History Report (2)

The French Revolution

What were the causes of the French Revolution?:

Political Causes

The political causes of the French revolution included the autocratic monarchy, bankruptcy
and extravagant spending of royals. To understand the causes of the French Revolution, one
needs to understand France’s political structure before the revolution began. An autocratic
monarchy means that French society was governed by an all-powerful king or queen, believed
to have been given divine right to rule by God. These monarchs were hereditary rulers, which
meant that the son or daughter of the monarch would be the next ruler. As many believed the
monarchs to be a “representative of God”, they did not question the orders of their rulers. But
this unlimited power of the monarchs soon led to abuse. Under King Louis XIV reign all
monarchs could have anyone arrested and imprisoned by the Letter de Cachet. The monarchs
did not care for their subjects as even the innocent could be arrested and imprisoned at any
time. This caused anxiety, panic and fear in France.

King Louis XIV reigned from 1643 to 1713. After his death, his great-grandson, King Louis
XV became king at the age of five. Both his parents and brother had passed away in 1712, and
a regent, Philippe II, was appointed who would govern till he came of age. When King Louis
XV finally took the throne, he was a lazy leader who lacked self-confidence and spent more
time with his mistresses than with the affairs of state. His national policies never had firm
direction. He became known as the “butterfly monarch”. His involvement in the Seven Years
War (1756 – 1763) drained France’s treasury. While the country was bankrupt and many
 citizens were impoverished, taxes were generated to sustain a large army. King Louis XV
contributed to France’s bankruptcy due to overspending on his luxurious lifestyle and wars.

The next leader, Louis XVI (1774 – 1793) reign also set the stage for a revolution. King Louis
XVI is remembered as a simple man, but his wife Marie Antoinette lived in the lap of luxury.
Louis XVI inherited the kingdom and all the debt of France when he became king. He failed
to fix the financial situation. The expensive upkeep of his palace and the unnecessary
spending of Marie Antoinette angered the French population. Especially as the tax system
excluded nobility from paying tax, while the poor paid for the royals’ luxurious lifestyles. By
1786 Charles de Calonne, the general of finances, warned against raising taxes of the poor as
it could lead to unrest. As King Louis XVI did not want to tax nobility, De Calonne had to
approach European Banks for loans. While King Louis was unable to fix France’s financial
situation, his wife continued with her extravagant lifestyle. Marie-Antoinette’s never-minded
response to the poor suffering is mostly reflected in the quote: “Let them eat cake”. Even
though no evidence could be found that she truly said it, the famous quote does portray the
monarchy’s attitude. While many were starving, the monarchy turned a blind eye. This quote
shows how oblivious they were to the suffering of their people.

The defective administration of generations of monarchs set the stage for a French revolution.
The poor were no longer willing to pay for the monarchy’s extravagant lifestyles and unwise
foreign policies. People were starting to revolt against the idea of “divine rule” and started to
question the authority and wisdom of their monarchs.

Social Causes:

The second cause of the French revolution was based on the social structure of France. French
society was based on the relics of feudalism, which divided the French population in to three
classes based on the Estate System. According to the Estate System, people’s status and rights
were determined by the estate they owned. The three estates included the clergy, the nobility
and the peasants.

The first estate consisted of the clergy, which was subdivided into two groups, the upper and
lower clergy. The higher clergy were at the top of the hierarchy in French society, while the
lower clergy were impoverished. The higher clergy lived extravagantly, exploiting people and
exempt from paying taxes. While the lower clergy was also employed as workers of the
church, monasteries and educational institutions, but not in high positions such as the higher
clergy.

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 The second estate consisted of the nobility, which included two groups, namely the court
nobles and the provincial nobles. They were also exempt from paying taxes. However, the
provincial nobles actually cared for the people, while the court nobles only focused on leading
scandalously wealthy lives.

The third estate consisted of the peasants, which included the sweepers, farmers and cobblers.
They were the lowest classes in French society, who were forced to pay taxes to sustain the
luxuriously living of the first and second estate. But besides the unequal taxing given to the
third estate, they were also unequally represented in court. The third estate represented 98%
of the French population, yet they were outvoted by the first two estates. The third estate
fought against this unequal representation and began to mobilize support for abolishing the
noble veto. This meant that votes would be counted by the amount of people in favor or
against a law, rather than nobles dictating laws. This led to opposition from the first two
estates, who wanted to remain in control.

To fight against the current voting system, the Third Estate met on 17 June 1789 alone to
change the title of National Assembly. Three days later, they met at an indoor tennis court
and undertook the Tennis Court Oath, declaring that would not end their fight until they
achieved judicial, fiscal and governmental reform. On 27 June, after 47 liberal nobles joined
the Third Estate’s cause, Louis XVI accepted all three orders into a new assembly.

