MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL

Forensic Ballistics     invented over a thousand years ago and consisting
    of nitrate,charcoal,and sulfur.
Forensic ballistics - is the science of analyzing firearms 4. Bore - the inside of the barrel.
usage in crimes. It involves analysis of bullets and bullets 5. Breech - the end of the barrel attaches to the action
impact to determine information of use to a court or other 6. Bullets - is a projectile propelled by firearm,sling,
part of legal system. Separately from the ballistics     airgun. They are shaped or composed differently for a
information, firearm and tool mark examinations also variety of purposes.
involves analyzing firearm, ammunition and tool mark   round nose - the end of the bullet is blunted.
evidence in order to established whether a certain firearm  hollow point - there is a central cavity in the
or tool was used in the commission of crime. bullet nose not covered by a metal jacket that
Ballistics -(ballein "to throw") - is the science of creates expansion when a target is struck,
mechanics that deals with the flight, behavior and effects creating more damage.
of projectiles especially bullet, gravity bombs, rockets or  action 4 - hollow point projectile made of non-
the like. fragmenting brass with radiopaque plastic tip.
Ballistic missile - is a missile, only guided during the  hydra-Shock - hollow point projectile with soft
relative brief initial powered phase of flight whose course deformable anterior and hard posterior core.  
is subsequently governed by the laws of classical  Jacketed - the soft lead is surrounded by
mechanics. another metal, usually copper, that allows the
Flight - is the process by which an object moves through bullet to penetrate a target more easily.
an atmosphere by generating aerodynamic lift, propulsive  wad-cutter - the front of the bullet is flattened.
thrust, aerostatically using buoyancy or by ballistic
 semi-wad-cutter - intermediate between round
movement without any direct solid mechanical support
nose and wad-cutter.
from the ground.
7. Butt or Buttstock - the portion of the gun which
Firearms identification - the identification of fired
    is held or shouldered.
bullets, cartridge cases or other ammunition  components
8. Caliber - the diameter of the bore measured from
as having been fired from a specific firearm.
    land to land, usually expressed in hundredths of an
Rifling - is the process of making helical grooves in the
inch (.22 cal) or in millimeters (9mm).
barrel of a gun or firearm which imparts a spin to a
9. Cartridge - also called a round - packages the  
projectile around its long axis. This spin stabilize the
    bullet, propellant and primer into a single unit within a
projectile, improving its stability and accuracy.
containing metallic case that is precisely made to fit
Projectile - is any object projected into space by the
within the firing chamber of a firearm.
exertion of a force.
            
Trajectory - is the path that a moving object follows
         Parts of a cartridge
through space as a function of time.
         a. bullet
Firearm - is a weapon that launches one or many
         b. case/shell
projectiles at high velocity through confined burning of a
         c. powder
propellant.
         d. primer
Ballistic fingerprinting - involves analyzing firearm,
ammunition and tool mark evidence in order to establish
10. Centerfire - the cartridge contains the primer in
whether a certain firearm or tool was used in the
      the center of the base where it can be struck by
commission of a crime.
      firing pin of the action.
Gun ballistic - is the work of projectile from the time of
11. Chamber - the portion of the action that holds
shooting to the time of impact with the target.
      the cartridge ready for firing.
Internal/interior ballistic - the study of the processes
12. Choke - a constriction of a shotgun bore at the
originally accelerating the projectile. example - the
      muzzle that determines the pattern of the fired
passage of a bullet through the barrel of a rifle.
      shot.
Transition/intermediate ballistic - the study of the
13. Double Action - Pulling the trigger both cocks
projectiles behavior when it leaves the barrel and the
      the hammer and fires the gun.
pressure behind the projectile is equalized.
14. Double Barrel - two barrels side by side or one
External/exterior ballistic - the study of the passage of
      on top of the other usually on a shotgun.
the projectile through a medium, most commonly the
15. Gauge - refers to the diameter of the barrel on a
earths atmosphere.
      shotgun in terms of the number of lead balls the
Terminal ballistic - is the study of the interaction of a
      size of the bore it would take to weigh one pound (10
projectile with its target.
gauge,12-gauge etc) "410" gauge really refer to caliber,
Colonel Calvin Hooker Goddard - father of forensic
but it is worded as such to refer to a
ballistic.
      shotgun.
Breech loading firearm - is a firearm in which the
16. Hammer - a metal rod or plate that typically
cartridge or shell is inserted or loaded into a chamber
      drives a firing pin to strike the cartridge primer to
integral to the rear portion of a barrel.
detonate the powder.
Sir Hiram Maxim - an American inventor of the machine
17. Ignition - the way in which powder is ignited. Old
gun or the maxim gun.
muzzle loading weapons used flintlock or percussion
Richard Gatling - inventor of the Gatling gun, a machine
caps. Modern guns use primers that are
gun with a six barrel capable of firing 200 rounds per
      rimfire or centerfire.
minute at the earliest stages of development.
18. Lands and Grooves - lands are the metal inside
Gatling Gun - a hand driven, crank operated multi barrel
      the barrel left after the spiral grooves are cut to
machine gun.
      produce the rifling.
Fouling - deposits of unburned powder residue in the
19. Magazine - this is a device for storing cartridges
bore of a gun.
      in a repeating firearm for loading into the chamber.
What is the indispensable tool of the firearm
20. Magnum - for rifles and handguns, an improved
examiner? comparison microscope.
      version of a standard cartridge which uses the
Firearms Terminology
      same caliber and bullets, but has more powder,
1. Action - the part of the firearm that loads, fires,
      giving the fired bullet more energy. For shotgun
    and ejects a cartridge.Includes lever action,pump  
      loads, magnum shells have more powder and may
    action, bolt action,and semi-automatic.The  first 
have increased length with more shot pellets.
    three are found in weapons that fire a single shot.
21. Muzzle - the end of the barrel out of which the
    Firearms that can shoot multiple rounds "repeaters"
      bullet comes.
include all these types of actions but only the semi-
22. Pistol - synonym for a handgun that does not
automatic does not require manual operation between
      have a revolving cylinder.
rounds. A truly automatic action is found on a machine
23. Powder - modern gun cartridges use smokeless
gun.
powder that is relatively stable,of uniform quality, and
2. Barrel - the metal tube through which the bullet
leaves little residue when ignited. For centuries black
    is fired.
powder was used and was quite volatile (ignited at low
3. Black Powder - the old form of gun powder
temperature or shock), was composed of irregularly sized
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
grains,and left a heavy residue after ignition, requiring the energy of discharge to perform a portion of the operating or
frequent cleaning of bore. firing cycle (usually the loading portion).
24. Primer - a volatile substance that ignites when Actuator - part of the firing mechanism in certain automatic
      struck to detonate the powder in a cartridge. firearms that slides forward and back in preparing each
  Rimfire cartridges - have primer inside the cartridge to be fired.Also called trigger actuator.
base. Ammunition - one or more loaded cartridges consisting of a
 Centerfire cartridges - have primer in a hole in primed case,propellant and with one or more projectiles.
the middle of the base of the cartridge case. Anvil marks - microscopic marks impressed on the  forward
25. Revolver - handgun that has a cylinder with face of the rim of a rimfire cartridge case as it is forced against
      holes to contain the cartridges.The cylinder the breech end of the barrel by the firing pin.These marks are
      revolves to bring the cartridge into position to be characteristic of the breech under the firing pin and have been
      fired.This is a single action when the hammer must used to identify firearm.
be cocked before the trigger can fire the weapon. It is AP - abbreviation for armor-piercing ammunition.
double action when pulling the trigger both cock and fires Apogee - the maximum altitude a projectile will reach when
the gun. shot in the air.
26. Riffling - the spiral grooves cut inside a gun Assault rifle - automatic weapon designed to be fired by one
      barrel that give the bullet a spinning motion.The man.Ammunition is fed from a magazine.
      metal between the grooves is called a land. Automatic - a firearm capable of ejecting a cartridge casing
27. Rimfire - the cartridge has the primer distributed following  discharge and reloading the next cartridge from the
around the periphery of the base. magazine.
28. Safety - a mechanism of an action to prevent Automatic action - a firearm design that feeds cartridges,fires,
      firing of the gun. and ejects cartridge cases as long as the trigger is fully
29. Shotgun - a gun with a smooth bore that shoots depressed and there are cartridges available in the feed
      cartridges that contain "shot" or small metal pellets of system.
lead or steel as the projectiles. Auto-safety - a locking device on some firearms designed to
30. Smoothbore weapons - have no riflings, return to the on or safe position when the firearm is opened.
      typically shotguns.Most handguns and rifles have Azo dye - a result of the Griess test where nitrates from
riflings. gunpowder residues are converted to an orange-red dye.
