DARGAH

As a sacred commemorative built type of Chisti order in North Indian Islamic period (12-17th century)
Expressions & Narration-case of Dargah Sharif, Ajmer
Debasish Borah, M.Arch

The genesis of Dargah can be traced back to Persia in early 9th century and at that time they were
military centres called Ribat. Dargah literally can be divided into two words, “Dar” means house or
makam and “Gah” means time, so Dargah mean “House of the time”. With passage of time Ribats
were replaced by “Zawaiyas”1. The term dargah is used somewhere between 11-12th century AD.
The Sufi saints of Central Asia were the initial contacts between Islam and the people of the
Hindustan. These holy men settled down in the plains of India and are a proof that Islam in India is
not spread by the sword. In their massage of love and spirituality people of both religions found their
common ground, is still uniting the Hindus and the Muslims of this country.

The research paper aims to look at the architectural expression of Dargahs in India and their
narrations. An attempt is made to understand the expressions portrayed by these buildings and
understand do they share their genesis with tombs and mosques? The expressions of Dargah are
studied at two levels; meta-physical level and physical level. The meta-physical level attempts to look
at the Sufi tradition of “Unity of Being”2 and the concept of “Celebration of Death”. The physical
level is various analysis of the Dargah. The expressions of the Dargah give way to narrations of the
place, which in turn say about certain tension which is evident in the place. Finally an attempt is made
to understand architectural position of the Dargah. Expressions and narrations of the place evidently
point towards placement of these built types in certain position with respect to time, place or usage.
There are certain research questions which this paper attempts to answer like how is a Dargah
different than a tomb and a mosque; do they share their architectural conception? What cultural and
social layering a dargah carries with itself? What are the organizational principles involved in the
planning of Dargahs in terms of experiential qualities and ritualistic movements? And what
architectural position can be assigned to such sacred commemorative buildings? Where do they lie in
terms of conception and building usage?

Mumtaz Currim in her book “Dargah-abode of the saints” says- “The place where the master lived
and taught is known as Khanqah. The place where the master is buried and remembered through
prayers and pilgrimage is his maqam or Dargah.” 3 In this search paper, Dargah should be understood
as the chamber, where the holy saint lay buried and the whole complex comprising of mosques,
tombs, dalans, kitchens etc is referred as Dargah ensemble.

Coming to second part of the title: “sacred commemorative”, Sacred means the building exclusive to
Muslim prayer places and commemorative Buildings which were originally or exclusively “erected
over a Tomb or a holy place in order to emphasis and proclaim, as the case may be, the holiness, the
glory, the wealth, or the power of an individual or an event. 4 In case of a Dargah, it lies somewhere in
the junction of “Sacred” and “commemorative” buildings.

What is the significance of life and death for a Sufi? A diagrammatic explanation (Fig 1) explains the
whole phenomenon. The first level of a Sufi‟s life is “Ignorance”, when one is unaware of the divine.
Then comes the stage of “realization”, which marks the real journey of the person, when the divine
make himself known to the Sufi. This stage marks spiritual death and re-birth, so that one‟s soul is
empty before the divine knowledge comes into a person. The third stage is the one when the Sufi
renounces all worldly pleasures as he has known the Divine now, his heart longs for him. Finally, the
stage of “Fanna”-the physical death, when the Sufi dies his soul meets his maker and become one
with him. So, it‟s a journey from God, to God and in God.

The tradition of such buildings started in Persia sometimes in 8 th century AD, when Sufi‟s would rest
in certain military centers called “Ribats”. Later on by 11th century Zawiyas appeared in certain
mosques. Zawiyas are a type of small rooms, attached to a mosque for religious teachings. The time
after 11th-14th century is the period when Dargah‟s were built in India. By this time, Dargah‟s of large
courtyard type appeared, chiefly because there were more followers now and people needed more
areas for gathering. The last phase of Dargah, is after 14th century, when gradually they are in a
constant state of decline, socially, culturally and architecturally.

