By the end ot this chapter, the student will be able to: (1) Understand the nature and scope of public administration in the modern state, (2) Explain its significance in modern times and identity the various factors contributing to its importance, (3) Discuss its role in the developing societies and explain why it is Unable tc play its role and suggest suitable remedies, (4) Identity what distinguishes public administration trom private administration and what brings the two together, (5) Discuss to what extent public administration is an art, a science, and a philosophy, (6) Trace the evolution af the study of public administration since its birth symbolically in 1687, the year of publication of Woodraw Wilson's seminal essay entitled “The Study of Administration’, and discuss the present status of the discipline, (7) Discuss state versus market debate and deline their distinct roles in the society, (8) Explain the context, meaning, features of New Public Administration, which was the outcome of Minnowbreok | and find ‘out in what respects Minnowbrook |! is similar to and different from the Minnowbrook |, and (9) Identity the important features of the New Public Management and the features of entrepreneurial government and compare the New Public Management with the New Public Administration2 Public Administration 1. MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION LA Introduction Public Administration has come to occupy a central place in the complex and fast changing medem society. lis scientific study is concerned with the role of administration in such a society. Its actaal role consists in the provision. of services and regulation of inter-group relations in society. Maintenance of low and order, defence, welfare of society, application of science and technology, and eradication of poverty in the developing countries engage the attention of public administration in the modern administrative state. In other words, the security and independence of the state and social and economic welfare of the people depend upon the effective and efficiem functioning of public administration. As Prof. C.P. Bhambhri says, “When public administration is so important in our daily life, its study is naturally worth undertaking.” In this context, it may be mentioned that public administration is an important aspect of a more generic concept, administration. Hence, it is necessary to grasp first the meaning of the term administration before we proceed to discuss the meaning of the term public administration. 1.2 Meaning of Administration The English word ‘Administer’ is derived from a combination of two Latin words, ‘ad" + “ninistrare’ which means to serve, to direct, to control, to manage affairs. In the words of E.N, Gladden, “Administration is 2 long and slightly pompous word, but it has a humble meaning, for it means to care for or to look after people, to manage affairs.” He defines if as “determined action taken in pursuit of conscious purpose.” Administration is @ rational human activity, which is inherent in any organized social life—public or private. It occurs even in stich a simple activity as “when two imen cooperate to roll a stone that neither could hare moved alone.” It consists of all those operations, which aim at the achievement of some purpose shared by two ar more people. ‘To put it differently, administration is a cooperative human effort towards achieving some common goals. It is thus a goal-oriented, purposive, cooperative, and joint activity undertaken by 2 group of people. Administration, therefore, excludes non-purposive and non-cooperative group activities such as two men fighting with cach other or watching @ stone. In this example, the two men are not mutually involved in a joint endeavour. Administration also excludes those operations that concern a single individual, ¢.g. one man moving a stone. This one-man activity is not administration because it lacks cooperative effort made by two or more peopleinroducton 3 ® accomplish a common goal. Thus, we can understand what administration © what it is not. According to George E. @erkley, administration is: () People; because without the presence of people there can be no (ii) Action; people have to do doing something before administration can emer the picture; and (éii) Interaction; administration is peaple interacting with other people accomplish tasks. Joint activity is an essential part of all administration, In its generic sense, administration is a universal process that can be found in various institutional settings such as a business firm, a hospital, a - aniversity, a government department and so on, All these diverse organizations _ use commonly the same administrative processes (e.g. planning, organizing, coordinating, etc.) as well as the human and material resources to achieve their fespective goals. Thus, administration is concerned with means tw achieve prescribed ends. It is not an end in itself. This view of administration disregards what kind of administration is in question, In this sense, the term administration covers both public and private organizations. 1.3 Definitions of Administration Some of the important definitions given by writers in public administration are quoted below: (1) According to George E. Berkley, “...Administration is a process involving human beings jointly engaged in working toward common goals.” (2) Luther Gutick observes, “Administration has to do with getting things done, with the accomplishment of defined objectives.” (3) Felix A, Nigro says, “Administration is the organization and use of men and materials to accomplish a purpose.” (4) According to L.D. White, “The art of administration is the direction, coordination and control of many persons to achieve some purpose or objective.” {S) John A. Vieg defines administration as “The systematic ordering of affairs and the calculated use of resources, aimed at making those things happen which we want to happen and simultaneously preventing developments that fail to square with our intentions.” (6) Pfiffner observes, “Administration is the organization and use of men and material resources to achieve desired ends.” (7) Herbert Simon says, “...Administration is the activities of groups cooperating to accomplish common goals.”4 Public Administration 1.4 Meaning of Public Administration In order to understand the term public administration, we must first be clear what we mean by the adjective “public™#The word public is used in a variety of meanings, but here it means ‘governmental’. Public administration, therefore, simply means governmental administration that operates in a political setting: lis focus is specifically on public bureaucracy. As Nicholas Henry says. “The study and practice of public bureaucracy is public administration.” ‘The public aspect of public administration lends special character to it, ‘What is crucial in public administration is that it is an agency of the public. Ht concems the management of public agencies that carry cut public policies in order to fulfill state purposes in the public interest. Since government Provides services for the people in the public interest, the administration of governmental affairs is known as public administration. government.” Such common goals include defence, safeguarding the frontiers, maintenance of law and order, fire protection, communications, public health, education and many others we enjoy. in managing public affairs, public administration focuses principally on the ( planning, (4) organising, (iif) directing, (iv) coordinating and () controlling govemmental operations. LS Definitions of Public Administration As E.N, Gladden says, “The field of public administration is mainly a debate over definitions.” Despite more than a hundred years of development, public administration lacks a significant definition that is acceptable to all students of public administration. Various scholars have defined it in different ways. While the iraditional writers have defined public administration in its narrower sense, the modem scholars have defined it in its wider sense, Let us examine both the views by quoting some important definitions. 