31. Sights - the device on top of the barrel that allow the Ball ammunition - military small arms ammunition with full metal
gun to be aimed. jacket bullets,also known as hard ball.
32. Silencer - a device that fits over the muzzle of Ballistics - the study of a projectile in motion,following the
      the barrel to muffle the sound of a gunshot.Most projectile travel from primer ignition to barrel exit,to target entry
      work by baffling the escape of gases. and until motion is stopped.
33. Single Action - the hammer must be manually Ballistics,exterior - The study of the motion of the projectile
      cocked before the trigger can be pulled to fire the after it leaves the barrel of the firearm.
gun Ballistics,Interior - the study of the motion of the projectile
 34. Smokeless Powder - refers to modern gun within the firearm from the moment of ignition  until it leaves the
      powder which is not really powder but flakes or barrel.
      nitrocellulose and other substances.Not really Ballistics,terminal - the study of the projectiles impact on the
      smokeless but much less so than black powder. target.
35. Stock - a wood,metal,or plastic frame that holds Barium - alkaline earth metal with chemical symbol Ba,atomic
      the barrel and action and allows the gun to be held number 56.Present as barium nitrate in the primer.
firmly. Barium nitrate - a common oxidizer of the primer compound
Composition of Gunpowder used in gun cartridges.
  1. Sulfur Barrel - that part of a firearm through which a projectile travels
  2. Charcoal under the impetus of powder gases,compressed air, or other
  3. Saltpeter (potassium nitrate) like means,may be rifled or smooth.
      - gun powder first appeared in china but used BB - air rifle projectile of 0.177 in. diameter or a shotgun pellet
        primarily in firecrackers. of 0.18 in. diameter.
Different Firing Mechanisms of Firearm BBB shot - shotgun pellet of 0.19 in. diameter.
  1. Matchlock - employed a burning wick on a spring Beretta - is an Italian firearms manufacturer.It is the oldest
that was "locked" back and released into a pan ofpowder active firearms manufacturer in the world.
upon pulling a trigger. The powder in the Beveling - (external or internal) defects that occur when a
      pan then ignited, sending flame through a small projectile passes through a flat bone.The perforation in the bone
      hole into the barrel chamber of the weapon, is typically larger and more cone shaped as the bullet passes
      igniting a larger powder charge in the chamber and from the entrance through the bone to the exit.
      sending the projectile (bullet) forward. Bipod - is an attachment for a weapon that creates a steady
  2 Wheellock - in the early 16th century, improvement plane for whatever it may be attached.
      included the wheellock mechanism in which a              A two-legged rest or stand as for rifle or machine gun.
      spinning wheel against a metal plate showered
      sparks into the pan holding the priming powder. Black powder - the earliest form of propellant.It is a mechanical
  3. Flintlock - developed in the early 17th century, mixture of potassium nitrate or sodium nitrate,charcoal and
      flint is released by the trigger mechanism that sulfur.
      strikes a steel plate to shower sparks into the pan Blasting cap - a small explosive charge triggered by lighting a
      filled with powder. safety fuse or applying an electric current used to detonate high
  4. Percussion - evolved in the 19th century, explosives.
      consisted of a hammer that was locked and when Blunderbuss - is a muzzle-loading firearm with a short,large
      released, struck a cap containing a volatile caliber barrel which is flared at the muzzle and frequently
      "primer" that ignites on impact, sending a flame throughout the entire bore and used with shot and other
      through a small tube into the barrel chamber.  projectiles of relevant quantity and/or caliber.
Bolt action - is a type of firearm action in which the weapons
bolt is operated manually by opening and closing of the breech
(barrel) with a small handle most commonly placed on the right
Acetone - The simplest ketone. A solvent for gun powder.A
hand side of the weapon for (right hand users).
highly flammable,water-soluble solvent.
                     A firearm in which the breech closure is in line with
Action - the action of the gun consists of all the moving parts
the bore at all times.It is manually reciprocated to load,unload
that facilitate
and cock and is locked in place by breech-bolt lugs and
the loading,firing,discharging of the empty case and unloading
engaging abutments usually in the receiver.
of the gun.
Bore - the interior of a barrel,forward of the chamber.
Action, revolver - a firearm,usually a handgun with a cylinder
Bore brush - A brush usually having brass,nylon,or plastic
having several chambers so arrange as to rotate around an axis
bristles which is used to clean deposits from the bore of a
and be discharge successively by the same firing mechanism.
firearm.
Action, semi-automatic - a repeating firearm requiring a
Bore diameter - in a rifled barrel,it is the minor diameter of a
separate pull of the trigger for each shot fired and which uses
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
barrel which is the diameter of a circle formed by the tops of the reduce the spread of shot as it leaves the gun to increase its
lands.In a shotgun,it is the  interior dimensions of the barrel effective range.
forward of the chamber but before the choke. Clip - a separate cartridge container used to rapidly reload the
Brass - a slang term sometimes used for fired cartridge cases. magazine of a firearm.Also called  stripper.
Breech - the part of the firearm at the rear of the bore into Coefficient of form - a numerical term indicating the general
which the cartridge of propellant is inserted. profile of a projectile.
Breech block - the locking and cartridge head-supporting Combination gun - a multiple-barreled firearm designed to
mechanism of a firearm that does not operate in line with the handle different  sizes or types of ammunition.
axis of the bore. Concentric fractures - patterns of cracks in glass pierced by a
Breech blot - the locking and cartridge head-supporting missile like a bullet which runs between the radial fractures and
mechanism of a firearm that operates  in line with the axis of the which originate on the side of the glass from which the impact
bore. came.
Breech face - that part of the breech block or breech bolt that is Copper-clad steel - a composite structure of copper and steel
against the head of the cartridge  case or shot shell during used for the manufacture of certain bullet jackets.Metallic
firing. element with the chemical symbol Cu and atomic number 29
Breech face markings - negative impression of the breech that commonly comprises "cartridge brass" that is typically 70%
face of the firearm found on the head of the cartridge case after copper and 30% zinc (Zn)
firing. Centerfire - is a cartridge with a primer located in the center of
Breech-loading weapon - is a firearm in which the cartridge or the cartridge case head.Unlike rimfire cartridges,the primer is a
shell is inserted or loaded into a chamber integral to the rear separate and replaceable component.
portion of a barrel. Chamber - is that portion of the barrel or firing cylinder in which
Broach - rifling tool consisting of a series of circular cutting the cartridge is inserted prior to being fired.
tools mounted on a long rod.The rifling is cut in on pass of the Clay pigeon shooting - (clay target shooting) formally known
broach through the gun barrel. as inanimate bird shooting is the art of shooting at special flying
Browning arms co. - is a maker of firearms founded in Utah in targets known as clay pigeons or clay targets with a shotgun or
1927. any type of firearm.
Buckshot - lead pellet ranging in size from 0.20 in. to 0.36 in. Cylinder - rotating chambered breech of a revolver. Damascus
diameter. barrel - an obsolete barrel-making process.The barrel is formed
Bullet - is a projectile propelled by a firearm,sling,or air gun. by twisting or braiding together steel and iron wires or bars.The
Bullet-bearing surface - that part of the outer surface of a resulting cable is then wound around a mandrel and forged into
bullet that comes into direct contact with the interior surface of a barrel tube.This type of barrel is also called a laminated
the barrel. barrel.
Bullet creep - the movement of a bullet out of the cartridge Decant - the process of pouring off the supernatant during
case due to the recoil of the firearm and the inertia of the separation from a pellet after a mixture has been centrifuged or
bullet.Also called bullet starting.Also known as popping. left to settle.
Bullet,frangible - a projectile designed to disintegrate upon Derringer - the generic term applied to many variations of
impact on a hard surface in order to minimize ricochet or pocket size pistols either percussion or cartridge made by
spatter. manufacturers other that Henry Derringer up to present time.
Bullet jacket - usually a metallic cover over the core. Discharge - to cause a firearm to fire.
