Diversity of Garcinia species in the Western Ghats: Phytochemical Perspective JNTBGRI

Chapter 12

Nutrient properties of important Garcinia fruits of India

Utpala Parthasarathy* and O. P. Nandakishore

ICAR- Indian Institute of Spices Research

Kozhikode- 673012, Kerala, India
*
Corresponding author

Abstract
The importance of natural products is increasing day by day as the safety of synthetic
alternatives has generated lots of controversial questions. Garcinia species are an important
group of plants, being used for different purposes, especially as fruit crops, source of edible
oils and fats, and nutraceuticals in different parts of the world. The nutraceutical property of a
fruit is determined by the metabolites like carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and minerals and
also the secondary metabolites such as phenols and flavonoids. The food and nutritive values
of Garcinia species have attracted significant scientific attention and the present chapter is an
attempt to review the nutrient properties of important Garcinia fruits in India.

Keywords: Garcinia fruits, Nutrient properties, Minerals, Vitamins, Phenolics

Introduction
Plants and fruits are nature’s wonderful gift to mankind; indeed, the edible fruits are life
enhancing medicines packed with vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and many phyto-nutrients.
They are an absolute feast to our sight, not just because of their color and flavor but for their
unique nutrition profile that help to keep human body healthy. There are plenty of
underutilized fruit crops which possess immense nutraceutical value. The underutilized
species are restricted to the geographical place of their availability but not explored properly
for their constitution or utility (Gruere et al., 2006). Majority of them produce fruits which
are rich sources of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals than the conventional
fruits (Krishnamurthy and Sarala, 2011). Garcinia is one such underutilized group of fruit
bearing plants.
Many species of Garcinia have fruits with edible arils and are eaten locally. Fresh and
dry Garcinia fruit rinds (exocarp) are used as spice, condiment and garnish in several
cuisines to impart an acidic flavour to the food and to enhance shelf life (Utpala et al., 2010).
Garcinia species such as G. cowa, G. kydia, G. cowa, G. lanceaefolia, G. mangostana, G.
atroviridis and G. prainiana were cultivated for their fruits world over. The best known
species is the mangosteen (G. mangostana), also known as the ‘queen of tropical fruits’,
which is now cultivated throughout Southeast Asia and other tropical countries. In
Travancore, Malabar and Konkan region of south India, the fruits of G. cambogia and G.
indica are used in garnishing curries and also as a substitute for tamarind. Fruit and syrup of
G. indica is very popular in ‘Konkan’ region as a refreshing and rejuvenating drink. Garcinia
pedunculata, G. kydia, G. cowa and G. lanceaefolia are the most important species in North
Eastern parts of India, where the sundried slices of the fruits were used for culinary purposes
and as folk medicine.

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The seeds of Garcinia species yield oil that can be used as edible oil as well as
illuminating fuels. Garcinia butter is obtained from the seeds and used mainly as an edible
fat. The seed of G. indica fruits yield valuable edible fat known as ‘kokum butter’ and is
popular in south India. Refined and deodorized fat from Garcinia seeds are generally white
or creamy in colour and compares favorably with high class hydrogenated fat. Garcinia fats
are rich in stearic acid and are considered nutritive, demulcent, astringent and emollient. The
use and preparation of Garcinia butter is still under exploited. Garcinia species have been
considered recently to have ample medicinal importance as well (Korikanthimath and Desai,
2005; Utpala and Nandakishore, 2014).
Garcinia species are abundant in the Western Ghats and in the North Eastern
Himalayas. G. indica and G. gummi-gutta are the most common fruit species of the Western
Ghats while G. pedunculata, G. lanceaefolia and G. kydia are the common fruit species of
North Eastern foot hills of Himalayas. G. xanthochymus and G. mangostana are available in
both the ecosystems. The nutraceutical property of a fruit is determined by the metabolites
like carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and minerals present in it and their relative amount.
The secondary metabolites such as phenols and flavonoids also contribute significantly to the
medicinal utility. The present chapter elaborates the nutritional constituents of important
Garcinia species in India.