CUBE: FORM OF THE DARGAH

The physical form of the Dargah of Sheikh Moin-ud-din Chisti at Ajmer is a Cube, a three
dimensional form of a square. Several interpretations are derived for this form, both physical and
metaphysical. Physical qualities are certain measurable definitions which explain this form and
similarly metaphysical qualities derived from Islam also forms the base of understanding the shape.
Both these qualities are discussed here and possible derivations are examined. The physical qualities
for development of an architectural style is primarily determined by its culture, climate, materials and
various other trends which are intrinsic to the society or place it belongs to. In certain cases, this
merger is not direct and definite but ambiguous and indistinctive, like the case of Indo-Islamic tombs,
study of which cannot be defined in terms of dynasties or emperors and is independent of factors like
time or epoch. Nath puts it aptly- “ In whatever unit a style is classified, it is the trend which
determines the course of its development, rather than the patronage of a certain dynasty”. A certain
line of study which can possibly define this tradition, as previously mentioned, might be merger of
Islam with Indian native population, worthy for both. Hindustan got a singular identity, cutting across
numerous kings and kingdoms, while Islam got to merge itself with one of the most richest and
diverse of civilization. One of the earliest square tomb of an Emperor in India is Iltutmish‟s tomb at
Quwat-ul- Islam complex, 1236AD (Fig. 85) opened from two sides and west wall is reserved for
Quibla. A lot of commemorative buildings and tombs are already built in the Islamic world before
1236AD, all over middle east and North Africa, almost all of them are octagonal, inspired from The
Dome of Rock in Jeruselem,2(Fig. 86 & 87) one of the most holiest place of Islam, point from where
Prophet Muhammad went to his heavenly abode. Why the conception of Indo-Islamic tombs is is not
octagon, like elsewhere inspired from Dome of Rock, and rather a square? A possibility of this might
be ancient Hindu notion of Vastu-purush Mandala, nine fold plan, (Fig. 88) which formed the base of
all temples build in this country. This is a possibility to explain this behaviour. Once tradition starts, it
is followed for long periods of time, without acknowledging the conception. A fine example asserting
this position is the Tomb of Ghyaas-ud-din Tughluq, which he built for himself at Multan in 1320AD,
when he was a Wazir there and before establishment of Tughluq dynasty in Delhi. This perfectly
octagonal tomb has conical bastions at all eight angles and covered by a huge semi-circular dome.
After he annexed sultanate of Delhi and became the emperor of newly established Tughluq dynasty,
he presented his tomb to a Sufi, Sheikh Ruknuddin Multani, whom he highly venerated. He built for
himself a second tomb at Delhi, not an octagon this time, but a cube with slanting walls. Thus,
continuing the tradition of square tomb building in India. A reason behind this might be the
acceptance of traditional Hindu notion of space making by an Afghan ruler. The square plan form of
Holy Tombs at Ajmer, Nizamuddin or Fatehpur Sikri shows the continuity of ancient Hindu tradition
and asserts that these dervishes embraced
Hindustan, a country of non-believers, lived and died here. The first octagonal tomb in Indian
subcontinent was of Maqbul Khan-i- Jahan Telingani, at Nizamuddin, a Hindu convert and wazir in
times of Muhammad bin Tughluq and later Firoz Shah Tughluq. To understand this deviation from
traditional style of tomb building, a reason might be affiliation of certain Muslims towards central
Asia, heartland of Islam and an effort to breach merger with local Hindu customs. It has been an
unfortunate paradox of the medieval history of India that, converts to Islam or those Muslims who
were born of Hindu mothers were more fanatic in their profession of faith than those of pure blood,
Lodi‟s are a testimony to this phenomenon. This holds true even in Mughal times, Jehangir, born to a
Hindu mother was not so kindly disposed to Hinduism as was his father Akbar. Shah Jahan, born to
half Hindu father and Hindu mother was still more rigid, his son Auranzeb changed the whole
complexion of Mughal polity and converted it into a fully fledged theocracy. This explains the sudden
break of traditional lineage and adoptation of a foreign idea, all Mughal tombs, except Akbar‟s at
Sikandra; a square, are octagons.
Muslim revolves around right doings in this world so that one attains paradise after physical death.
Islamic paradise, Jannah, literally means garden. The descriptions of paradise are mentioned in
significant detail in the Qur‟an and hadiths. A Persian term “Hasht-Bihisht” (Fig.91) is used more
commonly here meaning „Eight Paradises‟ ie paradise in Islam is divided into eight levels; the highest
level is called firdaus loosely translated to paradise. Each of these eight gates and corresponding eight
levels have different Islamic meanings. So, the octagonal platform of tombs is a response to this
belief, which signifies the number eight. The tomb builders made an attempt to build paradise for the
dead emperor in this mortal and physical world. So, why the holy Tomb of Sufi dervishes are not
octagons, depicting paradise? Does a square or a three dimensional entity of the same; a cube, hold far
more sacred meaning in Islam? The black stone of Kabba, the holiest place of Islam in whole world is
a perfect cube physically; Tombs of such holy men are cube signifying something more divine and
sacred, above notions of death, paradise or Hasht-Bihisht and affinity towards the number eight.
which is for mortals. An interesting phenomenon is observed here, Bahlol Lodi (r. 1451-1488AD) in
whos reign the Tomb of Moin-ud-din Chisti at Ajmer was built, was buried in a square tomb (Fig. 92),
now in a bad shape near Dargah of Nasiruddin Chirag-e-Delhi at Chirag Delhi, a suburb in South
Delhi, unlike his predecessors or successors. Similarly Akbar (r. 1555-1605AD) built the Tomb of
Salim Chisti at Fatehpur Sikri in 1570s and his own burial tomb at Sikandra, (Fig. 93) planned by
himself is a square tomb, unlike any other Mughal tomb. Further understanding of this phenomenon,
made further complex by layering of time with it, can only be understood by understanding theology
of Islam in concrete sense.