Bullet,lead - a standard lead bullet having a harder metal jacket Disconnector - a device to prevent a semi-automatic firearm
over the nose formed from a lead alloy,also known as metal- from firing full automatic.Some pump action shotguns also have
point bullet.This non spherical projectiles is for use in a rifled disconnectors.
barrel. Distance determination - the process of determining the
Bullet recovery system - any method that will allow the distance from the firearm, usually the muzzle, to the target
undamaged recovery of a fired bullet.Water tanks and cotton based upon pattern of gunpowder or gunshot residues
boxes are most commonly in use. deposited upon that target.Where multiple projectiles such as
Bullet wipe - a dark ring-shaped mark made up of shot have been fired,the spread of those projectiles is also
lead,carbon,oil and dirt brushed from a bullet as it enters the indicative of distance.
skin and found around the entry wound.The discolored area on Double action - a gun action where the pulling of trigger to fire
the immediate periphery of a bullet hole,caused by bullet a round recocks the gun so that the next round is ready to be
lubricant,lead,smoke bore debris or possibly,jacket fired.
material.Sometimes called burnishing or leaded edge. Drawback effect - the presence of blood in the barrel of a
Burr striations - a roughness or rough edge especially one left firearm that has been drawn awkward due to the effect created
on metal in casting or cutting.A tool or device that raises a burr. by discharged gasses.This is seen frequently in close-range
Butt - in handguns,the buttom part of the grip frame.In long contact gunshot injuries.
guns,it is the rear of shoulder end of the stock. Driving edge,fired bullet - the driving edge of a fired bullet with
Caliber - the approximate diameter of the circle formed by the a right twist is the left edge of the groove impression or the right
tops of the lands of a rifled barrel. edge of the land impression.The driving edge of a fired bullet
Cannelure - a circumferential groove generally of a knurled or with left twist is the right edge of the groove impression or the
plain appearance in a bullet or the head of a rimless cartridge left edge of the hand impression.
case. Ejection - the act of expelling a cartridge or cartridge cases
Carbine - a rifle of short length and lightweight originally from a firearm.
designed for mounted troops. Ejection pattern - the charting of where a particular firearm
Cartridge - is also called a round, packages the ejects fired cartridge cases.
bullet,propellant (usually smokeless powder or gun powder) and Ejector - a portion of a firearms mechanism that ejects or
primer into a single unit within a containing metallic case that is expels cartridges or cartridge cases from a firearm.
precisely made to fit within the firing chamber of the firearm. Ejector marks - tool marks provided upon a cartridge or
Cartridge case head - the base of the cartridge case which cartridge case on the head,generally at or near the rim from
contains the primer. contact with the ejector.
Cartridge,centerfire - any cartridge that has its primer central Extractor - a mechanism for withdrawing a cartridge or
to the axis in the head of the case. cartridge case from the chamber of a firearm.
Cartridge,rimfire - a flange-headed cartridge containing the Extraction mark - tool mark produced upon a cartridge or
priming mixture inside the rim cavity. cartridge case from contact with the extractor.These are always
Center of impact - the points of impact of the projectiles being found on or just ahead of the rim.
dispersed about a single point. Firearm identification - a discipline of forensic science that
Chamber - the rear part of the barrel bore that has been formed has as its primarily concern determining whether a
to accept a specific cartridge.Revolver cylinders are multi- bullet,cartridge case or other ammunition component was fired
chambered. by a particular firearm.
Chamber mark - individual microscopic marks placed upon a Firing pin - that part of a firearm mechanism that strikes the
cartridge case by the chamber wall as a result of any or all of primer of a cartridge to initiate ignition.Sometimes called 
the following 1. chambering 2. expansion during firing 3. hammer nose or striker.
extraction. Firing pin drag marks - the tool mark produced when a 
Choke - (shotgun) the constriction of the barrel of a shotgun to projecting firing pin comes into contact with a cartridge case or
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
shot-shell during the extraction and ejection cycle. Handguard - a wooden,plastic,or metal type of forend/forearm
Firing pin impression - the indentation in the primer of a that generally encircles the forward portion of the barrel to
centerfire cartridge case or in the rim of a rimfire cartridge case protect the hands from heat when firing.
caused when it struck by the firing pin. Handgun - a firearm designed to be held and fired with one
Flash hole - vent leading from the primer pocket to the body of hand.
the cartridge case. Head,(cartridge case head) - the base of the cartridge case
Fouling - the residual deposits remaining in the bore of a that contains the primer.
firearm after firing.Fouling can change the character of the Headspace - the distance from the face of the closed breech of
identifiable striations imparted to the projectile from one shot to a firearm to the surface in the chamber on which the cartridge
another. case bears.
Fragment - a piece of solid metal resulting from an exploding or Headspace Gage - an instrument  for measuring the distance
exploded bomb or a piece of projectile from a firearm. from the breech face of a firearm to the portion of the chamber
Gauge - the interior diameter of the barrel of a shotgun against which the cartridge bears.
expressed by the number or spherical lead bullets fitting it that Headstamp -  numeral,letters,and symbols or combinations
are required to make a pound.Thus a 12 gauge in the diameter thereof stamped into the head of a cartridge case or shot-shell
of a round lead ball using 1/12 of a pound. to identify the manufacturer,caliber,gauge,or give additional
Gas cutting - an erosive effect in a firearm caused by the high information.
velocity,high temperature propellant gases. Heel - the part of a rifle or shotgun stock at the top of the butt
                  - The erosion that occurs from the hot gases on the end.
bearing surface and base of a fired bullet.        - The rear portion of the bullet or its base.
General rifling characteristics - the number,width and Hinge frame - any of a large array of
direction  of twist of the rifling grooves in a barrel of a given pistols,revolvers,shotguns,and rifles whose frames are hinge to
caliber firearm. facilitate loading and ejection.Generally the barrel pivots
Granules - the individual particles of propellant powder. downward.
Griess test - a chemical test for the detection of nitrates.It is Holster stock - a holster,usually made of wood that attaches to
used by firearms examiners to develop patterns of gunpowder the rear of the pistol grip of certain handguns and serves as a
residues (nitrates) around bullet holes. shoulder stock.
Hydrochloric acid - a chemical reagent used in the sodium
Grips - a pair of pieces designed to fit the frame of a weapon rhodizonate test for lead and other primer residues.
providing a form fit gripping,usually plastic or wood. IBIS (integrated ballistics information system) - a database used
for acquiring,storing ,and analyzing images of bullets and
Groove diameter - the major diameter in a barrel that is the cartridge casings. Jacket - cylinder of steel covering and
diameter of a circle circumscribed by the bottom of the grooves strengthening the breech end of a gun;the envelope enclosing
in a rifled barrel. the lead core.
Kinetics - a dynamic process involving motion.
Grooves - spiral cuts along the bore of a firearm that cause a Lacquer - a sealant used by some ammunition manufacturers to
projectile to spin as it travels through the barrel providing seal the primer and/or bullet in the cartridge case.It is used as a
stability in flight. waterproofing agent.
Land - the raised portion between the grooves in  a rifled bore.
Gun cotton (nitrocellulose) - the principal ingredient of a Land and groove impressions (right and left turn) - the
single base and double base gunpowders. Also known as negative impressions on the surface of a bullet caused by the
cellulose hexanitrate. rifling in the barrel from which it was fired.
Lead - element with the chemical symbol (Pb) and atomic
Gunpowder - any various powder used in firearms as a number 82.Used in the fabrication of bullet and shot for its
propellant charge. formability and lubrication properties.
                     An explosive consisting of a powdered mixture of Leading - The accumulation of lead in the bore of a firearm
saltpeter,sulfur,and charcoal. from the passage of lead shot or bullets.Also called metal
fouling.
Gunpowder patterns - the spatial distribution of gunpowder  Lever action - is a type of firearm action which uses a lever
residues deposited upon a surface. located around the trigger guard area (often including the trigger
                                 - the test firing of a firearm for a muzzle to guard itself) to load fresh cartridges into the chamber of the
target distance determination. barrel when the lever is worked.
Luger - a German semi-automatic pistol widely used in Europe
Gunpowder residue - unburned gunpowder,partially burned as a military sidearm,manufactured in various calibers most
gunpowder,and smoke from completely burned commonly 7.65 mm and 9 mm.
gunpowder.Gunpowder residues are the largest part  of gunshot Machine gun - Bipod or tripod mounted or handheld automatic
residues. weapon whose ammunition is fed from a magazine or a belt.
Magazine - is an ammunition storage and feeding device within
Gunshot residue - the total residues resulting from the or attached to a repeating firearm.
discharge of a firearm.It includes both gunpowder and primer Magazine clip - a container for cartridges that has a spring and
residues plus metallic residues from projectiles,fouling etc. follower to feed the cartridges into the chamber of a firearm.
Gyroscopic stability - the ability of a fired bullet to remain Mannlicher type bolt - a bolt-action rifle that was designed for
stable in flight due to its spin. the receiver bridge;has a gap at the top to allow passage of the
Firearm - an assembly of a barrel and action from which a bolt handle.
projectile is propelled by products of combustion. Mercury bath - a process using mercury for the removal of lead
Flash suppressor - also known as a flash guard,flash residue from a barrel.
eliminator,flash hider, or flash cone, is  a device attached to the Metal fouling - metallic bullet material left in the bore after
muzzle of a rifle or other gun that reduces the chances that the firing.
shooter will be blinded in dark conditions. Microscopic marks - striae or patterns on minute lines or
Frame or stock -  The frame is the basic structure of the gun to grooves in an object.In firearm and toolmark identification,these
which the other major parts are attached.The stock is for rifles marks are characteristics of the object that produced them and
and are the basis for identification.
shotguns.Handguns do not have a stock but rather what is Misfire - failure of the primer mixture to ignite.
called a grip. Mushroom - used to describe the expansion of a projectile
Game - is any animal hunted for food or not normally upon impacting a target.
domesticated. Musket - is a muzzle-loading,smooth-bore long gun fired from
Griess test - is a chemical analysis test which detects the the shoulder.
presence of organic nitrate compounds. Muzzle - is the end of the barrel from which the projectile will
Half-cock - the position of the hammer of a firearm when about exit.
half retracted and held by the sear so that it can not be Obliteration/Obliterated - most often used to refer to serial
operated by a normal pull of the trigger. numbers of firearms that are no longer readable.