1. Primary metabolites of Garcinia fruits

Primary metabolites are directly involved in the growth and development of the plant and
also serve as source of energy. The concentration of primary metabolites such as sugars,
proteins and crude fats of the Garcinia fruits are given in Table 1. Carbohydrates were the
major metabolites present in Garcinia fruits followed by proteins. Carbohydrates are the
major nutrients in fruits. They are the primary energy source of the cell and the simplest
biomolecules that are synthesized naturally. Reducing sugars are the simplest carbohydrate
molecules having free aldehyde or ketone group and can reduce metal ions to lower oxidation
state. Reducing sugars like glucose and fructose are the sweetness principles of a fruit.
Carbohydrate content showed a great variation among various Garcinia species; from 3.75 %
to 15.12 %. Total proteins ranged from 1.82 % to 4.93 %. The percentage of reducing sugars
is less in comparison to the other organic acids present. This may be the reason of very sour
taste of the fruits even when they are ripened. The palatability of G. mongostana was due to
the high content of reducing sugars (1.28 %). G. indica showed a higher amount of total
proteins (4.78 %), while total carbohydrates and crude fats were higher in G. mangostana.
This indicates that G. mangostana provides more calories than other Garcinia species. Crude
fats were very nominal in all the Garcinia fruits, showing only very small variation among
them.

2. Mineral composition of Garcinia fruits

Minerals do not provide energy, but play a major role in metabolism and functioning of cells
and are required in small amounts for human health. The mineral composition of the fruit
rinds of Garcinia species is given in Table 2.

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Table 1. Primary metabolite composition of Garcinia fruits (Utpala and Nandakishore, 2014)
Garcinia species Total Reducing Total Crude fats
carbohydrates sugars proteins (g/100g)
(g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g)
G. gummi-gutta 7.11 0.51 3.25 0.34
G. indica 6.24 0.63 4.78 0.12
G. mangostana 15.72 1.28 1.82 0.49
G. xanthochymus 4.12 0.98 4.01 0.41
G. subelliptica 4.82 0.71 3.76 0.15
G. kydia 9.07 0.6 4.33 0.42
G. lanceaefolia 5.85 0.65 3.45 0.13
G. pedunculata 7.93 0.95 4.93 0.20

G. mangostana (163.6 mg/100g) was richer in total minerals followed by G. indica (109.3
mg/100g). Potassium, calcium and magnesium showed a great variation (CV% being 27.5,
40.6 and 20.87 respectively) among the species while amount of sodium, iron and phosphorus
were almost similar.

Table 2. Mineral compositions of Garcinia fruits (Utpala and Nandakishore, 2014)

Garcinia species Sodium Potassium Calcium Magnesium Iron Phosphorus
(mg/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/kg)
G. gummi-gutta 2.88 26.6 12.67 14.35 9.00 5.34
G. indica 1.55 44.5 13.21 33.45 12.06 4.51
G. mangostana 2.58 78.3 5.82 60.43 9.02 7.45
G. xanthochymus 2.06 28.4 13.07 30.62 10.82 3.48
G. subelliptica 1.52 43.3 12.33 34.45 9.00 5.43
G. kydia 2.54 38.7 12.54 25.25 10.00 4.32
G. lanceaefolia 1.35 52.3 12.54 30.23 9.00 3.64
G. pedunculata 2.48 27.3 13.21 35.43 10.12 4.32

Magnesium and potassium were found to be the predominant minerals in Garcinia fruits. G.
mangostana is richer in potassium (78.3 mg), magnesium (60.43 mg) and phosphorus (7.45
mg/kg) (Utpala and Nandakishore, 2014). Potassium, calcium and magnesium are present in
good percentage in fruit rind tissues, and make Garcinia an important medicinal fruit.
Calcium is the major component of bones and teeth and is essential for muscular function and
blood clotting (Decupyre, 2014). Other than potassium, Garcinia has a mineral content
similar to major fruits like apple, grapes, peaches or banana (Decupyre, 2014). Magnesium,
phosphorus and iron contents were also higher in Garcinia than the commonly consumed
fruits.