MOVEMENT IN SPACE & NARRATIONS (Case of Dargah Sharif, Ajmer)

Islam prohibits building of tombs are any other rituals related to such practices. It took more than two
centuries for Muslim builders to erect the first tomb. In Indian subcontinent (north India and Pakistan)
tombs are holy and sacred as much as a mosque, in fact, the nature of life at such tombs is more
charismatic than any mosques. These are not ordinary tombs; these are burrial places of most
celebrated Sufis of Hindustan, people who owe the spread of Islam here in India. The place owe its
sacredness to its narrative qualities, the unfolding of spaces as a visitor moves around, sometimes in
definite paths, most of the times indefinitely. Narratives in architecture hels in perceiving of the space
by experience and not by reading plans and sections. “Narratives implies a knowledge acquired
through action and the contingencies of lived experiences”, asserts Potteiger in landscape Narratives.5
Narratives in case of Dargah is built over a span of time spreading several centuries, so study done
here is in three levels, 1469AD (Tomb & Buland Gate is built), 1571AD (Akbari mosque &
langarkhana is built) and 1638AD (Shahjahani gate & Shahjahani mosque is built). In 1469AD, the
tomb chamber stands alone with an entrance gate. The mighty Buland Darwaza asserts certain
domination upon a visitor, owing to its huge structure, thus, injecting a sence of being tiny. This
architectural intervention by certain emperor, whose personal ambition and desire to express power
through architecture has overshadowed the spirit of the place, very idea of Sufism, where a Sufi views
the Divine as his lover and yearns to meet him. On entering through this gate, one reaches a point
where sense of direction becomes obscure owing to placement of the tomb door, which is not in direct
line of sight. Unable to find the entrance, visitor is lost. One is pushed towards emptiness and
confusion which is actually a state of mind before realization of the Divine.6 It is only when one is
empty, the Divine knowledge of realization can flow inside. The site can be in tension at the entrance,
but while one moves inside and eventually towards the holy Tomb, this sense of tension ceases to
exist and space becomes tranquil. Certain polarity was asserted in 1571AD, when Akbar built a
mosque at very foot of the main entrance, a flexibility of movement and certain confusion is offered
to a visitor. On arrival at the gate, one is visually attracted by the mosque, which has high walls and is
completely shut from outside. This offers a flexibility of movement either towards the shrine or
towards mosque. The mosque functions on its own, irrespective of the Tomb and thus, a polarity of
spaces is created. On entering from the Buland darwaza, one view a Langarkhana on east, which now
sits on previously empty site. The previous perception of space with only the Tomb chamber changes
now and an otherwise lost visitor gets an anchor to move forward towards th main shrine. Moving
further towards Langarkhana, one sees the entrance door of the shrine and follows the visual path
towards it. It creates a clockwise movement around the shrine. Shahjahan‟s addition of Shahjahani
gate and mosque has profound impact on setting of the whole area. The otherwise secluded Akbari
mosque and the tension it created an arrival is eased by addition of Shahjahani gate. The Shahjahani
gate stitched the site together and made it a whole from different parts. The principal entrance gate to
the shrine, now, Shahjahani gate, which reasserts visual line towards the shrine, thus nullifying the
confusion built up by Akbari mosque. Placements of two gates one after another confirm the line of
both visual and physical movements. On entering from Shahjahani gate, Buland darwaza stands
upright in front and Akbari mosque on west, with its high walls and inert behaviour. On passing
Buland Darwaza, there is a pre-existing Langarkhana and a new shining white marble Shahjahani
mosque, on west, in axial line of the Tomb. Placement of this mosque changes the dynamics of whole
site. A visitor starts to move towards the mosque from the gate, given development of such strong
visual pull. Then, one moves through the narrow passage between mosque and Tomb and completes a
whole circle to reach the entrance of holy Tomb. Here, circumambulation happened in an ordered and
strict Muslim way, the way one moves around Kabba, anticlockwise. The positioning of this mosque
at
west of Tomb is far more than just taking advantage of cardinal directions. It supports a certain
pattern of movement which is Islamic, i.e. counter clockwise. Unlike Akbari mosque, Shahjahani
mosque doesn‟t have high walls, it always maintains a visual connection with the tomb, and hence is
all the time connected.