Hammer - a component part of the firing mechanism  that gives Obturation - the act of sealing or preventing the escape of
impulse  to the firing pin or primer. propellant gasses from the breech of a gun.
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
Orient - the aligning of two bullets that were fired from the same its long axis.
barrel on the comparison microscope so that the land and Rim - the flanged portion of the head of a rimfire
groove impressions on those  bullets which were produced by cartridge,certain types of centerfire rifles and revolver cartridges
the same lands and grooves in the barrel are opposite each and shot-shells.The flanged portion is usually larger in diameter
other.Sometimes called phasing or indexing. than the cartridge or shot-shells body diameter and provides a
Parabellum - a Latin term meaning "for war" used as a cartridge projecting lip for the extractor to engage.In rimfire cartridge,the
designation. rim provides a cavity into which the priming mixture is placed.
Rimfire - is a type of firearm cartridge.It is called a rimfire
Pattern - the distribution of a series of shots fired from one gun because instead of the firing pin of a gun striking the primer cap
or a battery of guns under conditions as nearly identical as at the center of the base of the cartridge to ignite it,the pin
possible to that which occured at the crime scene. strikes the base's rim.
Pellet - common name for the smooth,spherical projectiles Sabot - a device that ensures the correct positioning of a bullet
loaded into shot-shells, also referred to as shot.Also a non or shell in the barrel of a gun.
spherical projectile used in airguns.      - a device,"shoe" which enables a sub-caliber projectile to be
Percussion cap - a small metal cap with a priming mix that is fired in a larger caliber barrel.
placed on the nipple of a percussion lock. Safety - a type of device that locks a weapon to prevent
Philadelphia derringer - is a small percussion handgun accidental discharge.
designed by Henry Derringer and a a popular concealed carry Seating lines - the circumferential striae parallel to the axis of
handgun of the era. the projectile generated on the surface of the bullet by the
Pinfire - is an obsolete type of metallic cartridge in which the cartridge case.
priming compound is ignited by striking a small pin which Semi-automatic/Self-loading firearm - is a weapon which
protrudes radially from hust above the base of the cartridge. perform all steps necessary to prepare the weapon to fire again
Pistol - (automatic,semi-automatic,single-shot) a small firearm after firing assuming cartridges remain in the weapons feed
having a stock that fits in the hand and contains a short barrel.A device or magazine.
firearm designed to be fired with one hand and with a chamber   - a firearm that uses the forces of combustion to extract and
that is integral to the barrel. eject a cartridge and to chamber a new cartridge from the
Pistol Whipping - is the act of using a handgun as a blunt ammunition source with each pull of the trigger.
weapon,wielding it as if it were a club. Shot - a spherical pellet used in loading shot-shells or
Pitch,rifling - the angle at which the rifling is cut in relationship cartridges.
to the axis of the bore.It is usually stated as the number of Shot spread - the diameter of a shot pattern.
inches required for one revolution.Also known as rate of twist. Shotgun - a smooth-bore shoulder firearm designed to fire
Primer - the ignition component of the cartridge;any igniter that shot-shells containing numerous pellets or sometimes a single
is used to initiate the burning of a propellant. projectile.
Primer cratering - the extrusion of the primer into the firing pin Shot-shell - a cartridge containing projectile designed to be
hole,this phenomenon can produce identifiable marks.Also fired in a shotgun.The cartridge body maybe metal,plastic,or
known as primer flowback. paper.
Primer/Fuse - any igniter that is used to initiate the burning of a
propellant. Signatures - in forensic ballistics,represents the location of
Proof mark - a stamp applied at or near the breech of a firearm each feature and mark on an image from the bullet or cartridge
after it has passed a proof test. case.The acquired signatures can then be correlated with the
Proof test - the firing of a deliberate overload to test the IBIS correlation engine.These signatures which are
strength of a firearm barrel and/or action. mathematical representations of the images are sent along with
Proof load - a cartridge loaded to specified pressure higher compressed images and demographics to a server for
than service loads to test firearms barrels during manufacture correlation.
but before assembly,sometimes called blue pill. Silencer - a tubular device attached to the muzzle of a firearm
Propellant - the chemical composition which when ignited by a to reduce the sound of the report.
primer,generates gas.The gas propels the projectile.Also called Single-action - a type of revolver that needs to be cocked
powder,gunpowder,powder,or smokeless. before each shot by pulling back the hammer.Requires the firing
Propellant gases - the gases created by the burning powder mechanism (hammer or firing pin) to be cocked before pressure
that force the projectile from the gun. on the trigger will release the mechanism.
Pump-action - is a rifle or shotgun in which the hand-grip can Skeet shooting - is a recreational and competitive activity
be pump back and forth in order to eject a spent round of where the participants,using shotguns attempt to break clay
ammunition and to chamber a fresh one. discs automatically flung in the air from two fixed stations at
Rate of trust - the distance required for the rifling to complete high speed from a variety of angles.
one revolution. Skid marks (slippage marks) - rifling marks formed on the
Recoil - the backward movement of thrust  of a gun caused by bearing surface of bullets as they enter the rifling of the barrel
the pressure of the propellant gases in the process of pushing before rotation of the bullets starts.Skid marks are typically
the projectile forward through the bore. produced by revolvers and have the appearance of a widening
Recoil operation - an operating principle of automatic and of the land impression at their beginning point.
semi-automatic firearms.When the weapon is fired,the barrel Slippage - mark on the surface of a fired bullet made when the
and breechblock initially recoil together.After traveling a short bullet slides along the tops of the lands on the riflings.Slippage
distance,the barrel and breechblock unlock and the breechblock marks appear when the rifling is worn or when a sub-caliber
continues to travel to the rear,extracting and ejecting the bullet is fired.
expended cartridge. Slug - is a heavy lead projectile that may have pre-cut rifling
Reference collections - a collection of various types of intended for use in a shotgun and often used for hunting large
firearms and ammunition used by the firearms examiner for the game.
purpose of test firing weapons for identification of ammunition         - a term applied to a single projectile for shot-shells.
and firearms. Smokeless powder - propellant composed of nitrocellulose
Reload - a cartridge that has been reassembled with a new (single-base powders) or nitrocellulose plus nitroglycerine
primer powder,projectile,or other components.Also,to place (double-base powders) Smokeless powders contain additives
fresh ammunition into the firearm. that increase shell life and enhance performance.They are
Revolver - a type of pistol with a revolving cylinder in the made in variety of shapes (rods,perforated rods,
breech chamber to hold several cartridges so that the revolver spheres,disks,perforated disks,and flakes.
may be fired in succession without reloading. Smooth-bore - is one in which the gun barrel or bore is without
Ricochet - the deflection of a projectile after impact. a rifling.
Rifle - a firearm having rifling in the bore and designed to be Sporting clays - is a form of clay pigeon shooting often
fired from the shoulder. describe as a golf with a shotgun because a typical course
Rifle slug - a single projectile with spiral grooves and hollow includes from 10 to 15 different shooting stations laid out over
base intended for use in shotguns.The theory of the grooves is natural terrain.
that after leaving the gun barrels muzzle,the slug will rotate and Stabilizer - additive to smokeless powder that reacts with acidic
this reach its target much more accurately. breakdown products of nitrocellulose and
Rifling - is the process of making helical grooves in the barrel nitroglycerine.Diphenylamine and ethyl centralite are common
of a gun or firearm which imparts a spin to a projectile around stabilizers.
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
Stippling - disposition of fragments of gunshot powder residue Criminalistics.
into the skin as the result of a gunshot wound of relatively close
range. A. PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION
Striae - in firearms/toolsmarks - these are lines or grooves in an “Law of Multiplicity of Evidence” The greater
object that are characteristics of the object that produced them number of similarities or dissimilarities; the greater is the
and are the basis for an identification. probability for the conclusion to be correct.
Sulfur - a non-metallic yellow element.A constituent of Alphonse Bertillion = Father of Personal
blackpowder,burns easily when in powder form. Identification. The first to devise a scientific method of
Tattooing - a characteristic pattern in the skin caused by identification called Anthropometry.
particles of unburned and partially burned powder from a gun A fingerprint was first used in China before the birth of
blast at very close range.Also called stippling. Christianity. They called it Hua Chi.