3. Vitamin composition of Garcinia fruits

Vitamins are organic compounds that play a major role in regulation of enzymes, cell signals
and metabolic pathways. The vitamins present in the detectable range were vitamins B1, B2,
B3, B12 and C. Vitamin A, E and D could not be detected in Garcinia fruit extracts. The
composition of vitamins in the fruits of Garcinia species are given in Table 3. Ascorbic acid
was found to be the major vitamin in Garcinia fruits. The total vitamin content was highest in

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G. mangostana (61 mg/100 g), followed by G. pedunculata (36 mg/100 g). Except ascorbic
acid, other vitamins showed only small variation (<10%) among the species studied. Ascorbic
acid was in a range of 14.0% to 60.0%. Ascorbic acid, known as vitamin C, is a water soluble
vitamin, not synthesized in the body, but must get through foods or supplements. It is an
important antioxidant and its deficiency causes delayed healing and scurvy. Ascorbic acid
works as a preservative to prevent rancidity, acts as a dough conditioner in baking and
prevents enzymatic browning. Riboflavin (vitamin B2) is another water soluble vitamin. As it
is also not synthesized in the body or being stored, it is essential to eat foods rich in riboflavin
every day. Riboflavin helps body cells use fat, protein and carbohydrates from foods to
produce energy.

Table 3. Vitamin composition of Garcinia fruits (Utpala and Nandakishore, 2014)

Garcinia species Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin (B3) Ascorbic Vitamin Total vitamin
(B1) (B2) (µg/100g) acid (C) B12 (mg/100g)
(µg/100g) (µg/100g) (mg/100g) (µg/100g)

G. gummi-gutta 48 275 45 14.35 8.75 14.75

G. indica 52 320 63 33.45 12.06 34.00
G. mangostana 50 300 60 60.43 9.52 61.05
G. xanthochymus 37 250 50 30.62 10.76 30.97
G. subelliptica 50 281 45 34.45 9.03 34.94
G. kydia 47 267 50 25.25 10.15 25.82
G. lanceaefolia 52 283 45 30.23 8.02 30.62
G. pedunculata 49 276 47 35.43 8.12 35.81

4. Organic acids composition of Garcinia fruits

Organic acids are of great significance in plants. As intermediates in the metabolic processes
of the fruit, acids are directly involved in growth and maturation. Fruit juices have a low pH,
because they contain high levels of organic acids (James, 1985, Jena et al., 2002). The
organic acids detected in the Garcinia fruits studied were (-) hydroxycitric acid (HCA), malic
acid, citric acid, tartaric acid and acetic acid. The retention factor (Rf) values of standard
acids were found to be oxalic acid (0.14), tartaric acid (0.21), malic acid (0.45), citric acid
(0.38), hydroxycitric acid (0.24) and acetic acid (0.60) (Utpala and Nandakishore, 2014). The
total acid content of Garcinia fruits and the percentage compositions of various organic acids
present in the Garcinia acid extracts are given in Table 4. The total acidity of the fruits
varied significantly from 4.39 % (G. mangostana) to 27.3 % (G. kydia). A very high
variability in concentration was observed for HCA and malic acid.
G. kydia was the most acidic (27.3 %) followed by G. gummi-gutta (23.81 %). The
anti-obesity compound HCA was highest in G. gummi-gutta (15.48 %), followed by G. kydia
(8.97 %). Garcinia species and Hibiscus sabdariffa are the only abundant natural sources of
HCA (Yamada et al., 2007). HCA was found to be the major organic acid in the Western
Ghats species namely G. gummi-gutta and G. indica whereas in other species, malic acid was
the predominant organic acid. During extensive animal studies, HCA has been proven to
effectively curb appetite, suppress food intake, increase the rates of hepatic glycogen
synthesis, reduce fatty acid synthesis and lipogenesis and decrease body-weight gain. Other
organic acids were detected as minor compounds. G. xanthochymus had a total acid content

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of 10.95 % of which citric acid was the major acid component (8.0 %). HCA was absent in G.
xanthochymus. In case of G. mangostana, the percentages of organic acids were very low and
HCA could not be detected.