15.1 Traditional definitions Same ef the insportant definitions of public administration, which reflect the traditional view of the discipline are as follows: (1) “Public administration is detailed and systematic execution of law. Every particular application of law is an act of administration.” —Woodrow Wilson. According to Wilson, “Administration is the most obvious part of government; it is government in action; it is the executive, the operative, the most visible side of government.”(2) “Public administration consists of all thase operations having for their purpose the fulfillment or enforcement of public policy.” — LD. White (3) “By public administration is meant, in common usage, the activites of the executive branches of the national, state and local governments.” — Herbert A. Simon (4) “Public administration is: that part of thé ‘sciénee of administration which has to do with government, and thus concerns itself primarily with the executive branch, where the work of government is done, thongh there are obviously administrative problems also in connection — Lather Galick (S) “Public administration is the action part of government, the means by which the purposes and goals of government are realized.” — Corson and Harris (6) “In its broadest sense, it (public administration) denotes the work jnvolved in the actual conduct of governmental affairs, regardless of ithe particular branch of government concerted. In its narrowest sense, it denotes the operations of the administrative branch only.“ — WER. Willoughby (7) *.. Administration consists of getting the work of government done by coordinating the efforts of people so that they can work together to accomplish their set tasks.” — Pfiffner ‘The definitions quoted above reflect the narrow traditional point of view of public administration. This view locates public administration in the executive ‘Branch of government. Its main business comprises all those activities that are volved im carrying out public policies as expressed in laws made by the fegislamre and interpreted by courts, It is denied any role in both legisiative (ie. policy making) and judicial functions. Its main business is to get things done and not to decide what things to do. Public administration is thus identified with the administrative side of government as opposed to the legislative and judicial sides. Therefore, the taditional view is unduly restrictive as an explanation of the scope of public administration. It emphasizes the locus but mot the focus of public administration. It is also not true to the facts of administrative practices in democratic governments. The reason is that administration not only carries out public policy but also recommends it. Administration is also concemed with the hearing and deciding cases and controversies not allocated to the judiciary. For all these reasons, the traditional view presents too narrow, formalistic and legalistic picture of public administration.& Public Administrasion 1.5.2 Some modern definitions Same modern textbook writers such as MLE. Dimock, James Fesler and PA. Nigro have used the term “Public administration’ in its wider sense. In (Y) “ve .Public administration is the area.of study and practice wisere law and policy recommended are carried out.” — ME. Dimock and G.O. Dimock (2) “Public administration is policy execution and alse policy formulation.” — James, W. Fesier G) “Public Administration: (i) is cooperative group effort in a public setting, (i) covers all three branches—executive, legislative, and judiciali— (@) bas an important role in the formulation of policy and is thus a part of the political process, (iv) is different in significant ways from private administration, and (v) is closely associated with numerous private groups and individuals in providing services to the community.” — BA. Nigro and L.G. Nigro The definition offered by the Nigros is illustrative of the modern comprehensive view of public administration. It summarizes the essential nature of public administration, as it is understood today. 1.6 Characteristics of Publie Administration An analysis of both the traditional and modern definitions of public administration quoted in the preceding pages show what public administration stands for and whal are its important characteristics. These aspects are briefly stated as follows: (1) Public administration is the non-political public bureaucracy operating in a political system under the direction af political leadership. @) It is the monopoly of the state. As such, it deals with the ends of the state, the sovereign will, the public interests and laws, the coercive element in a society, (3) Although pablic administration tends mainly to be concentrated in the executive branch, it is the whole government in action. Since government is a big affair, public administration is also naturally a big and complex organization. (4) As the bosigess side of government public administration is concerned with policy execution, but it has also some responsibility in policy making.7 (5) Public administration is a means to an end, and not an end in itselt. itis mezely @ tool of government to implement its policies and provide various services for the people at the minimum cost in order to attain good life. In a sense, it is service for the people rendered by government. (6) It differs significantly from private administration, especially in its emphasis on public good, but it finds partial analogies in private administration. (7) Mt is interdisciplinary in theory, as it embraces in its fold several social sciences such as political science, sociology, psychology, economics and management science. (8) Public administration is a practical discipline, be it an art or a science; it has nexus with political and state activities, which become all- pervasive. It has an applied nature focusing mainly on the problems of society and polity. (9) lt is an ongoing process, There is no end to it, If one activity is completed, a new ane will crop up. L7 Administration, Organization and Management The terms administration, organization and management are not Though they are distinct from each other. they are closely related. Administration is a determinative function. It lays down the objectives and i » Organization is the structure for the attainment of the objectives of ‘means of organization. Organization jis the machinery through which coordination is established between administration and management. Thus, the three concepts — administration, organization and management — are interrelated. 1.8 Nature of Public Administration An important question regarding the nature of public administration is: What comprises the administrative activities? There are two divergent views relating to this question: The first is the integral view and the second, managerial view, 1.8.1 Integral view According to the integral view. public administration is viewed as doing the work of government. Administration is regarded as the sum total of all the8 Public Administration activities—manual, clerical, mental, technical and managerial, which are undertaken to realize the objectives of public policies. If we accept this view, all the activities of government employees from the peoa in a remote office to the secretaries. to government and head of a state at the capital constitute A staunch supporter of the integral view of administration ig LD, White. According to him, “Public administration consists of all those operations having for their purpose the fulfillment or enforcement of public policy.” Accordingly, Public adminisvation covers many operations performed by different agencies of government in the fields of law, justice, social welfare, health, education, science, technology, etc. J.A. Veig and Dimock are other important supporters of the integral view. Acceptance of the integril view makes the scope af public administration vast and unwieldy because it includes a heterogeneous muss of activities. As @ result, public administration may not develop into a distinct academic discipline. 