Test bullet - a bullet fired into a bullet recovery system in a I. Personalities in Fingerprints:
laboratory for comparison or analysis. 1. Nehemiah Grew (1684) – describes the ridges and pores
Test cartridge case - a cartridge case obtained while test-firing of the hands and feet (Philosophical Transaction)
a firearm in a laboratory that is to be used  for comparison or presented in Royal Society of London, England.
analysis. 2. Govard . Bibloo – works on the sweat pores and ridges.
Test firing - the term used to designate the actual firing of a 3. Marcelo Malpighi (1628-1694) – Professor at the
firearm in a laboratory to obtain representative bullet and University of Bolognia, Italy, known for his discovery of the
cartridge case for comparison or analysis.Also used to test the Epidermis and Dermis layer. Written the book entitled “De
functionality of a firearm. Externo Tactus Organo” grand Father of Dactyloscopy.
TNT (trinitrotoluene) - a high explosive used as a component 4. J.C.A. Mayer (1788) – the first to state that fingerprints are
of some priming mixture. never duplicated in two persons ( Anatomiche
Tracer bullet - a bullet that contains a pyrotechnic component Kuphertafeln).
ignited by the powder charge burn,leaving a visible trail of the 5. Johannes Purkenjie (1823) – Professor at the University
flight path. of Breslau, Germany. Established a certain role for
Trailing edge - the edge of a land or groove impression in a classification and be able to identify nine (9) types of
fired bullet that is opposite to the driving edge of that same land pattern although never associated to identification
or groove impression.Also called the "following edge" when 6. Herman Welcker – took his own fingerprints twice with a
used in conjunction with the term leading edge. lapse of forty-one years and show the ridges formation
Trajectory - the path of a projectile after leaving the muzzle of a remains the same.
firearm. 7. William Herschel – the first to advocate the use of
Trap shooting - is a shotgun shooting activity in which the fingerprints as substitute for signature from among Indian
gunner shoots at clay target discs launch single or doubly from native to avoid impersonation.
one location but at various angle into the range field. Rajadhar Konai = the first person Herschel
Trigger guard - a protective device consisting of a curved printed the palm.
framework surrounding the trigger. 8. Henry Faulds – A surgeoon at Tsukuji Hospital, Tokyo,
Trigger pull - amount of force applied to the trigger of a firearm Japan, who claimed that latent prints would provide
to cause it to discharge. positive identification of offenders once apprehended ( A
Trigger pull gauge - the mechanism used to release the firing Manual of Practical Dactyloscopy).
pin of a firearm by applying pressure using a finger. 9. Francis Galton – Developed the Arch. Loop and Whorl
                           - instrument used to measure the needed Patterns as general classification and identified nine (9)
amount of force to be applied to the trigger of a firearm to cause types of pattern. First to establish a Civil Bureau of
it to fire. Personal Identification. He said that the possibility of two
Twist of rifling - inclination of the spiral grooves to the axis of prints being alike was 1:65,000,000,000.
the bore of a weapon;it is expressed as the  number of calibers 10. Edward Richard Henry – Developed the Henry System of
of length in which the rifling makes one complete turn. Classification at Scotland Yard which was accepted by
Velocity - the speed of a projectile at a given point along its almost all English-speaking country. Known as Father of
trajectory. Fingerprint.
Wad, base - a cylindrical component that is assembled into the Khan Bahadur Azizul Haque and Rai Hem
head end of a shot-shell. Chandra Bose – the two Hindu police officers who
Wad, shot protector - various designs of shot cups made of have help Henry in attaining his goal.
plastic and designed to reduce pellet deformation during barrel 11. Juan Vucetich – A Spanish counterpart of Henry who
travel. developed his own system of classification in Argentina
Walker test - the original chemical test for the detection of the and was accepted in almost all Spanish Speaking country.
spatial distribution of nitrates in gunpowder residue.
Yaw - the angle between the longitudinal axis of a projectile and IN AMERICA
a line tangent to the trajectory at the center of gravity of the Gilbert Thompson = a geologist in New Mexico,
projectile. adopted the first individual use of fingerprint in august 8, 1882
Yaw angle - angle between the axis of a bullet  and its as a protection to prevent tampering with the pay order.
trajectory. Isaiah West Tabor = Photographer in San Francisco
Zwilling - European term for a double-barreled shoulder arm who advocated the use of the system for the registration of the
with one rifled barrel and one smooth-bored barrel. immigrant Chinese.
Samuel Langhorne Clemens = An Englishman who
informally introduced Dactyloscopy in the United States in his
PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION book “ Life in the Mississippi” and “ Pupp n Head Wilson”.
Francis Galton
Criminalistics Dr. Henry p De Forest = Utilized the first Municipal
= Is the application of the principles of various Civil use of fingerprint for Criminal Registration on December
sciences in solving problems in connection with the 1902 (Mun. Civil Service Comm., New York).
administration of justice. Capt. James L. Parke = Advocate the first state and
= Also referred to as Forensic Science or Police penal use of fingerprint adopted in SingSing prison on June 5,
Science. 1903 later on Auburn Napanoch and Clinton Penitentiaries.
The word forensic was derived from the Latin word Sgt. John Kenneth Ferrier = First fingerprint instructor
“Forum” which means a “market place”, a place where at St. Louis Police Dept. Missouri.
people gathered for “public discussion” . When it is used in Maj. R. Mc Cloughry = warden of the Federal
conjunction with other sciences it simply connotes the idea of Penitentiaries of Leaven Worth. Established the first official
application to law or for the administration of justice. Sometimes National Government use of fingerpprint.
it is also referred to as “legal”. Mary K. Holand = first American instructress in
dactyloscopy.
Dr. Hans Gross = An Australian magistrate to described FBI = identification unit herein was officially
Search for Truth as the ultimate goal of all investigative and established by an act of congress in 1924.
detective works. He is known as the Father of Modern Institute of Applied Science = First private school to
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
install laboratories for instruction purposes in dactyloscopy. the finger.
People vs. Jennings, Dec. 21, 1911 = United States
leading case wherein the first conviction based on fingerprint Friction Skin – is an epidermal hairless skin found on the
was recognized by the judicial authorities (14 points). ventral or lower surface of the hands and feet covered with
ridges and furrows.(Also called as Papillary skin).
IN THE PHILIPPINES Components of the Friction Skin
Mr. Jones = one who first taught FP in the Phils. 1. Ridge surface
(1900) a. Ridge – the elevated or hill like structure/ the black
Bureau of Prison = (1968) CARPETAS fingerprint was lines with tiny white dots.
used. b.  Furrow – the depressed or canal like structure/ the
Generoso Reyes – First Filipino Fingerprint Technician white space between         ridges.
employed by P.C. 2. Sweat pores – the tiny opening/ the tiny white dots.
Isabela Bernales – first Filipina Fingerprint Technician 3. Sweat duct – the passage way.
Capt. Thomas Dugan, New York Police Dept. and 4. Sweat glands – the producers of sweat.
Flaviano Guerrero, FBI Washington – gave the first
examination in FP in 1927 and Agustin Patricio of the Fundamental Layers of the Friction Skin
Phils. Top the Examination 1. Epidermis – the outermost layer
People of the Phils. Vs. Medina- First conviction base a. Stratum Corneum,
on Fingerprint and leading case decision in the Phil. b. Stratum mucosum
Jurisprudence (10 points). 2. Dermis – the inner layer containing the blood vessel,
Plaridel Education Institute (PEI) now known as Phil. dermal papillae, various glands and nerves.
College of Criminology, first government recognized school to Ridge Formation – (Ridges starts to form in the fingers and
teach the Science of Fingerprint and other Police Sciences. thumb during the 3rd to 4th months of the fetus life.)
John Dellinger – known U.S. public enemy number Dermal Papillae = are irregular pegs composed of
one who attempt to destroy his own prints using corrosive delicate connective tissue protruding and forming the ridges of
acids. the skin on the fingers, palms, toes and soles of the feet.
Robert James Pitts – works on Surgery to forged his Ridge Destruction – destruction of the friction skin
own fingerprints and was named “Man without fingerprint” can either be temporary or permanent. Generally temporary
Lucila Lalu – the first Filipina Chop-chop lady who was destruction occur when only the epidermis layer of the friction
identified through fingerprint. skin has been damage, while permanent damage can be
Alphonse Bertillion – known as the Father of the first injected to the friction skin due to damage to the dermis layer.
scientific method of Identification (Anthropometry)
General Rules on Ridge Destruction
DACTYLOSCOPY a. Destruction of the Epidermis – temporary, dermis
Definition – permanent damage.