ARCHITECTURAL POSITION
Architecture always attains a position in space and time, desired or undesired. There can be numerous
ways of defining an architectural position viz its period of construction, patrons, builders, architect
etc, but this singularly straight path seems unclear, when it comes to defining of an architectural
position for a “Dargah”. In this case, the conception, role, architectural expressions, narrations and
positions keep on changing, owing to its dynamism. It took Dargah Sharif at Ajmer more than 600
years to come to its present state, one cannot imagine what will be the implications of expansion
certain years from now in future. It becomes extremely difficult in such cases to understand their
architectural position, because the very idea of conception might has been altered and even
architectural styles vary, given such considerable long span of time. The thesis attempts to develop an
understanding of architectural position in terms of building usage in Indo-Islamic building type and its
identity as a Islamic or an non-Islamic building. The first case of architectural position in terms of
building usage can be understood by examining the person who lay burried there. This Sufi dervish, a
epitome of Hindu- Muslim unity in early years of Muslim rule, preached Islam and advocated many
conversions, not by force, but by his message of love and brotherhood. He never wanted a tomb and
riches from emperors and rich people of the society, but an elaborate Tomb along with an ensemble
stands today. The conception of his Tomb is commemorative of his stay and death at this place, but at
the same time the place is sacred also. Hence, Dargah‟s are sacred commemorative built types and not
typology of any of the two. Michell in his book- Architecture of the Islamic World: History & Social
Meaning,8 attempts to assign an architectural position to Dargah‟s as “tomb mosques”. But Dargahs
are definitely not conceptualized as Tombs, because if it was so, then they won‟t be such dynamic and
lively places even after 600 years of the holy Man‟s death, element of sacredness cannot be
undermined in any case. Such generalizations and oversimplifications will have an adverse affect on
their understanding. This coming together of two very important institutions “Sacred” and
“Commemorative” creates a new layer which can be called “Sacred Commemorative”, till the time a
proper word is assigned. This shortcoming of English language of not having a word for such building
types shouldn‟t be a reason for oversimplification.
Moving towards the second parameter which speaks of identity of this buildings, then these “Sacred
Commemorative” buildings are definitely not Islamic. It is easy to categorise them under Islamic
umbrella because they are built by Muslim builders and for Muslim patrons, but it is important to
acknowledge that it was built for someone radical to traditional Islam. Even in spatial and elemental
level, one can observe the apparent tension which exists because of this “Islamization” of the place by
different emperors in different times. Previously, in the earlier sub chapter, one can see how the
experiential quality of space injects certain tension as newer mosques and gates are added, the best
example being addition of Shahjahani mosque, thus making circumambulation counter-clockwise ie.
Islamic. If we look at elemental level, Grabar in his article: The Iconography of Islamic Architecture”
explains that there are certain elements which are intrinsic to Islamic culture. It is very easy to brand a
building Islamic by visually identifying elements, such as Domes, iwans, courtyards or arches, but all
of these elements has a far more older history than Islam and non-Islamic functions. These elements
are adapted in Islamic architecture from civilizations older than itself. Grabar continues- “There are
two kinds of more or less traditional methods of dealing with such issues. One approach I would like
to call symbolic; its assumption is that there are features, perceptible visually, which, whatever their
origin, possess or have possessed an immediately accepted cultural association. A most obvious
example in islamic architecture is the minaret, whose meanings the place for Muslim call to prayer is
accepted by all. A less obvious but more important example is Muqarnas, the fascinating composition
of three dimensional units often called a stalactite or honeycomb.”10 The minaret is the place from
where believers would be called for their daily prayers, five times a day, these minaters have
elaborated Quranic verses such as-