Table 4. Total acidity and major organic acids present in Garcinia fruits (Utpala and Nandakishore,
2014)
Garcinia species Total acidity HCA Malic Oxalic Citric Tartaric Acetic
(%) (%) acid (%) acid (%) acid (%) acid (%) acid (%)
G. gummi-gutta 23.81 15.48 4.62 0.18 0.62 0.11 0.07
G. indica 14.11 7.43 2.67 0.63 0.79 0.51 0.31
G. mangostana 4.39 0.26 0.54 0.73 1.42 1.66 0.26
G. xanthochymus 10.95 0.10 0.73 0.37 8.00 0.20 0.04
G. subelliptica 9.76 1.16 4.87 0.92 0.81 1.18 1.32
G. kydia 27.30 8.97 13.42 0.60 1.35 1.80 0.23
G. lanceaefolia 15.17 1.93 10.02 1.70 1.45 0.23 0.14
G. pedunculata 12.92 1.33 8.95 0.51 1.30 0.12 trace
The organic acids play a key role in food products because of their influence on
organoleptic properties. Besides, they also provide the sour flavour to the product and also act
as antimicrobial agent for enhancing shelf life (Lillian et al., 2013). The total content of
organic acids in a food affects the product’s acidity, whereas the levels of a specific organic
acid can directly influence the flavor and taste of the drink. Malic acid and citric acids are α-
hydroxy acids reported to have functions like enhancing salivation, gastric secretion and
exfoliation and are therefore important constituents of food and cosmetic formulations
(Fiume, 2001). Citric acid also acts as food preservative and acidifying agent. The higher
carbohydrate content and low acid content explains the sweeter taste of G. mangostana
compared to other Garcinia fruits.

5. Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activities of Garcinia fruits

Phenolic compounds are a class of secondary metabolites attributed with several bioactivities,
especially antioxidant properties. Antioxidant activity of a substance is the ability of a
molecule to eliminate or to neutralize a free radical. Several phytochemicals such as
curcumin, tocopherol, catechin, xanthones and anthocyanins were attributed with antioxidant
properties (Harborne, 2005). Phenolic compounds also facilitate pollination through colour
and fragrance, defense against pathogens and prevent fruits consumed by herbivores
(Harborne, 2005). In Garcinia, xanthones, biflavonoids and benzophenones were reported to
be the major phenolic compounds (Aisha et al., 2012).
The total phenolic contents (Table 5) were recorded to be highest in G. indica
(5.01%), followed by G. xanthochymus (4.43%) and G. kydia (4.32%). The xanthone content
was highest in G. xanthochymus (2.66 %) and was least in G. indica (0.9 %). The relative
percentage of xanthones to the total phenolics was highest in G. gummi-gutta, G.
xanthochymus and G. subelliptica (60.0%) and lowest in G. indica (20.0%).

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Table 5. Total phenol, xanthone content and antioxidant activity of Garcinia fruits (Utpala and
Nandakishore, 2014)
Garcinia species Total phenolics Total xanthones DPPH activity IC50
(g/100g) (g/100g) (µg/ml)
G. gummi-gutta 3.26 1.96 38.39
G. indica 5.01 0.91 42.66
G. mangostana 2.33 1.30 39.42
G. xanthochymus 4.43 2.66 35.75
G. subelliptica 3.14 1.88 48.12
G. kydia 4.32 2.19 40.50
G. lanceaefolia 3.03 1.22 43.16
G. pedunculata 2.43 1.36 47.84
Ascorbic acid - - 10.25

As most of the Garcinia fruits are sour, they are consumed only as processed food or through
formulations. The most commonly used forms are syrups, juices and dried rinds boiled along
with other food ingredients. Hence the antioxidant activity of aqueous extract of fruits were
also determined (Table 5). Piyawan et al. (2005) reported that antioxidant activity of G.
mangostana is of moderate, close to that of orange, grapes, and papaya, while other tropical
fruits such as mango, litchi and guava have higher antioxidant activities (IC50 ranging from
1.10 to 9.60), compared to Garcinia fruits.