1.8.2 Managenal view According to the managerial view, public administration is viewed as getting the work of government done. This view regards public administration as consisting of the tnanagerial functions of top public administrators who are engaged in getting the work of government done. It, therefore, emphasizes the basic POSDCORS functions of managers, namely (1) Planning, (2) Organizing, (3) Staffing, (4) Directing, (5) Coordinating, (6) Reporting, and (7) Budgeting ‘Thus the managerial view denotes the work of the chief executive as a general manager, It exciudes the activities of the non-managerial personnel such as a peon or a clerk from the purview of public administration. The work concemed with management unites and controls the activities of all others as parts of a coordinated endeaveur in an enterprise. ‘The managerial approach regards administration as getting things done, not doing things, Luther Gulick is an important champion of the managerial view of administration. He writes, “Administration has to do with geting things done with the accomplishment of defined objectives.” The other important subscribers to this view are Henri Fayol, Herbert Simon, Smithburg and Thomson, ‘The managerial view gives unity to administration. It lays emphasis on managenal techaiques, which are common to all types of administration. Those who define public administration in managerial terms and take a business like approach to it, tend to minimize the distinctions between public and private administration, in their view, public administration is essentially the same as big business and ought to be run according to the same managerial principles9 and values. The advocacy of business like publit- administration eventually the orthodox or classical view of how.the public service should be between integral and managerial views The integral view differs from the managerial view in certain respects, “The integral view is wider than the managerial view. The former presents an “ailinclusive view of administration, covering both managerial and aon- activities, while the Latter restricts administration to the work of doing things and getting things done. However, the integral and managerial views are not mutually exclusive to ‘each other. Public administration is both a process and a vocation. As a process, ‘administration is concerned with all the steps from the first to the last taken in the implementation of public policy. As a vocation, it is concerned “with the management of the activities of others (i.¢., organizing and directing) ‘the technique of management, the principles according to which cooperative ‘are carried out to sticcess, Bach is indispensable, wgether they form the synthesis called administration.” LY Scope of Public Administration By the scope of public administration is meant its major interests and ‘commitments as a discipline and as an activity. It is boty a subject of study anc practice. Hence, the scope of public administration refers to its boundaries as activity, 4 set of institutions and a subject of study. Although public administration has more than a century of development, there is no consenstis among its writers ubout its meaning, nature and scope. “All these have become matters of much debate and controversy. The reason 4s that the field of public administration features heterodoxy tuther than y. This is because public administration is perhaps a fast growing discipline constantly enlarging its scope of interests and commitments. However, for our purpose, the scope of public administration may tly be analyzed under two heads: (1) as a discipline, and (2) as an activity. LOL The scope of public administration as a discipline By a discipline. we mean a particular area of stady such as political ‘science, economics and sociology. In this sense, public administration is also10 Public Administration 4 discipline. Unlike other disciplines, public administration, as already stated, lacks consensus about its scope. Consequently, various writers have expressed different opinions on its scope. Hence, its scope can be examined from different viewpoints, In his book “General and Industrial Management’, Henry Fayol defined administration in terms of the five key functional elements: (1) Planning, (2) Organizing (3) Commanding (4) Coordinating (5) Controlling. Similarly, in his POSDCORB formula, Gulick identified seven functional elements: planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting and budgeting, In his opinion, these clements stand for different branches of the subject of administration. (These will be elaborated « little Jater it the book) According to P. MacQueen, the scope of administration consists of only three factors, namely men, material and methods. In his book “Principles of Public Administrarion”, Willoughby divided the scope of public administration into the following five categories. (1) General administration, i.c., who is to perform the function of direction, supervision and control over administration. (2) Organization, i.¢., building up of the structures for the actual performance of the administrative work. (3) Personnel, i.e.. who are to manage different services. (4) Materials and supply. ic., the tools with which the work of administration is carried on. (5) Finance, i.c., determination of, and making provision for. the financial needs of administration. This is the crux of all the above-mentioned probiems. Pfiffner divides the scope of public administration under two broad heads. (1) Principles of public administration and (2) Sphere of public administration. Walker divides the scope of public administration into two parts: (1) administrative theory and (2) applied administration. ‘lt may be said that all the views on the scope of public administration are mutually overlagping and can be studied as complementary and supplementary about the scope of public administration are explained as follows. ‘The traditional narrower view: According to some traditional the scope of public administration is restricted to the activities of the executr branch of the government only. In their opinion, public administration 1s the executive branch does, i... implemeating the laws, made by the legislatureInsroduction " “Pmictices and procedures essential for the effective performance of the civilian ‘finctions entrusted to the executive branch of the government” ‘An important supporter of this view is Luther Gulick. This view of public caiministratian is also shared by Simon, Smithburg and Thomson when they said: “By public administration is meant, in common usage, the activities of the executive branches of the national, state and local governments.” ‘The modern broader view: Many modern writers have rejected the Jraditional narrower view of public administration as unduly restrictive as an explanation of its scope. Hence, they have identified public administration with the whole government in action, i.c., the activities of all the three branches of the government— legislature, executive and judiciary. In modern democracies, public bureaucrats not only execute policies but also participate in their formulation and also perform some quasi-judicial functions, Further, the nature af administrative operations are affected and shaped by the nature of policies (laws) made by the legislature as well as the interpretation given to them by the judiciary. The legislature exercises control over administration with a view to see that the policies ure implemented as intended by it. The judiciary has the power to restrain public administrators from unconstitutional, illegal and arbitrary acts. In doing so, the judiciary is determining what kind ‘of public services can be rendered and under what circumstances. Legislature ‘ond courts are thus 4 part of the environment within which public administration must function. Hence, FA. Nigro and L.G, Nigro have come to the obvious Sonclusion that al! three branches of government are part of the study