Dactyloscopy – (derived from the Latin words Dactyl = finger b. Cut == a depth of more than 1 mm will constitute
and Skopien – to study or examine) is the practical application permanent scar.
of the science of fingerprints. The Fingerprint Patterns
Dactylography – is the scientific study of fingerprint as a means 1. The Arch (5%)
of identification. a. Plain Arch (A) – is a pattern in which the ridges flows
Dactylomancy – is the scientific study of fingerprint for from one side to the other side with a slight raise at the
purposes of personality interpretation. center.
Dermatoglyphics = is the science which deals with the study of b. Tented Arch (T) – is a type of pattern having either an
skin pattern. It is derived from two Greek words, Derma which angle, uptrust or an incomplete loop form.
means Skin and Glype which means Carve. 2. The Loop (60%)
Elements of loop
Basic Principles of Fingerprint 1. A core 3. A sufficient Recurve
1. Individuality 2. A delta 4. At least one Ridge count
No two persons have the same fingerprint (based on a. Radial Loop (RH=/. LH=\) is a type of loop pattern in
Statistic Probability) which the slanting or looping ridge flows towards the
2. Infallibility thumb finger.
That fingerprint is a positive and reliable means of b. Ulnar Loop (RH=\, LH=/) is a type of loop pattern in
identification. It cannot be easily be forged. which the slanting or looping ridge flows towards the
3. Constancy or permanency little finger.
That the friction ridge once fully developed its 3. The Whorl (35%)
arrangement will remains the same throughout man’s Basic Elements of Whorl
life. 1. Two or more Deltas
2. At least one complete circuiting ridge
Fingerprints a. Plain Whorl (W)
Is an impression design by the first joint of the fingers At least one circuiting ridge is touched or
and thumb on smooth surface through the media of ink, sweat crossed by the imaginary line traversing between the
or any substance capable of producing visibility. two deltas.
b. Central Pocket Loop Whorl
Related Sciences to the Study of Fingerprint: No circuiting ridge within the pattern area
1. Chiroscopy – ( Greek word “ Cheir” – a hand, “Skopien” – is touched or cross by an imaginary line drawn
to examine) is the science which deals with the study of the between the two deltas.
prints of the palms of the hand. c. Double Loop Whorl
2. Podoscopy – ( Greek word “Podo” – the foot, and Skopien 1. Two separate loop formation
– to examine)is the science which deals with the study of 2. Two Separate and distinct shoulder
the footprints. 3. Two deltas
3. Poroscopy – (Greek word “poros” – a pare, and “Skopien” – d. Accidental Whorl
to examine) is the scientific study of the arrangement of the 1. A combination of two different patterns with the
sweat pores. (Edmond Locard- Father of Poroscopy) exception of the plain arch.
2. Two deltas
Phalange = is the skeletal finger covered with friction skin. It is
made up of three bones. Ridge Characteristics (Galton Details)
a. Basal or proximal phalange – it is located at the 1. Ridge Dot (island ridge) – refers to a ridge formation in a
base of the finger nearest the palm. form of a dot or period.
b. Middle phalange = the next and above the basal 2. Bifurcation – a ridge formation in which a single ridge splits
done. or divides into two or more ridges. It resembles a fork
c. Terminal phalange = the particular bone covered shape.
with friction skin, having all the different types of 3. Converging Ridge – two ridges that meets at a certain point
fingerprint patterns and it is located near the tip of 4. Diverging Ridge – two ridges that spread apart
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
5. Enclosure or Lake ridge – a single ridge that divides into interpretation made during the blocking.
two but does not remain open and meet at a certain point Capital letter – derived from the
to form the original single ridge. index fingers which can be
6. Ending ridge – it refers to an abrupt end of a ridge (A, T, U, R, W, C, D or X).
7. Type lines – is a diverging ridge that tends to surround the Small letter – derived from the
pattern area and serves as a basic boundary of fingerprint thumb, middle, ring and little
impression. fingers.
8. Pattern Area – is a part of a loop of whorl pattern It only includes the radial loop (r), plain arch
surrounded by the type lines and consisting of the delta, (a) and tented arch (t).
the core and other ridges. c. Sub-secondary Division – derived by
9. Recurving ridge – a single ridges that curves back to the ridge counting of loop and ridge
direction where it started. Tracing of whorl found at the index,
10. Sufficient Recurve – a recurving ridge which is complete middle ring fingers only.
with its should and free from any appendage.
11. Appendage – is a short ridge found at the top or summit of c.1 Ridge Counting of Loop
a recurve Index Finger 1 to 9 Ridge Count =I
12. Rod or Bar – is a short of long ridge found inside the 10 or more =0
recurve and directed towards the core
13. Obstruction ridge – is a short ridge found inside the recurve Middle Finger 1 to 10 Ridge Count = I
which blocks the inner line of flow towards the core. 11 or more =0
Ring Finger 1 to 13 Ridge Count =I
The Two Fingerprint Terminus (Focal Points) 14 or more =0
1. The Delta (also called the outer terminus) is a point
along a ridge formation found at the center or near the c.2 Ridge Tracing of Whorl
center of the diverging type lines. Inner Whorl (I) When the tracing goes
2. The Core (also known as the heart or the inner above or inside the right delta and there
terminus) usually found at the center or innermost recurve. are three (3) or more intervening ridges.
Types of fingerprint impression Outer Whorl (O) when the tracing ridge
1. Rolled Impression – are fingerprint impression taken goes below or outside the right delta and
individually by rolling each finger from one side to the other there are three (3) or more intervening
side and from the tip to the end of the first joint. ridges.
2. Plain Impression – are impression made by simultaneously
pressing the finger to the card, use as a reference to Meeting Whorl (M) when there are only
classification. two orless intervening ridge/s
Basic Instrument in taking prints: c.3 Plain Arch and Tented Arch are
1. Ink Slab – is a metallic or glass plate where the always dash (-)
ink is spread for purpose
2. Ink Roller – is a rubber made roller designed to
spread the fingeprint ink to the slab. d. Major Division (Taken from Thumb
3. Fingerprint Ink – is a special form of ink designed fingers only)
for taking fingerprint impression sometimes d.1 Whorl = Ridge tracing = I, O, or M.
submitted with a printer’s ink. d.2 Loop = Ridge Counting = S, M or L
4. Fingerprint card – is an 8” x 8” card designed for Table 1 Table 2
recording fingerprint impression 1 to 11 = S      1 to 17 = S
5. Card holder – usually a fixed card holder placed in 12 to 16 = M 18 to 22 = M
a flat table designed to prevent the movement of 17 or more = L 23 or more = L
the card in the course of the taking of the
fingerprint. d.3 Arch = dash (-)
Basic Rule in taking Fingerprints:
1. Subject should be instructed to stand straight but e. Final Division (derived from the little
relax facing the slab. fingers only).
2. The subject hand should be completely dry e.1 Loop and Whorl are both subject to
3. Thumb fingers are rolled towards the body while ridge counting.
other fingers are rolled away from the body. Radial or Ulnar
Fingerprint Classification Formula: Plain or Central pocket loop Whorl =
1. Checking will be treated as an ulnar loop.
2. Blocking-out – is the process if placing under Double loop Whorl – get the ridge
each pattern the letter symbols representing their count of the top loop
pattern interpretation prior to the actual Accidental Whorl = get the least
classification formula. ridge count.
3. CLASSIFICATION FORMULA e.2 Arch = dash (-)
a. Primary Division. Always represented
by a numerical value assigned to whorl f. Key Division = derived by getting the ridge
patterns depending on what finger they count of the first (l) loop except the little
appear. fingers. In the absence of the loop, the first
Arch and Loop are non-numerical whorl will be ridge counted for the purpose.
patterns.
A, T, / \ = Zero (0) Reference Classification Formula = is an additional formula
Whorl patterns.(WCDX) serve as a reference in case of doubtful prints. Place the
Finger 1 and 2 Right Thumb and Right Index 16) bottom of the classification formula.
Finger 3 and 4 Right middle and Right Ring (8) Latent Prints = prints found at the scene of the crime.
Finger 5 and 6 Right little and Left Thumb (4)
Finger 7 and 8 Left Index and Left middle (2) Types of latent prints
Finger 9 and 10 Left Ring and Left Little (1) 1. Visible prints = are those prints which are readily visible to
the naked eye. It can either be: Molded prints or Prints
The sum of the numerical value assigned to even made by contamination with colored substance.
number of finger represent the numerator and the sum of the 2. Invisible prints = prints that are generally made by sweat
assigned value to odd number represent the denominator Plus or perspiration that requires developing for visibility.
the pre-established fraction of l/1 to complete the primary.
b. Secondary – Represented by Capital Factors Affecting Stability or Prints at the Crime Scene
and small letter combination based on a. Subject Factor
b. Nature of the surface
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
c. Climatic Condition c. Close-up View
= Is the taking of individual photograph of
Methods of Developing Prints: the evidence at the scene of the crime. It is
1. Dusting Method = considered as the simplest and design to show the details of the crime.
traditional methods used in developing prints at
the scene of the crime. (Use of Powder and d. Extreme Close-up View
Brush) = Commonly designed in laboratory
2. Rolling Method = basically used in developing photographing using some magnification such
prints in paper done by simply rolling the paper as Photomacrography and photomicrography
with powder spreading in its surface.