6. Biochemistry of Garcinia seed butter

Lipids or fats are hydrocarbon molecules, but are hydrophobic. In plants, fats are the storage
form of energy and found much abundant in seeds. Fats are the second largest energy source
for living cells (Jain et al., 2005). Garcinia seed kernel contains (30-40%) fixed oil, in
comparison to other vegetable seed fats like castor seed (50%), ground nut kernel (42%),
mustard (35%), palm kernel (36%), sunflower (32%), sesame (50%) and coconut (60%).
High yield of fixed oil indicates that Garcinia seeds can be utilized as a rich source of fatty
acids. The physical properties of the seed fats of four Garcinia species showed that the yield
of fatty oil is high in G. gummi-gutta (47%) while in G. indica and in G. xanthochymus it was
around 30% and in case of G. mangostana it was less, around 24% (Table 6).

Table 6. Physical properties of Garcinia seed butter (Utpala and Nandakishore, 2014)
Parameters G. gummi-gutta G. indica G. xanthochymus G. mangostana
Total fat content (%) 46.54 29.33 25.71 24.20
Colour of fat Light brown Pale white Creamy-yellow Creamy-yellow

State at room temperature Solid Solid Solid Solid

Melting point (ºC) 39.4 40.3 38.2 37.9

Garcinia butter is solid at room temperature and is quite hard, almost as hard as cocoa butter,
and is a good substitute in the recipes for cocoa butter. The melting point of Garcinia seed
butter is high (about 40°C), hence it can be used along with cocoa butter to increase the heat
resistance property and hardness of the chocolate. It is helpful in preventing heat induced
softening and loss of consistency of chocolates, mainly in hot climatic regions (Utpala et al.,
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2012). Acid value and percentage free fatty acids represent the freshness and storage quality
of an oil or fat. It is the measure of susceptibility and the extent of decomposition. The acid
value of the four species of Garcinia varies from 3.7 to 4.5; which shows the butter is good
for the consumption. Free fatty acid content is commonly called the free acidity percent and
lesser the free fatty acid content, better is the fat. Other than G. indica oil, all are having very
low acid value (Table 7). Saponification number gives the information concerning the
character of the fatty acid present in the fat. Fats with the high saponification number yield
quite soluble soaps. The saponification value of olive oil is 187-196, for sunflower oil, it is
188-194, for ground nut it is 188-195, for mustard oil it is 169-176 and for sesame oil it is
188-195, while it is very high in coconut oil and ghee (251-263 and 220 respectively). For
Garcinia fats, the value ranged from 140 to 200. Iodine value is a measure of the unsaturated
nature of the fat. The iodine value preferably should be 25-50. In different Garcinia seed
butters, iodine value varies from 37-51(Table 7). Iodine value allows predicting the tendency
of fat to become rancid. In coconut oil, the iodine value is very low (7.5- 10.5) and hence
shows a high tendency to get rancid easily.

Table 7. Chemical properties of Garcinia seed butter (Utpala and Nandakishore, 2014)
Chemical properties G. gummi-gutta G. indica G. xanthochymus G. mangostana

Acid value 3.7 4.9 4.8 4.5

(mg NaOH/g of oil)
Saponification number 187.9 200.2 190.3 140.5
(mg KOH/g of oil)
Iodine value 50.2 39.4 37.4 51.8
Free acids (%) 1.42 5.64 2.82 2.21