and practice of public administration. Though the narrower view is widely accepted one, the broader view is more realistic as it reflects the reality of the fast growing dynamic field of today's public administration. Hence the wider view of the scope of public administration is acceptable to us in India. The POSDCORB view: In the book “Papers on the Science of Administration” (1937), edited by Gulick and Urwick, Gulick propounded the POSDCORB view of the scope of pubiic administration. In the 1930s, he created to acronym POSDCORB that contains the first letters of the following seven elements of administration: (1) Planning (2) Organizing (3) Staffing (4) Directing (3) Coordinating (6) Reporting (7) BudgetingPublic Administration Gulick believed that these seven functional elements or branches of public administration constitute its scope. The POSDCORB view, no doubt, gives. unity, certainty and definiteness to the study of public administration. It makes the study of public administration Limitations of the POSDCORB view: The POSDCORB view suffers from certain limitations: (1) This view is considered to be a narrow emphasis on the techniques of administration only. The POSDCORB techniques can be neither the sole subject matter of public administration nor even the most important part of it, They fail to give us the knowledge about the various fields of administrative activity (e.g. police, education, health and agriculture) in which the POSDCORB techniques are applied. Intimate knowledge of the sudject matter with which an administrative agency is primarily concerned with is indispensable to an effective and intelligent desivietreti (2) Much of admimstration concerns policies and programmes. But the POSDCORB formula does not contain any reference to the formulation and dimplementation of policies and programmes. For this reason, the POSDOORB view is said to be farther from reality. (3) The POSDCORB view ignores the human factor in administration. It emphasizes the techniques of administration. and not the human beings who use those techniques, (4) It is not enough for the present-day administrator to specialize in administrative techniques only. There is a need to specialize in specific subject areas such as public policy-analysis, personnel administration or financial management, (5) The POSDCORB view is inadequate in explaining the complex activities of the present-day administrator, He is concerned with such things a3 communication, leadership skills and decisionmaking. He is also concemed with group process and power relationship in his agency and his government unit. (6) It also fails to cover the emerging mew oteas of study such as the comparative public administration, development administration, problems of human behaviour in organizations, administrative ecology and so on, ‘The various limitations of the POSDCORB view, stated above, have ridiculed the confinement of the rapidly growing dynamic field of public administration to the POSDCORB techniques only. Although the POSDCORB formula was a useful and necessary development in the 1930s, it proved to be too limited in explaining the full scope of the dynamic field of wday's publicbarroduction 8 192 Subject matter view Public administration deals not only with administrative techniques: bur with the substaritive fields of administration such as defence, education, c health, social welfare, agriculture, police, fire protection, and so on, “These substantive services are provided for the people by the varions Bovernmental fine agencies. The name of the various governmental agencies and the services they perform are not similar ‘They differ For instance. the ‘Work involved in the administration of the education deparment differs from the work involved in the administeation of police department oF public works ‘Wepartment. They have their respective specific administrative problems and “speciilized techniques of their own. This aspect is ignored by the POSDCORB ‘view. which stresses the common administrative techniques applicable to all “Srgamizations. Hence, the knowledge of the subject matter with which an adiinistrative agency is concerned is very essential for the effective Administration of duit agency. This shows the weed to study the substantive Hields of administration along with the POSDCORB techniques. ‘The preceding discussion shows that borh the POSDCORB View aiid the subject matter view are complementary to each other. Both the Views constitute the proper scope of the study of public administration. As Lewis Merian fightly observes, “Public administration is wn instrament with two blades Hike 4 pair of scissors. One blade may be a knowledge of the field covered by POSDOORB, the other is knowledge of the subject matter in which these techniques are applied. Both blades must be good wo make an effective tool.” 1.9.3 Expanding scope of pubtic administration ‘The subject of today's’ publi¢ administration is vast and varied, Tt covers every area and activity governed’ by public policy: Public administration also ‘Operates ar the national, state ar regional and local levels such as districts, blocks and villages. Hence, it is “relatéd vo the operations of government whether central or local” The scope of public administration disciptine, therefore, includes the entire administrative system, its structure, functions, Processes and behaviour at different levels mentioned in the preceding line. Various areas of the scope af public administration: The scope of public administration as # discipline includes the following traditional as well a8 emerging new areas of study: (1) Principles of administration: Administrative principles such as hierarchy, unity of command, span of control, ¢oortination, and delegation and so on form traditionally part of the study of public administration. The ‘comer stones of these principles ure efficiency, economy and equity, Their aim is to develop a value free science of administration.4 Public Administration (2) Public personnel administration: Public administration deals with the problems of public personnel management. It is concemed with manpower planning and the establishment of position-classification system. Is includes such matters as recruitment, training, morale and motivation, discipline, retirement, employer-employce relations and other related matters. The efficiency of Administration depends upon the efficiency of the persons (3) Public financial administration; Financial administration deals broadly with budgeting process, control of public expenditure, accounting and auditing. Financial management is very important because no public programme can exist without funds. Further, every administrative activity depends on the volume of money available to government and its proper spending. Hence, the scope of public administration includes the problems of financial management, (4) Administrative accountability: In the modern administrative state, public administrators exercise enormous powers, There are aspects of their jobs that can lead to misuse or abuse of their powers and corruption as well, Hence, in a democratic government, public administrators must be held accountable to the people they serve for their actions and behaviour, Administrative accountability is secured by means of administrative self- regulation and a comprehensive system of external controls—legislative, executive, judicial and popular, All these types of controls form part of the seape of the study of public administration. ‘The citizen's charter, a recemt concept, is another instrument of administrative accountability. It empowers the citizens as users to demand from the government and the service organizations (e.g. hospital, postoffice, etc.) the fundamentals of accountability, transparency, and quality and choice cof services supplied to them. (5) Comparative public administration; The comparative public administration studies constitute an important area of specialization within the discipline of public administration. These are cross-national and cross-cultural administrative