The rise of the third estate against the Estate System and unequal representation due to the
class structure also gave rise to the French Revolution. The poor were angered to pay for the
luxurious lifestyles of first and second estate. They were also tired of having 2% of the
population veto all their rights and having inequal representation in court even though they
made up 98% of French society.

Economic Causes:

Another cause of the French revolution was the economic conditions of France. King Louis
XIV “Seven Years War” left France bankrupt. His foreign policies led to expensive foreign
wars, which emptied the coffers of the royal treasury. After his death, he was succeeded by
Louis XVI. But as previously shown, even though the king was simple, his wife continued
with frivolous spending. King Louis XVI also refused to listen to the economic counsel given
to him, which led to necessary economic changes being ignored.

Firstly, when Louis XVI took the throne, Turgot was appointed Minister of Finance in 1774.
Turgot’s first duty was to rid France of their debt. He came up with a solution to appease the
peasants and fix France’s financial situation by minimizing spending of the royal court and

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 imposing taxes on all three estates. However, Turgot’s solution was dismissed after Marie
Antoinette intervened. Turgot was fired and Necker was appointed as the new Finance
Minister in 1776. Necker remained King Louis XVI Finance Minister for seven years. During
his time he published a report of the income and expenses of the government, to appease the
French population. But in 1783, he was also fired. Finally, Calonne was appointed Minister of
Finance in 1783.

Calonne advised the king to improve France’s financial situation by approaching European
banks for a loan. The European banks were not keen to lend money to France, but Calonne
was able to obtain a loan. Calonne’s solution proved problematic. When France finally did
receive a loan, their debt doubled within three years from 300, 000, 000 to 600, 000, 000.
Thereafter, Calonne realized that his solution was not feasible and urged the king to impose
taxes on all three classes. Finally, Calonne was also dismissed.

King Louis XVI economic decisions finally set the stage for the revolution. The monarchy
refused to impose taxes on all three estates, while the royals continued living in a lap of
luxury. These decisions created economic instability in France. The peasants were angered, as
while they were starving, they had to maintain the standard of living for the rich. Therefore,
the economic conditions in France was one of the main reasons for the revolution.

Ultimately, there was three main reasons for the French Revolution. The Estate System,
economic policies and autocratic monarchy gave rise to a bloody revolution, which led to the
need for equality, liberty and fraternity in France.

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What is the Legacy of the French Revolution of 1789 or What
were the consequences of the French Revolution?
The Bloody French Revolution officially began when hundreds of French city workers stormed the
Bastille fortress in Paris in 1789. Although the revolution came to an end in the late 1790’s, its
legacy (or consequences) had a significant impact on the World, especially other European
countries. This statement will be examined by discussing various political and socio-economic
legacies of the French Revolution of 1789, while discussing how the idea of the possibility that
popular mobilization can overthrow established monarchies and aristocracies rose from the French
Revolution of 1789.

Political Legacies:

When discussing the legacy of the French Revolution, it is important to understand the causes of
the revolution as it gives one a better understanding of the desired outcomes. For example, one of
the main causes was that French citizens who belonged to the Third Estate. Grew significantly tired
of the absolute power and wealth of the French monarchy and wanted a political system that

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represented the popular interests. Consequently, one of the direct consequences of the revolution
was that France became a Republic; which indicated a step towards liberty, equality and
democracy. This need for liberty and equality spread to many other countries and especially to
countries in central Europe, where popular protest and movements called for the election of
parliaments and to ultimately demolish the feudalistic-approach of European life.

As briefly mentioned, the French Revolution of 1789 demonstrated that an organized group of
popular protest and mutual interests could demolish something as established as old monarchies
and aristocracies. This idea significantly led to the revolution of the slaves of Saint-Domingue, a
French Colony on one of the Caribbean Islands, who mobilized themselves for the fight for their
independence. In 1804 this movement was able to finally break free from French colonial rule and
establish the Republic of Haiti.

Socio-Economic Legacies:

When discussing the political movements that were influenced by the French Revolution, it is also
important to discuss the Socio-Economic legacies that were influenced by the changes in the
political environments. For example, the fall of the monarchy also meant that the French system of
estates (based on Feudalism) also crumbled. This meant that the French middle class were able to
gain better opportunities through acquiring more land (as the Church’s lands were nationalized)
and having to pay less taxes (as they did not have to pay Feudal taxes anymore). Furthermore, the
elite classes (such as the nobles and corrupt clergy) lost most of their power and
privileges. Therefore, it is evident that the revolution led to a significant change in the political,
social and economic structures of France.