The fatty acid profile presented in the Table 8 shows that Garcinia butter has 7 important
fatty acids with various percentages in different species. The major fatty acids present were
palmitic acid, stearic acid, elaidic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, arachidic acid and eicosenoic
acid. Palmitic acid is present in very high yield (47%) in G. mangostana, while it is moderate
in other species. Palmitic acid is an ionic surfactant, which has a pleasing sensation to the
body. It is thus mainly used to produce soaps, cosmetics and releasing agents. Palmitic acid is
the commonest saturated fatty acid in the plants and animal lipids. Kokum butter from G.
indica is popular in skin care products because of its ability to soften skin and heal
ulcerations and fissures of the lips, hands and soles of feet. Palmitic acid helps to control
obesity and also helps to recover some reproductive abnormalities (Scott et al., 1988). It is
reported that the diet enriched with palmitic acid is good for diabetes (Utpala et al., 2012).
Stearic acid is present in very high concentration (30-40%) in G. gummi-gutta, G. indica and
G. xanthochymus; while its percentage is less in G. mangostana (2.3%) Stearic acid is
commonly used in the manufacture of soaps, detergents, shampoo, shaving creams and other
cosmetic products. It is one of the most common saturated fatty acids found in the nature
following palmitic acid (Utpala and Nandakishore, 2014). Butter rich in stearic acid is solid at
room temperature. It is also used in many food products because it remains stable at high
temperatures. It is commonly used in margarine and other spreads. Garcinia fats could be
taken as good source of stearic acid as well. A few plants which have stearic acid more than
30% in its seed oil are Butyrospermum paradoxum (shea), Shorea robusta (sal) and Vateria
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indica (dhupa). It is reported that the total plasma cholesterol is decreased by an average of
14% during the consumption of high stearic acid diet (Andrea and Scott, 1988). Oleic acid
also present in a good percentage in all the four species of Garcinia (26-35%). High oleic
acid makes the butter less susceptible to spoilage, so could be useful in food preservation.
Oleic acid may hinder the progression of adrenoleuko dystrophy, a fatal disease that affects
the brain and adrenal glands and also may be responsible for the hypotensive effects of olive
oil (Teres et al., 2008). Linoleic acid is another important acid which is present in a moderate
percentage (5-11%) in different Garcinia species. The use may include, helping to lose body
fat and possibly preventing colon or breast cancer (Nirvair et al., 2007). It is a strong
antioxidant with benefits such as lowering high cholesterol and controlling weight. Arachidic
acid (1-8%) is a saturated fatty acid and a minor constituent of peanut oil (1.1-1.7%) and corn
oil (3%). Arachidic acid is used for the production of detergents, photographic materials and
lubricants. The food rich with arachidonic acid is attributed with anti-inflammatory properties
(Adama et al., 2003).

Table 8. Fatty acid profile of Garcinia species (Utpala and Nandakishore, 2014)
Fatty acid Saturated/ G. gummi-gutta G. indica G. xanthochymus G. mangostana
unsaturated (%) (%) (%) (%)
Palmitic acid saturated 6.31 3.25 3.05 47.20
Stearic acid saturated 30.61 45.33 44.53 2.31
Elaidic acid unsaturated 9.54 3.00 1.51 --
Oleic acid unsaturated 26.23 34.42 35.33 34.02
Linoleic acid unsaturated 11.38 5.25 4.82 1.32
Arachidic acid saturated 5.41 1.20 1.00 8.04
Eicosenoic acid unsaturated -- 2.25 1.01 0.51
Other fatty acids 10.52 5.30 8.75 6.61

Conclusions
The awareness towards natural options in every walk of life created a new thrust for the plant
based products that involve food additives, nutracueticals, cosmetic ingredients and herbal
medicines. Herbal Technology (HT) is emerging as a promising field of modern science for
India. The rich floristic wealth of our region offers several underutilized plants that can be
used as source of gum, resins, fats, oils, condiments and nutraceutics. Garcinia is one among
such underutilized tropical forest tree that accounts to the economy of the ethnic community
associated. Pharmacological works are in progress in different parts of the world to use the
products from Garcinia fruits as anti obesity, anti cancer and to solve other digestive
problems The vitamins, minerals, micro-nutrients, pigments and phenolic compounds of
major Garcinia fruits in India were reviewed in the chapter and the fruits are having very
high nutraceutical values.

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