studies. Their aim is © focus on common elements in different kinds of administrative systems in the world. (6) Development administration: It is mainly administration of planned change. It concems administration of developmental plans and programmes undertaken by the developing nations. An important aspect af it is the development of administration, (J) Organization theary: It is an important emerging area of study in public administration as a discipline. It deals with the formal structure, internal functioning and performance of organizations. their external environment and the behaviour of groups and individuals within therm.15 Organizational theories and procedures involve the operation of the large ic networks. Organizations in the public sectors such as government public corporations, commissions ete, get the business of government done. 8) Public policy anelysis: Public policy analysis is another important _ emerging sub-field of the study of public administration. Public policy-analysis fefers to the study of the process of policy making and policy outputs, i.c., the ‘effets of policy implementation. Public policies are manic and implemented by government to achieve certain goals. The scope of public administration is enlarged by the emergence of new approaches to its study and new concepts. These, for instance, include behavioural, social, psychological, and ecological systems, and public choice approaches and new paradigms such as new public management. entrepreneurial government, good governance, and so on. (9) Scope of public administration as an activity; Pablic administration is ‘only 4 means to attain the ends of state. It is the handmaiden of government for carrying on its activities in the fulfillment of the purposes of the state. ‘Henee, the scope of public administration as an activity is determined by the scope of governmental functions. The volume of governmental activities in turn depends upon people's expectations from government. But what people ‘expect from government varies from time to time, In the 19th century, for instance, laissez-faire state people expected chiefly to be left for themselves unhampered. In such a state, public administration ‘thas very litte to do because the activities of government are kept down to absolute minimum— law and order, defence and revenue collection. Contrastingly, in a welfare state, which emerged at the end of the Second ‘World War, people expect many things from government. Consequently, the “stale activities encompass many socio-economic welfire services for the people. ‘There are hardly any instances where the arm of administration is not felt by ‘the people from the womb to the tomb. It includes all operations of government yanging from the exploration of outer space to sweeping the streets, Hence, in a welfare state, public administration has almost everything to do. The enormity of modern welfare state activities means inevitably more administrative activity, more administrative agencies and more officials. Hence, in a welfare state, «ie scope of public administration as an activity is very wide. Again, from the 1990s to the 21st century, people are expecting good governance in the era of globalization and liberalization and privatization. An important element of good governance is minimal state, Privatization and liberalization implying decontrol and delicensing have resulted in shrinkage in the functions of government. As a result, public bureaucracy has had to shed some of its functions and weight. Hence, the scope of public administration16 Piblic Administration as an activity is very limited im the state that adopts privatization and liberalization. Public administation today extends to all those operations and activities of institutions in the corporate sector, which depends upon the governmental funding. Thus, ‘public’ in public administration has alse been expanded to include any administration that has considerable impact on the public. As Bidyut Chakravarthy and Mott Bhattacharya have said, °. The Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation, though a private company, can easily be an appropriate theme fer discussion in public administration.” ‘The preceding discussion shows that the scope of public administration as an activity varies with people's expectations from goverament and their concept of good life. Further, its scope is tn direct relationship with the scope of governmental functions as politically decided. LGA Is the scope of public administration over expanding? Now the question is; Whether the scope af public administration ts over expanding? The answer to this question can be examined from various angles: () The phitosophy or ideology of state functions. (ii) The nature of policies adopted by the government, and (iii) The intellectual horizons of the discipline of public administrauon, ‘The first two factors determine the scope of public administration as an activity, while the last one deterinines the scope Of public administration as a First, what the goverment and its administrative system should do or should not do depends upon the philosophy or ideology of state functions (2.2 Jaissez faire or welfare state) as adopted by the political leaders in power, We have already seen the impact of these two ideologies of state functions on the scape of public administration as an activity. Again, if a state embraces the policy of nationalization, it ‘eads to increase in the scope of adminiswative activities of the government. On the other hand, if a state adopts the policies of privatization, liberalization, deregulation and de-licensing, they demand the rollback of the welfare state and result in shrinkage in the functions of government and in the scope of its admunistrative activities, The increase or decrease of the scope of public administration as an activity depends on the nature of ideology followed as well as the mature of policies as potiticatly decicted and implemented by the government. Since: the publication of Woodrow Wilson's classic essay in 1887 on the development of public administration as a serious area of study, ivs intellectual horizons have been ever expanding. Since its formal birth as a separate study in 1887, a number of new paradigms. theories, approaches, and concepts havenv icantly enlarged the scope of administrative study, The expanded horizons discipline of public administration have invaded related social sciences nes such as political smence, sociology, psychology, economics, ctc., as 48 the philosophy of science, epistemology and ethics. Thus, it has become plinary in nature. Ao recent times, scholars in public administration all over the world been attempting to develop value-oriented and normative public istration. Such an attempt has opened new vistas in the field of public conclude the discussion, we may say that public administratian has two ed and interdependent aspects, namely (1) the doing of Public istration (ic. the activities of public administration) and (2) the thinking public administration (ic. the intellectual inquiry about administrative ties). The former provides the basis for the atten One cannot conceive | any discipline of public administration without thinking about its ficld of i ity. Administrative theories, therefore, are largely deductions from empiric jonas, In other words, aditinistrative theories are formulated on the basis dbservation of the field of adminiswative activity and hence, they are langely istic. A goed. thieery is one which is based on facts and practices and thus to reality, Administrative theories, in their turn, are also useful tn administrative f 1y. Administrative theories provide a disciplinary framework and ‘conceptual clarity for administrative actions. Thus, administrative theory and adevinistative practices are closely reluted. As Nicholas Henry says. “Public ‘administration is broad ranging and amorphous combination of theory and practice.” While administrative theory deals with generalizations and principles public administration. administrative practice deals