Growth of Nationalism:
With the middle class and “peasants” (in this context, French farmers) gaining more opportunities
and a better standard of living and the decline of Feudalism, as well as the loss of extreme
privileges of the clergy and nobleman, a need for the growth in Nationalistic sentiments
continued. Consequently, instead of the protection provided by the Feudalistic-structure, a French
army was established. Other examples of the lasting spread of French Nationalism, is the change of
France’s flag (the Tricolore), the National anthem (the Marseillaise) and the creation of France’s
National Day (Bastille Day). The legacy of French Nationalism out of the French Revolution still
exists today.

When discussing the causes and outcomes of the French Revolution of 1789, it evident that the
outcomes of the revolution had a lasting impact on the French political, social and economic way

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of life. As seen in the examples of the changing social structures, the change in the tax system and
finally the strong rise in French Nationalism. It is also important to note the legacy created by the
ideology of the French Revolution and its effect on many European countries. For example, as
seen in the growth of the Jacobin movements. One of the most significant phenomena surrounding
the French Revolution of 1789 and its legacy, is that the world was able to witness how people
were able to organize themselves to fight for National interest and take down century old ways of
life. This ultimately led to the legacy and the birth of the idea of the possibility of differing
political ideologies.

While colonialism and slavery flourished in the 18th century, the foundations of modern democracy
were also being established. It is important to consider the ideas of liberty, equality, fraternity and
individual freedom in the late 18th century, and to understand what these meant in societies of the
time. The conditions in France that caused the revolution in 1789 should be put into context
regarding why revolutions did not occur in a reforming monarchy such as the United Kingdom, or
in Russia.

Major events in the French Revolution:

1.The palace of Versailles was built on the château, a rural location of a luxurious residence, of
Louis XII. Louis XIV established his royal court and government at the palace in 1682. Power was
retained in the palace until the reign of Louis XVI. The beginnings of revolution in France forced
Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, out of the palace.

2.The Period of Reform (1781-1789):Tennis Court Oath and the National Constituent
Assembly.

Louis XVI attempted to bring economic reform to France in 1788. Jacques Necker was a key role
player in Frances economic status. Having previously financed French troops in the American war
of independence, Necker had caused an accumulation of public debt. When Necker was recalled to
office by King Louis XVI, there was the decision to consult the Estates General in order to handle
France’s economic status. The Estates General was a parliament that was composed of clergy,
nobility and commoners. Up until this point, the Estates General had not convened in 175 yrs.

The Estates General convened at the Palace of Versailles in the May of 1789. In this meeting, the
third estate advocated for voting rights. The first two estates refused to grant them with these

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rights. As a result, the third estate broke away and decided to form the National Assembly. They
sought support from sympathetic nobles and clergymen. On the 20th of June, members of the
National Assembly were locked out of Versailles. Instead of convening in the palace, they chose to
meet in a nearby tennis court. Here they swore to remain until a constitution is established.This
oath became known as the Tennis Court Oath.

Between the 17th of June and 19th of July , 1789, the National Constituent Assembly was formed in
France. This was arguably a milestone in France’s path towards a revolution. Jacques Necker,
France’s finance minister, was a strong advocate for the merging of the estates. The formation of
the National Assembly allowed the three estates to vote together. The privileged estates fiercely
opposed Necker. Subsequently, King Louis XIV fired Necker on the 11th of July. The reason for
this being Necker’s sympathies with France’s Third Estate. This dismissal had an immediate
impact on France, and contributed to riots. It also played a role in triggering the Storming of the
Bastille.

3.Storming of the Bastille:

Riots took place in France between the 7th and 14th of July, 1789. The King had ordered a
concentration of troops to be stationed around Paris. In addition to this, rumours about a potential
‘royal clampdown’ were sparked. The rioting ended with the capture of the Bastille prison on the
14th of July 1789.

The Bastille prison was the place in which high-ranking state prisoners were held. This prison was
guarded by 18 canons, 12 artillery pieces, 32 grenadiers and 82 veteran soldiers. On the 14 th of
July, rumours had spread that troops would be marching through Paris to end the rioting. In
response to the rumour, an estimated 600 to 1000 people assembled with weapons that had been
seized from the Hôtel des Invalides. The crowd then gathered in front of the Bastille to collect
military equipment to defend against the troops. After unsuccessful delegations on the part of
Bernard-René de Launay, the governor of the Bastille, the crowd forced their way into the
undefended outer courtyard.