3. Fuming Methods = done by using chemical fumes 4. For Preservation
such as Iodine and Ammonium Fumes. = Crime scene and other physical evidence
4. Silver Nitrate method – done by spraying a 5 requires photograph for preservation purposes. Crime
percent solution of silver nitrate to the surface of scene cannot be retain as is for a long period of time but
the paper. through photograph the initial condition of the scene of the
5. Ninhydrin Method = is considered as one of the crime can be preserved properly.
best method used in developing prints in paper.
6. Laser Method = is a modern method of tracing 5. For Discovering and Proving
and developing prints. = Photography can extend human vision in
Post Mortem Fingerprints = are prints taken from a discovering and proving things such as:
diseased person.
a. The use of Magnification
POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY Photomicrography = Taking a
magnified photograph of small object through
attaching a camera to the ocular of a compound
A. DEFINITION OF TERMS:
microscope so as to show a minute details of the
1. Photography = Derived from the Greek word “Phos” physical evidence.
or “Photos” which means “light” and “Grapho”
Photomacrogaphy = Taking a
means “Writing” or “Graphia” meaning “to Draw”.
magnified (enlarged) photograph of small object
Sir John F. W. Herschel coined the word
by attaching an extended tube lens (macro lens)
photography when he first wrote a letter to Henry Fox
to the camera.
Talbot.
Microphotography = is the process of
= Is the art and science of reproducing
image by means of light through some sensitized reducing into a small strips of film a scenario. It is
material with the aid of a camera, Lens and its first used in filmmaking.
accessories and the chemical process required in
Macrophotography = used
order to produced a photograph.
2. Forensic = Derived from the Latin word “Forum” synonymously with photomacrogaphy.
which means “a market place” where people
Telephotography = Is the process of
gathered for public discussion.
taking photograph of a far object with the aid of a
= When used in conjunction with other science it
long focus and Telephoto lens.
connotes a relationship to the administration of justice.
It is sometimes used interchangeably with the word
b. Used of Artificial Light such as X-ray, Ultra-
legal.
violet and Infra-red rays to show something which
3. Police Photography = Is the application of the
principles of photography is relation to the police work may not be visible with the aid of human eye alone.
and in the administration of justice.
4. Photograph = Is the mechanical and chemical result
of Photography. Picture and photograph are not the
same for a picture is a generic term is refers to all 6. For Court Exhibits
kinds of formed image while a photograph is an = Almost all evidence presented in court before
image that can only be a product of photography. formally be accepted requires that they satisfy the basic
requirements for admissibility which is relevancy and
competency. A question of relevancy is usually proved by
B. USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY proving the origin of the evidence and its relation to the
1. Personal Identification case and this is usually supplemented by photograph of the
= Personal Identification is considered to be the evidence giving reference as to where it came from.
first application of photography is police work. Alphonse
Bertillion was the first police who utilized photography in Evidence presented in court once accepted became
police work as a supplementary identification in his known as Exhibit. Either Exhibit 1,2,3 etc. for the defense
Anthropometry system. or Exhibit A, B, C etc for the prosecution.

2. For Communication 7. Crime Prevention

= Photograph is considered to be one of the most = with the used of video camera (hidden camera)
universal methods of communication considering that no and other advanced photographic equipment crimes are
other language can be known universally than photograph. being detected more easily and even to the extent of
preventing them from initially occurring.
3. For Record Purposes
= Considered to be the utmost used of 8. Police Training
photography in police work. = Modern facilities are now being used as
instructional material not only in police training as well as in
Different Views in photographing other agencies.
a. General View
= taking an over-all view of the
scene of the crime. It shows direction and
location of the crime scene. 9. Reproducing and Copying
= With the use of photography any number of
b. Medium View reproduction of the evidence can be made those giving
= Is the taking of the photograph of the unlimited opportunity for its examination and even allow
scene of the crime by dividing it into section. other experts or person to examine the specimen without
This view will best view the nature of the compromising the original.
crime.
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
C. ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY = Is the type of light that produces different
1. Light = is an electromagnetic energy that travels sensation when reach the human eye. It is
in a form of a wave with the speed of 186, 000 the type of light, which is capable of exciting
miles per second. the retina of the human eye.
2. Camera = a light tight box designed to block
unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching b. Invisible Light
the sensitized material.
3. Lens = is the light gathering mechanism of the = lights in which their wavelength are either
camera that collect the reflected light coming too short or too long to excite the retina of the
from the object to form the image. human eye i.e. X-ray, Ultrat-violet and Infra-
4. Sensitized material = composed of a highly red lights.
sensitized chemical compound which is capable
of being transformed into an image through the
action of light and with some chemical
processes. ( Film and Photo Paper). 2. Photographic Rays
5. Chemical Process = is the process necessary
for reducing silver halides into a form so as a a. X-ray
latent image and a positive image be made =Light with the wavelength between .01 to 30
resulting to what we called Photograph. millimicrons. It is produced by passing an electric
current through a special type of vacuum tube. It was
incidentally discovered by Conrad Welhelm Roentgen.
D. THEORIES OF LIGHT This type of light works in the principle of shadow
1. The WAVE Theory (Huygens) photography.
= It is the theory that was transcribed from the
motion of the water that if we observe a piece of log b. Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet)
floating in the ocean and with the force of the air would = Radiation having a wavelength of 30 to 400 nanometers
naturally will make the log move up and down. designed to photograph fingerprints in multi colored
background, documents that are altered, decipherment of
2. Corpuscular theory (Newton) erase writing and developing invisible writing. It is
= this later opposed the wave theory stating that light commercially known as “black Light”.
has its effect by the motion of very small particles such
as electrons. c. Visible Light
= It refers to the type of radiation having a wavelength of
3. Modified Wave theory (Maxwell and hertz) 400 to 700 millimicrons designed for ordinary
= Based on electromagnetics. photographing purposes.
All these theories are still considered to be of d. Infra-red (Beyond the Red)
little lacking that law enforcement need not to be very = Considered as the photographic rays with the longest
focus on this but rather go along with the accepted wavelength ranging from 700 to 1000 millimicrons. It is
conclusion that light is a form of energy, which is designed to take photograph of over-written documents,
electromagnetic in form. obliterated writing, and charred documents or for black out
photography. It is sometimes referred to as heat rays).

E. LIGHT: ITS NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS, SOURCES

AND CLASSIFICATION 3. Light Source
Light is defined as an electromagnetic energy with the
speed of 186,00 miles per second. Its wave travel is said to be A. Natural Light= are those light which come to
characterized in certain extent based on velocity, wavelength existence without the intervention of man e.i.
and frequency of the number of vibration of the wave per Sunlight, moonlight and starlight.
second. 1. Bright Sunlight
= object in an open space casts a deep and
Light wavelength is the distance measured between uniform shadow and the object appears
two (2) successive crest or through of wave and it is expressed glossy.
in either Millimicron (nanometer) or Angstrom. Millimicron is
the units of light wavelength which is equivalent to one-millionth 2. Hazy Sunlight
part of a millimeter which the Angstrom is relatively smaller for = object in an open space casts a transparent
it has an equivalent measurement of ten (10) millionth part of a or bluish shadow. This is due to thin clouds
millimeter. that cover the sun.

Once light hits a certain medium, its action can be 3. Dull Sunlight
characterized as either: Reflected, Transmitted or Absorbed = object in an open space cast no shadow
(RAT). Reflected once the light hits a mirror and it bounce due to thick clouds covering the sun.
back. Transmitted when the light hits a transparent glass which Daylight may still be classified as: open
would allow the light to pass through its medium and Absorbed space bright sunlight, under shade bright sunlight,
when the light hits a dark colored object and prevents it from hazy sunlight, cloudy sunlight and cloudy dull sunlight.
either bouncing or passing through. These conditions and their colors affect the
appearance of the object being photograph. Factors
Isaac Newton in 1666 proved that the light which men such as atmospheric vapor, atmospheric dust and
see as white light is actually a mixture of all colors of the quality of the reflected light coming and not coming
spectrum. This is produced when we allow light to hit a glass from the source should likewise be considered.
prism (Sharp Edge of the Glass). A rainbow array will then be
shown with colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet
colors (from top to bottom). The visible light is also said of have
B. Artificial Light = otherwise known as man-made light e.g. fluorescent
a wavelength of between 400-700 millimicron or nanometer. bulb, incandescent bulb and photoflood lamp.