with their application to the various fields of acministrative activity. Although administrative theory and administrative practice are closely related, they are nevertheless separate and different. Acconting to Prof, Waldo, “The difference between administrative theory tnd administrative practice is difference similar to that bewween biology as the study of organisms and the ‘organisms themselves.” LI] Advantages of the Study of Public Administration ‘The study of public administration as a field of activity and an area of intellectual inquiry have both utilitarian and intellectual objectives. The original purpose of the study of public administration was not io cultivate knowledge for its own sake. Instead, its purpose was explicitly utilitarian. The study ofPublie Administration acministration was directed at the twin pursuits of reforming government and training civil servants, Woodrow Wilson was the first 10 articulate the principles underlying the civil service reform movement in the USA. Wilson declared that the central Purpose of the study of public administration was to discover and establish a Set of valid principles and the most efficient ways of organizing and running the executive branch of government, Administrative theory, thus, grew in the late nineteenth century and the early twentieth century with the primary objective of making government more effective and economical in its working. This goal is still important. However, gradually, the study of public administration has also acquired certain intellectual objectives. The benefits or the advantages of the study of public administration may be briefly stated as follows. The study of public administration: () Helps the student to learn the basic concepts, principles and theories of public administration, (dé) Helps to explain the purposes, functions, and continuation of government bureaucracy, (tii) Provides knowledge of public organizations and the context in which and the methods by which they operate, (iv) Promotes 2 superior understanding of government and its relationship with the society it governs and thus it enables us to learn more about how our country is governed, (») Is useful as training for citizenship and for preparing citizens for an active participation in the process of democratic governance, (vi) Makes us learn how to promote the public interest more effectively, (vii) Promotes among the people an awareness of the importance of the administrative activities in their lives, (viii) Is useful w make public policies, which are more responsive to public needs, (ix) As an applied discipline, provides knowledge which is helpful to the policy makers and to those who implement policies, and (2) Prepares students for employment in the government service and makes them aware of the opportunities and challenges of the public service and thus is useful as a self-serving investment. 2. SIGNIFICANCE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Public administration lies at the centre of modern society, which has witnessed the emergence of the ‘Administrative State’. In the administrative state, public administration has become all encompassing and affects. the lives of the people from ‘the womb (o the tomb’. Since the end of the Second World19 ‘pervasive. Public administration has undergone far-reaching changes both objectives and functions. Consequently, public administrators have entered affairs. It is recognized that public administration plays crucial rale in all societics— and developing. In the modern administrative state, public has become so significant that our development, upliftment and neutral instrument. 2.2 An Instrument for Implementing Laws and Policies Public administration is responsible for implementing the laws and polices ‘of government. In doing this, public administration plays a crucial role. By carrying out laws, it regulates the behaviour of the people in society, By implementing public policies and programmes, it delivers the promised goods and services to the intended benetictarics. The ideals anc objectives of government may be very popular, the plans for national development may be extremely progressive, and the national fesources of the country may be abundant, but without an efficient administration nothing can be achieved. In other words, even the good objectives of the best policies and laws of a government may remain as mere paper declarations of intent, if the administrative machinery does wot function efficiently and honestly, An efficient public administration can avon! waste, correct errors; limit the consequences of incompetence, of irresponsibility awhile implementing laws and pubiic policies. Thus. public administration acts as an20 Pubic Administration instrament for translating plans, laws and policies into reality. As A.D, Gorwala remarks, “In a democracy, there can be no successfull planning without a clear, efficient and impartial administration.” 23 Participation in Policy Formulation According to Dimock and Dimock, “In the madem world, burcatictacy is the chief policy maker im government.” It is a source of facts and experience as well as of ideas and solution of public problems. in modern democracies. Public administrators participate in policy making by giving advice to numisters and providing them the necessary information (i.c., facts and figures), whch is relevant for policy formulation. As Sir Josiah Stamp says, “The officials must be the main spring of the new society, suggesting, promoting and advising at every stage.” The administrative tasks of public bureaucracy imelude formulation of policies and plans, executing and monitoring programunes. laying down laws, rules and regulations, which affect human actions in almost all walks of life. 24 A Great Stabilizing Forve in Society Public administration acts as a great stahilizing force in society. It settles social tensions and conflicts and thus creates social unity and harmony. This role of public administration is of particular significance im the newly independent Afro-Asian developing countries. Public administators solve sucial problems, Thus, public administration stabilizes social structure, social ‘organization and socal relavonship. As Pant Pigors says, “The main purpose ‘of administration is w preserve the status quo in society.” The administrative ‘function “ensues the continuance of the existing order with a minimum. of effort and risk. Its fundamental aim is to carry on rather than 1 ventitre long mew and untried paths. Administrators are, therefore, the stabilizes of society and the guardians of tradition.” 2.5 Provides Continuity when Governments Change Public admimistrators carry on goverument when rulers chunge every now and then owing w elections of revalutions ar coups. According to Ramsay Muir, “While governments, may come. and 20, ministers may rise and fall. the administration of a country goes on for ever. No revolution can change it and ho upheaval can uproat it.” It is & proven fact of history that public udminis- tration survives even revolutions and coup d° erat or change of » regime. 