operated at any opening without reservation so far

as conditions in the valve were concerned. However, the lower discharge

coefficients compared to the special tube valve would require larger

27
valves to pas s the required maximum dis charge. Considerations of size,
especially the diameter, led to a decision to use the s pecial tube valve

which had a long, slender shape. For other installations, however, either

one of these two valves, the conventional tube or the needle valve, would
be cons idered. Conditions of flow in the conduit downstream from either

of these valves closely resembled those- existing for the s pecial tube

valve. The air requirements were nearly identical in each case. The

quality of the j et from a conduit containing a partially closed valve

of any type would be quite s imilar. The disintegration of the j et and

the s prc\Y resulting therefrom are caused by the mixture of air in the
water which res ults from the setting and operation of the valve rather
than the type.

The model studies of the regulating gate in the conduit resulted

in the development of a radically different type of elbow deflector which
does show promise of improving the jet delivered by an outlet, and in
particular an outlet with a flat bottom. The new deflector which was

tes ted with a flat-bottomed conduit consis ted of a curved rectangular

pas s age which turned the j et with an open water s urface at the inner
radius , starting at a vertical offset in the floor. The space under the
jet was ventilated to prevent the formation of low press ures. The j et
delivered by this deflector appeared to be more stable in the model than
that delivered by the elbow deflector used at Shasta Dam. Since the

model did not completely represent the conditions that would exist at
the dis charge end of the prototype outlet, the model results are

qualitative only . Quantitative evaluation of the improvement must await

the ins tallation of an outlet with the revised deflector.

28
 In the case of an outlet with a relatively large ratio between the
conduit diameter and the valve diameter such as the tunnel outlet, the
exit velocity is usually so low that very little spray exists at the

exit. Much of the energy of the j et is absorbed within the tunnel. For
outlets of the latter category, the use of radial or Taintor gates as

regulating devices has been planned for at least one installation and
several more are contemplated. The characteristics of a radial gate
adapt themselves very well to such an installation and except for the

sealing problem seem to be ideally suited for use as a regulating or

control gate.

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

Future developments in the field of high-head outlet valves will

probably take the form of further improvements in the types now being used.

The problems of j et shape and stability, pressure conditions not conducive

to cavitation erosion, and vibration-free operation have been quite

satisfactorily met. There does remain, however, a fertile field for

reducing costs by improvements in mechanical design .
S ome study has been given to the possibilities of adapting the
hollow-j et valve to welded fabric ation from rolled plates. A completely
balanced design has been worked out by the Bureau of Reclamation, but
the present design is appreciably larger in diameter than the cast
design previously discussed. The necessity of using sharp intersec­

tions for welded fabrication imposes limitations on the angles with

which the fluid j et impinges on the shell and results in a. larger size.
Further development work to increase the discharge capacity is expected

29
to produce a reduc�ion in size which will make the fabricated valve less
expensive than the cast type.
Model experiments with the jet-flow valve have indicated that the

jet whose cross-section is roughly rectangular can be adapted to free

discharge conditions. For those installations requiring a reasonably

smooth jet for free discharge conditions the jet-flow valve appears to

offer advantages as an inexpensive regulating device. Simplification

of construction and reduction in the amount of machining may be expected

to further reduce the cost .

The possibilities of improving the seals on radial gates have

already been mentioned. The problem is being studied actively by

several organizations and a satisfactory design is in the offing.
When such a design materializes the use of radial gates as outlet
regulating devices will undoubtedly be extended appreciably.

30
 LIST OF REFERENCES

1 11 High-Pressure Reservoir Outlets , 11 by J . M. Gaylord and J . L . Savage,

U . s . Government Printing Offic e, 1923

2 " H andbook of Applie d Hydraulic s , 11 by C . V . D avis , Mc Graw Hill Book

C o . , Inc . , 1942

3 11 D evelopments in Re gulating Outlet Valves , 11 by G. J . Hornsby,

Trans actions A . S .M.E . , February 1942

4 Hydraulic Laboratory Report s , Hyd . 148 "Model Studies for the - Develop­
ment of the Hollow-jet Valve " and Hyd . 189 11 Tests on 24-inch Hollow­
j et Valve at Boulder D am, 11 Bure au of Reclamation, Denver, Colo .

5 Hydraulic Laboratory Reports , Hyd . 156 "Laboratory Study of a 6-inch

H owell-Bunger Valve" and Hyd . 168 " Investigat ions of the Hydraulic
Properti13s of the Revised Howell-Bunger Valve , 11 Bure au of Reclamation ,
D enver, C olo .

6 Hydraulic Laboratory Report, Hyd. 171 "Model Tests for the Pr.o posed
High H e ad Radial Gates for Davis D am Outlets , " Bure au of Reclamation,
Denver, C olo .

7 Hydraulic Laboratory Report, Hyd . 201 " The Hydraulic Des ign of a
C ontrol Gate for the 102-inch Outlets in Shasta D am, 11 Bure au of
Reclamation, Denver, C olo .

8 Hydraulic Laboratory Report, Hyd . 180 "Hydraulic Studies for the

Design of the Tube V alves in the Outlets in the Shasta Dam, "
Bure au of Reclamation, Denver, C olo .
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FIG . 14 DISCHARGE FROM SHASTA DAM OUTLET AT HALF CAPAC ITY .

•