The mob ended up storming the prison. Word spread quickly about the fall of the Bastille, and
prompted further uprisings across France. This event supposedly symbolised the overthrowing of
royal tyranny. The Storming of the Bastille forced King Louis XVI to accept the National
Assembly. On the 4th of August the National Assembly deputies voted against Feudal privileges
(hyperlink to topic 1). The National Assembly was instrumental in passing a series of reforms, one
of which included the ‘Declaration of the Rights of Man’.

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This phase saw the undoing of the Feudal system in France. Church land was sold off, and
members of clergy were forced to make civic oaths to the state. This act would, in fact, later lead to
the counter-revolution. During this time, political clubs like the Cordeliers and Jacobins attempted
to control the National Assembly. The Jacobins were a ‘political party’ that had control throughout
France. On the 12th of June, 1791, The King attempted to flee Versailles, but was captured in
Varennes. After this event, the people of France lost their faith in the King.

4.The period of violent change (1792-1794):The Jacobins, the National Convention and the
Committee for Public Safety.

In the April of 1792, France declared war on Austria and Prussia. France then suffered from a
series of military defeats, and panic spread across the country. On or around the 10th of August,
Parisian radicals stormed the Tuileries. Tension grew in France, and while the Tuileries was
stormed, a revolutionary Commune initiated the massacre of 1200 ‘counter-revolutionaries’. On
the 20th of September, a radical Assembly known as the National Convention was elected.
Following this, France was declared a republic.

On the 21st of January 1793, King Louis XVI was sentenced to death by guillotine. France was
weak to foreign invasion. Internally, France faced the challenge of maintaining peace. They
enforced conscription on citizens. A counter-revolution, in this case a civil war, broke out for three
days. It was ended when a Revolutionary Tribunal was established on the 10th of March, 1793. The
aim of the tribunal was to provide instant justice and the Committee for Public Safety (CPS).
Although the CPS had been established, the National Convention experienced conflict as a result
of conflicting factions. The Girondins were expelled from the National Convention on the 2nd of
June. Evidently, this gave rise to the power of the Jacobins.

5.The Jacobins, Robespierre and the Reign of Terror:

Maximilien Robespierre took over leadership of the Jacobins and aimed to create a new republic in
France, one that upheld ‘virtue’ and ‘citizenship’. This period saw a change in many systems,
including the French calendar and naming of towns. The Reign of Terror began on the 5th of
September 1793, when an official war was declared on those who held counter-revolutionary
alliances or sympathies. Terror across France spread, and instant justice took precedence. In 10
months, as many as 20 000 citizens were executed for being ‘enemies of the revolution’. On the
27th of July, 1793, Robespierre and the Jacobin leaders were overthrown and sent to the guillotine.
Following this, the ‘white terror’ resulted in an anti-Jacobin backlash.

6.End of the revolution (1795-1799):Napoleon Bonaparte.

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Napoleon Bonaparte defeated the remaining royalists on the 5th of October 1795. On the 3rd of
November, the Committee for Public Safety (CPS) was replaced with a five-man Directory.
Following this, there were two attempted elections, but they were both annulled due to
royalist/radical divisions. By 1799, Napoleon led a coup d’état against the five-man Directory.
Within five years, Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor of France.

7.The Role Ordinary People and Women in the Revolution:

Ordinary people were at the forefront of the revolution. The Storming of the Bastille was led by
ordinary people, and soon after, peasants in France became politically active. Middle class
individuals began to take over the running of their local towns. One could argue that when the
National Assembly relocated to Paris, the number of ordinary people in attendance grew. By the
time the Reign of Terror came around, many people joined the revolutionary armies. All of this
resulted in a significant change in their status, they were no longer seen as subjects of the king, but
rather citizens with rights. With that being said, many peasants did not support the Reign of Terror.
A lot of workers and peasants were executed during the Reign of Terror.

Women played a very important role in the revolution. They were instrumental in leading a bread
march to Versailles on the 5th of October 1789. Women had to provide for their families, and were
affected by the overpriced food. Middle class women did not appreciate the aristocracy’s
overspending. Middle class women also wanted to gain political favour. Evidence suggests that
Olympe de Gouges was instrumental in creating the ‘Declaration of the Rights of Women and the
Female citizen in 1791. Some historians believe that the French revolution was the beginning of
the fight for women’s equality in Europe. Another influential woman was Manon Roland. She was
married to a revolutionary leader and vocalised the need for gender equality. She was later
imprisoned and executed.

By the end of the revolution, the estate system had come to an end. This did not result in
immediate changes for the French working class. Many of the class structures remained the same.
Further effects of these class structures were seen in the subsequent Haitian revolution.

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