2.6 Provides a Wide Variety of Services in the Public Interest Public administration in the modera welfare state provides a large and wide variety of services forthe people. Felix A. Nigro remarks, °.... The realadministration is the basic service which is performed for the public.” ¢ administration provides a number of services in the public interest. J Protective functions “Pikst of all, public administration protects the life and property of the hy maintaining law and order. The survivaland progress of hurnan jin society depend on the proper enforcement of laws against law- As CP. Bhambbri remarks, ~.... The maintenance of law arul order Primary and crucial role of public administration.” This is because of jungic will prevail in society, if public administration fails to perform clion effectively, National defence is another protective function by public: administration. This function is essential for the of the independence of the nation and protecting its frontiers. Of government mentioned in the preceding lines, As a result of rapid ialization, there is the problem of environmental pollution. which our lives, and civilization, Befouled air, water and eucth affect our ) and lives, Now almost all governments are making efforts at the of environmental quality, The environmental administration the relations between man and earth with its environment. [i must the quality of air, the uses of the ocean, and the purity of rivers and rams. It considers man’s spiritual and physical survival, fa il administration. now-a-days provides facilitative services such as Hon, communications. supply of power, and so on_ ment of public enterprises blic administrators manage public enterprises and public utilities in the of socio-economic justice, Public utilities are either publicly owned or Feguiated in most countries. Government also imposes controls over econo and business activities in the public imerest. as “The welfare services provided for the people include social security, old e pensions. welfare of the weaker sections, family planning. health, nt relief, poverty alleviation, housing, ete, of agriculture, industry, ete, hlic administration promotes agriculture, industry, internal and22 Public Administration 2.6.6 Cultural services In the cultural sphere, public administration undertakes certain functions — provision of education, promotion of science and technology, encouragement ‘of arts and ideology, etc, 2.6.7 Maintenance of political system Public administration is concerned with the maintenance of the nation’s political system and national unity. It is a continuous process in determining the activities of the government. To be brief, it is concerned with the preservation of the polity. The wide variety of functions performed by public administration is influenced by developments in the political, economic and sacial spheres. The preceding discussion indicates that public administration has become a part of the social, economic, political and cultural life of the people. How well we enjuy the services pravided by government depend, in large part, on how well they are sdministered. Hence, in simpler societies of early days, good administration was important but in modern complex societies; good administration is essential. It has to play a very important role not only as an instrument of governance but alse as an important means to achieve the goals of socio-economic progress and nation building As Appleby says, “The heart of administration is the management of programmes designed tu serve the general welfare” 2.7 An Instrument of Social Change and Economic Development Public administration is “concerned with managing change in pursuit of publicly defined societal values.” In the developing nations of Asia. Africa and Latin America, public administration acts as an instrument of social change and economic development. The developing nations ate mostly traditional and poor agricultural societies without adequate basic amenities of good life, These nations are anxious to achieve modernization of society and economic development and realize welfare goals. The state is called upon to-achiewe these goals. These objectives have placed challenging tasks on public administration such as formulation of economic plans and their successful implementation (0 realize economic growth and social change and welfare goals, The accomplish- ment of these goals requires honest and competent public administrators. ‘Without efficient administration, socio-economic progress cannot be achieved. lt is expected today to be the accelerator of economic and social change. 2.8 Public Administration ; Essential for the Development of Civilization Public administration has been described as “the heart of modern civilization.” The civilized life that we live today depends upon the properIntroduction B fenctioning of public administration. Civilized life implies security to life. ‘berty and property as well as enjoyment of the benefits that are the result of advances in modem science and technology. These are: made. available to people by public administration. The great accomplishments in various fields me due to advances in administration as well ax in science and technology. ized life is not possible if there is a breakdown of public administration. Without public administration. contemporary civilization cannot function, urban ‘Ssiety would be unbearable, law and order meaningless, socio-economic development impracticable, world trade impossible, and egalitarianism ‘anaitainable. Public administration is highly essential to preserve and promote ‘Mumanistic civilization. Since public administration fulfils many needs of civilized life in society, # will most likely continue to prosper and evolve. C. Merriam regards inistration as the evolution of another human technology leading to man's to his complex environment. How man will use public administration ‘enormous powers of coercion and persuasion—to preserve and conceivably ‘Sohance his place in the universe depends only on man, 29 Reasons for the Growing Importance of Public Administration A number of factors have contributed to the significance of public miministration in the modern society. They are briefly stated as follows. I The scientific and technological developments The seientifie discoveries and technological advances have greatly tian of telephone, telegraph, railways, and airways has made big and large-scale administration possible. The introduction of devices in the office administration such as typewriters, tele printers, and calculators, photocopying machines, personal computers, fax and the electronic mail has brought about even more revolutionary changes in the ways and methods of administration, These devices have facilitated the management of big and complex modern organizations with ease and speed. 2.9.2 Industrial revolution Industrial revolution, a consequence of the scientific inventions and ‘technological developments, brought about certain changes in society. It led to ‘the growth of large-scale industries and factory production, over-crowded ‘edustrial towns, and urban slums. The factory system also resulted in such as the growth of capitalism, large-scale unemployment, exploitation ofa Public Administration labour, longer hours of work and lower wages, employment of children in hazardous occupations, health hazards, ete. in the interest of secio-economic justice, governments in the developed and developing countries. have been compelled to assume new responsibilities to set right the bad effects of the above evils. Asa result. the tasks and responsibilities as well as the importance of public administration have vastly increased. 2.9.3 Economic plaaning Econumic planning is anothe: factor tbat has coatributed wo the increasing importance of public administration, particularly in the developing nations of Africa and Asia. Modem governments have resorted to planning as a method of achieving economic development and goals of welfare state. The Afro- Asian developing nations have undertaken development planning to reshape their ecanomies. and societies. The new responsibilities relating wo planning activities, ic... plan formulation and implementation. and creation of elaberute necessary administrative machinery have naturally widened the sphere.of public administration. However, in, the wake: of the new liberalized economic reforms, planning as. method of economic development and the adnvinistrative functions relating t it are gradually getting diminished. 2.94 Wars ‘Wars have also contributed to the importance of public administration. In limes of war, public administration. is entrusted with the responsibility of mobilizing necessary manpower and resources for the purpose of war. Certain activities acquired by public administration during war-time may continue even after the termination of war. For instance, the Second World War had an impact on the availability of food (shortage af food) and the prices of goods. Consequently, the government introduced the sysiem of controls and quatas on the distribution and consumption of certain essential goods and commodities The sume systems have been with the public authorities in India unol the introduction of the new policy of economic liberilization in the 1990s. Thus. wars have their impact on the sphere of activities of public administration in providing goods and services for the people. 