“O you who believe, when the call is made for prayer on Friday, then hasten to the rememberence of God
and leave off trade; that is better for you, if you know. But when the prayer is ended, then disperse abroad
in the land and sek of God‟s grace, and remember God much, that you may successful.”
Quran, Sura LXII-9-10

This shows the extremely close relations of the minaret with Islamic culture, which revolve around
remembrance to God. Muqarnas are close to Islamic culture because of two main reasons because it is
a complete Muslim invention11, almost never copied in a non-muslim context except Armanians in
13th century, and secondly it is used in all kind of Islamic buildings and not only Mosques. This
stands testimony to the fact that minaret and muqarnas must have been uniquely meaningful to
Islamic culture and meaningful only in Muslim world. If we look at the case of Dargah Sharif at
Ajmer, it neither has a minaret nor muqarnas, if the Dargah was so important for Muslims during its
conception, why these two elements were not added. In today‟s time, when minaters are losing their
characteristic to modern day speakers, a huge speaker is attached to the Buland Darwaza at the
Dargah, because it‟s the highest point and not a minaret. These small but trivial issues point towards
certain facts which are undermined, like these places were not conceptualized as “Islamic” but their
radical nature was diluted in time and a “Islamic” flavour is added eventually. It should be clearly
understood here that, this paper doesn‟t call Dargah‟s as Hindu built types or so. I believe, no matter
how much attempts are made to create architectural tensions in the dargah ensemble to portray it as
Islamic, certain rituals still point out that it was never conceptualized as an Islamic place of worship,
like the concept of pradikshina, use of flowers in prayers, burning of Dia‟s and incense sticks, singing
& Music etc. I must make myself clear here that I am not calling them Hindu buildings. I can only
quote Michell Woods here- “there are moments in History where civilizations aspires to greatness,
India has done so, in Ancient ages and it did it again in the middle ages, it was the coming of Islam
that inspired the next great phase of Indian history.”

These buildings are symbolic of the merger of two great civilizations Islam and Hinduism. In the
teachings of Sufi saints, people of both religions found their common ground. As Dara Sikoh, a young
Mughal prince puts it as “meeting of the two oceans”, Dargah‟s are a testimony of this dramatic tale.

FURTHER RESEARCH QUERIES

1. It might not be correct to say they are funerary buildings. Death is celebrated here as life. Urs,
death anniversary of the Sufi, is celebrated like a festival. So its not death which is celebrated
but symbolic presence of a Sufi in the place which is most important.

2. Dargahs may not be direct typologies of tombs or mosques, but are rather a type of
architecture which emerged when cultures of Islam and Hinduism meet. They happen to grow
and flourish at a time when India was under Islamic rule and the builders were Muslim
patrons, that doesn't mean they are Islamic buildings. A further documentation and
understanding of Dargahs with layering of time, usage and place might reveal some constant
traits.

3. They may be actually Islamisized with the passage of time, to break their radical nature and
put them under Indo-Islamic domain, architecturally, socially and culturally.

4. For now they can be understood as “Sacred Commemorative” architecture of Sufism, and not
“Sacred” or “Commemorative” architecture of Islam, until a word for such building type is
not defined. Shortcoming of English language cannot be a reason for over-simplification or
generalizations.
PROPOSAL

This paper attempts to put on an architectural position of Dargah‟s at a brief way. To understand the
meanings in depth, it is necessary to study these buildings in detail. I am planning to measure draw at
least 10-12 Dargahs, across Pakistan, North India and South India as well, to understand their
architectural standings and also their cultural and social meanings. It is important to study this
previously less studied topic, because these are the burial places of saints, as previously mentioned,
who are actually responsible for the cultural mix of Hindus and Muslims in the Indian subcontinent.
The immense popularity of these places cannot be neglected. The dargahs to be studied are as follows:

1. Dargah of Bulleh Shah, Kasur, Pakistan

2. Khanqah of Shah Hamadan, Srinagar
3. Dargah of Dastagir Sahab, Srinagar (Not sure of its position, after it was burnt last year, 2012)
4. Dargah of Nizammudin Auliya, Delhi
5. Tomb of Nasiruddin Chiragh Dehlavi, Delhi
6. Tomb of Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, Delhi
7. Dargah of Salim Chisti, Fatehpur Sikri
8. Dargah of Moin Ud din chisti, Ajmer
9. Dargah of Hazrat Hamid Uddin Nagori, Nagore, Rajasthan
10. Dargah of Sheikh Ganj Baksh, Sarkhej, Ahmedabad
11. Dargah of Hazrat Syed Shahul Hameed, Nagore, TN
SELECTED BIBLLIOGRAPHY

1. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Art & Spirituality, Oxford University Press, 1990
2. Laleh Bakhtiar, SUFI- Expression of the Mystic Quest, Themes & Hudson, London, First print
1976, Re-print 1991
3. Laleh Baktiyar, Sense of Unity-The Sufi tradition in Persian Architecture, Chicago University
Press, Chicago, 1985
4. Michell, George, Architecture of the Islamic World; History & Social Meaning, Themes &
Hudson, London, 1978
5. R. Nath, History of Sultanate Architecture, Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, 1978
6. Fredrick W. Bunce, Islamic Tombs in India- The iconography & genesis of their design,
D.K.Printworld, New Delhi, 2004
7. Ebba Koch, Mughal Architecture, Prestel-verlag, Munich 1991.
8. Mumtaz Cumin & George Michell, Dargahs-Abode of the saints, Marg Publications, Bombay,
2004
9. Samina Quraeshi, Sacred Spaces- A journey with the Sufis of Indus, Mapin Publications, 2010
10. Robert Hillenbrand, Islamic Architecture-form, function and meaning, Edinburg
University Press, Edinburg, 2000
11. Jose Pereira, The Sacred Architecture of Islam, Aryan books, New Delhi, 2004
12. Kulbhushan Jain, Thematic Spaces in Indian Architecture, AADI Centre, Ahmedabad, 2002
13. Kulbhushan Jain, Architecture- Concept to the Manifest, AADI Centre, Ahmedabad, 2012
14. Charles Correa, A place in the Shade, Penguin Publications, New Delhi, 2010
15. Coleman Barks, The essential Rumi, Harper One Publications, New York, First Print 1995, re-
print 2009

GENERAL READINGS ON HISTORY

1. Khushwant Singh, Delhi-A novel, Penguin Books, New Delhi, 1990

2. Khushwant Singh, City Improbable-Writings on Delhi, Penguin Books, Delhi, 2004
3. Dr. Z.H. Sharib, The mystical Philisophy of Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti, Asma
Publications, Ajmer, First Print 1959, Re-print 2008
4. Dr. Z.A. Desai, A Guide to Nizamuddin, Archeological survey of India, New
Delhi, First print 1922, Re-Print 1998
5. Lucy Peck, Delhi : A thousand years of Building, Lotus Roli, New Delhi, 2005
JOURNELS

1. Grabar, Oleg, The earliest Islamic Commemorative Structures: Notes & Documents,
Constructing the study of Islamic Art, Vol. IV, 2005
2. Welch, Anthony and Howard Crane, The Tughluqs: Master Builders of the Delhi Sultanate. In
Muqarnas I: An Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. Oleg Grabar (ed.). New Haven: Yale
University Press,
3. Leisten, Thomas, Between Orthodoxy and Exegesis: Some Aspects of Attitudes in the Shari’a
toward Funerary Architecture, Muqarnas, Vol V,edited by Oleg Grabar, E.J. Brill, 1988
4. Moynihan, Elizabeth, The Lotus garden palaces of Zahir-ud-don-Muhammad Babur,
Muqarnas, Vol V,edited by Oleg Grabar, E.J. Brill, 1988
5. Lowery, Glenn, Humayun’s Tomb: Form, Function and meaning in early Mughal
Architecture, Muqarnas, Vol X,edited by Oleg Grabar, E.J. Brill, 1993
6. Yusupova, Maylyuda, Evolution of Architecture of the Sufi complexes in Bukhara, Bukhara:
The Myth and the Architecture. edited by Attilio Petruccioli, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Aga
Khan Program for Islamic Architecture,1999

VIDEOS
1. Michael Wood, The Story of India-Chapter 5, Meeting of two oceans, BBC
Documentary series, 2007