2.9.5 Calamities and erises Natural calamities like earthquakes, flonds, droughts, and cyclones have also enhanced the importance of public administration. In the event of occurrence of such nature! calimities, the public udministrators huve to act quickly and undertake’ rescue operations in order to prevent Joss of life and property of the affected people. Thus. crisis munagement is an important function of public administration. To give an example, @ crisis management group was formed t deal with the situation in Moharashatra and Karnataka,25 were rocked by an edithquake ou September 30, 1993. The crisis em group, under the chairmanship of the Union, Cabinet Secretary, dand supported the activities of the various central ministries and bird An emergency control room sas also set up in the Home Ministry onitor the situation, The purpose of all these arrangements was to provide y relief to (he victims and survivors of the eurthquakes disaster. Ih the third world countries, very offen, the public authorities have w : the recurring crises resulting from social upheavals such as class and conflicts, communal riots, tribal and ethnic violence. These dark forces social harmony and peace and the fabric wf society. Government has fespoasibility to control such antisocial. forces; and in times of crises t from their activities, the public administrators have to act quickly to Ore peuce and protect the lives and properties of the people. This tole of ‘administration has alse increased its importance. growth of population and the problems of metrupatitan cities fapid growth of population jn almost all the countrics of the warld, in the developing: countries. has complicated the problems of ling food, shelter, cducation, healt and sanitation, transport facilities « like to the peopic. The tackling of these. problems has placed additvonal o lies upon public bureaucracy. __ The growth of metropolitan cities fas. also created certain problems peculiar » the Some of the problems of the metropolitan cities include congestion. of slums, housing scarcity, insufficient water supply. inadequate sportatlon, increasing urhan crime rate and violence, etc. The tesponsibility ‘tackling these acute social and cconomic problems has devolved upon Public bureaucracy anid increased its sphere of activity, 7 Emergence of welfare state The emergence of welfare state in movers tiines fas added many new tivities and responsibilities (0 the existing fumetions of public bureaucracy, ‘Welfare state ix a social service state, Ws motw is promotion of human fare and good life for the people. In the interest of socio-econamic justice, i positive welfare state acts as a protector, a dispenser of social services, 4 ovider of essential commodities, 4 manager of key industries and banking Wilies. Thus us Herman Finer says, “The stave is everywhere, it leaves ly @ gap.” Waldo says, “Public administration is a part of the cultural 5 und it is mot only acted upon, but also acts, It is indeed a great force with man's welfare as its ideal.” This change in the political cy of state ftom negative to positive rate has naturally increased the of public administration.26 Public Adminstration 2.9.8 Developments in the 1990s: Their impact ‘The new liberalized economic reforms in the 1990s—globalization, liberalization and privatization—have demanded the roll back of the welfare state. As a result, government has had to shed some of its functions and weight, Government is now being called upon to play more and more ‘enabling’ role than the traditional doing’ role. ft no longer plays the role of a direct provider of goods and services. Instead, Government may operate indirectly as enabler, allowing non-government agencies to operate directly in a wide range of social activities, Thus, the functions of the state have been reduced to the minimum. 2.10 New Agenda Items As a result of major developments taking place throughout the world, people's aspirations and needs kecp changing. One significant trend ix towards the steady emergence of a “new politics” agenda items. These items include issues relating to esvironmental management, child labour, gender equality. social equity, human rights, and ethnic minorities, aids. epidemic, tribal development. etc. These issues have emerged from societal demands articulated by new groups that look to government for protection and development. Pubhe administration can ill-afford to ignore these burning social issues. Their increasing importance might impel governments to undertake more and more functions instead of shedding them. In other words, they move governments towards an expansionist version. Changing circumstances may thus falsify the claim of state minimalist theoreticians, Social engineers welcome public administration's extension as a means of eliminating selfish private interests that exploit the common welfare. They contemplate public administration as the instrument of achieving sacietal goals by a rational and responsive ordering of communal actions. In a moral and basic sense, public administration has to serve ‘‘a higher purpose.” In a sense, as Ordway Tead says, “Administration is a moral act and administrator is a moral agent.” 2.11 Opinions of some Eminent Scholars on the Importance of Public Administration (1) Alexander Pope: “For ihe forms of government, let fools contest; whatever is administered best, is best.” (2) Edmund Burke: “Without proper management, your commonwealth is no better than a scheme on paper and not a living, active, effective constitunon, Administration is there under all situations. There would be mo existence without administration.”27 13) Charles E. Beard: “Administration is the science of contemporary civilization. There is no subject more: important than the subject of adminisiration. The future of civilized life and even, | think, of sivilization itself rests upon our ability to develop a science and a Philosophy and a practice of administration competent to discharge the functions of civilized society.” 44) WB. Denham: “If our future civilization fails. it will be mainly because of a breakdown of administration,” (3) Brooke Adams: “Administration is an important human faculty because its chief function is to facilitate social change and to cushion the shock of social revolution” (6) C. Merriam: “Administration is the evolution of another human technology leading to man’s adaptation to his complex environment.” (7) Henry Fayol: “The administrative process is universal.” (8) Ordway Tead: “Administration is a moral act and administrator is a moral agent.” _ (9) Merman Finer: “The state is everywhere; it leaves hardly a gap.” (10) Marshall E. Dimock: “Administration is now so vast an area that a philosophy of administration comes close to being a philosophy of “Tt does not take much though to realize that popular government can only be made competent enough through proper administration to survive the complexities and confusion of a technological civilization.” 1) Dwight Waldo: “Public administration is a part of the culteral complex, and it is not only acted upon but also acts. It is indeed a great creative force with man’s welfare as its ideal.” is performed for the public. CP Bhambhri: “With the breakdown of the machinery of public administration, civilization itself shall ge to pieces.” ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING SOCIETIES—THE IMPACT OF NEW LIBERALIZED ECONOMIC POLICIES ON THE ROLE OF THE STATE AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Meaning of Developing Societies (Countries) The societies of the “Third World Countries” in Asia, Africa and Latin are usually called “developing societies.” The term ‘developing