1. Types of Light 1. Continuous radiation

Photoflood lamp= is likewise known as
Lights can largely be classified into visible Reflectorized light or Spot light. It is a light with a
and invisible light. reflector at the back which focus the light to the
a. Visible Light object the common wattages of this lamp is 500
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
watts. 2. Orthochromatic Film =
Sensitive to U.V. Light up to
the green. ( popular in the
marker as KODALITH FILM)
Flourescent Lamp = are tube lamps in which 3. Panchromatic film = Sensitive
the walls are coated with fluorescent powders to U.V. Light up to red
with both ends is mounted with a holder that (sensitive to all colors of the
serves as the reflector. This is commonly used by visible light)
everybody more than it is used in photographing. 3.1. Process
Panchromatic film
Incandescent bulb = are bulb with a wire = permit short
filament connecting two wires which sustain the exposures under
electrical charge that produces the light. average lighting
Everybody likewise commonly uses this although condition and has
it is more expensive in terms of electrical the advantage of
consumptions. the grain structure.
3.2. Grain
2. Short Duration type Panchromatic film
Flash bulb = are chemical lamps, as it 3.3. High Speed
generate lights by the rapid combination of Panchromatic film
metal in oxygen. The bulb can be used only designed originally
once as the bulb is busted when fired for photographing
electrically. There are thin filaments inside the object under
adverse lighting
bulb with two electrical contacts. When the
condition.
current flows through the filament, it becomes 4. Infra-red Film = Sensitive to all
incandescent and ignites the explosive primer colors and to infra-red light.
that ignites the aluminum foil that burns,
giving flash of tense light. FILM SPEED (Emulsion Speed)
This refers to the degree of sensitivity of the
Electronic Flash = produces light by an film to light.
instantaneous electrical in charges between 1. ASA (American Standards Association) = this
two electrodes in a gas filled glass bulbs. The is expressed in arithmetic value system. The
electrical energy for the discharge is kept in bigger the number the more sensitive the film is.
capacitor or condenser. It usually ranges from ASA 10, 20 , 30 , 40,50, 100, 200, 400, 800,
1/300 second and 1/5000 second, and 1000
because of this, subject in fast motion can be 2. DIN ( Deutche Industre Normen) = expressed in
arrested or stopped in the photographs. Logarithmic value system. Used in the same
principle as the ASA.

4. SENSITIZED MATERIAL Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc.
= It refers to the film and photographic paper that
basically composed of emulsion containing Silver Halides 3. ISO (International Standard Organization)
suspended in gelatin and coated on a transparent or reflective expressed as combination of ASA and DIN rating.
support.
Parts of the Sensitized Material
1. Emulsion = is that part of the film or photographic II. Photographic Paper
paper which contains the silver grains which is the It is that sensitized material that will record
one sensitive to light. In a colored film this the visible image in the final development and become the
emulsion surface can be composed of three layers photograph.
(Blue, Green and Red) with filters intervening.
2. Anti Halation Backing = is the one designed to Types of Photographic Papers
hold back the light and prevents halation. A. According to Emulsion Used (Silver halides
3. Base = Support the emulsion content)
1. Silver Chloride paper = used for contact
I. Types of Film printing, the size of the positive print is
A. According to Use the same as the size of the negative
1. Black and White Film = used. Sensitivity to light is low and give
usually represented by a blue-black tones when properly
prefix or a suffix “Pan” or developed.
“Ortho” and generally used in 2. Silver Bromide paper = used projection,
black and white photography. printing and enlarging process. This is
Examples are Ortholith film, one of the most ideal photo paper used
Tri X-Pan and Pan X-plus. for police photography. Will give a black
2. Colored Film = can be tone when properly developed.
divided into two: the Negative 3. Silver Chlorobromide paper = used both
type and the reversal type for projection and contact printing. Slow
of colored film. The former is emulsion.
usually having names ending 4. Variable contract paper = combines the
in color while the word contrast range in one paper it uses a
chrome represents the latter. special chlorobromide emulsion that
e.g. Blue sensitive produces varying contrast responses
film, Ultra-violet film, Infra-red upon exposure to different colors of light.
film, Orthochromatic film and B. According to Physical Characteristics
Panchromatic film. b.1. Weight
B. According to Spectral Sensitivity 1. Light weight = designed for high flexibility
Spectral sensitivity = is the and when paper thickness is not of
responsiveness of the film emulsion consideration. Intended for purposes,
to the different wavelength of the which involves folding.
light course. 2. Single Weight = papers used for small
1. Blue – Sensitive film = prints or which are need to be mounted
sensitive to U.V. light and on solid and fine details necessary in the
Blue Color. production. Used in ordinary
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
photographic purposes. 1/1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30
3. Double weight = generally used for large 1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500 etc.
prints because they stand up under
rough treatment. The speed number in the left is always two times
b.2. Surface Texture powerful in terms of light gathering than that of the right number
a. Glossy paper =designed for fine Using a fast shutter speed the photographer can stop
details and brillant image or “freeze” the action of a person provided that necessary
formation. adjustment on the lens opening be made in order to maintain
b. Semi-mate paper = obscure the normal exposure.
fine details D. Lens Aperture = the ratio between the
c. Rough papers = used for large diameter of the whole lens in relation to the
prints or where breath rather focal length of the lens. It is the light gathering
than detail is necessary. power of the lens. Otherwise known as lens
b.3. Color opening or relative aperture and it is
a. White = better used in police expressed in F-number.
photography.
b. Cream = preferred for f 2.8 f-4 f-5.6
pictorial effect, portraits, f-8 f-11 f-16
landscape or when warmth
effect is desired. The lower the f-number, the bigger the lens opening
c. Buff papers = prepare for and the bigger the lens opening the greater the volume of air
tone prints that will passed through the lends and reach the sensitized
C. According to Contrast (grade) material.
1. Velox No. 0 = used for printing extremely
contrast negative or extremely exposed
film. If the objective of a photographer is obtain the widest
2. Velox No. 1 = used for high contrast possible coverage of the lens in which objects are all sharp, It
negative (over exposed film) will be advisable to used a smaller lens opening.
3. Velox No. 2 = used for normal exposed E. Focusing = is that mechanism of a camera
film designed to control the degree of sharpness
4. Velox No. 3 = used for negative with of the object to be photograph. It is usually
weak contrast (under exposed) obtained by estimating the distance from the
5. Velox No. 4 = used to provide sufficient camera and that of the object that will make a
contrast to compensate for very thin or sharp or clear image.
weak negatives. It is useful imprinting
which high contrast is desired. Types of focusing device:
6. Velox No. 5 = for flat negative that are 1. Range finder (Either coincidence or split
unprintable. image type)
Coincidence otherwise known as superimposed image
5. CAMERA focusing. In this type of focusing a single object will
Is a light tight box with light gathering device and a appeared double once the object is not in focus, but
moving the focusing adjustment this double image
means of blocking unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching
will coincide or superimposed to form a single
the sensitized material.
object.
Split Image focusing on the other hand will show an image in
split or two parts once the object in not in focus
once the two parts of the image has been united
Basically, camera can produce image with its four-(4)
then the object is already focused
basic parts such as light tight box, lens, and shutter, Holder of
2. Ground Glass
sensitized material.
This is observed from the viewing system of the
camera, once the object is not in focused the object will be
Essential Parts of a Camera viewed to be blurred and will turn sharp and clear once
1. Light Tight Box – a box designed to keep light out and adjusted.
serve as a frame to hold other parts.
2. Lens – designed to collect or to focus the reflected
light from an object to form an image on the film. 3. Scale Bed
3. Shutter – designed to control the time during which the Estimating the distance of the object and adjusting the
light reaches the film camera control based on his estimation do this.
4. Holder of the sensitized material – located at the
opposite side of the lens designed to hold firmly the
sensitized material to prevent the formation of the TYPES OF THE CAMERA
multiple or blurred image 1. View Finder Type – it is considered as the smallest
5. View finder – designed to determine the field of view of and the simplest type of camera
the camera or the extent of the coverage of the given 2. Single Lens Reflex Camera – it is a type of camera
lens best suited for police work due to its
interchangeability of the lens
3. Twin Lens Reflex Camera – A type of camera with
OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA dual lens, one for focusing and the other for forming
A. Viewing System the image.
Is that part of the camera which provides the 4. View or Press type – is considered the biggest and
means of showing to the photographer the entire expensive type of camera, used for movie making
scene coverage that can be recorded in the sensitized 5. LENS
material. = It is the image-forming device of the lens that
B. Film Advancer (film advance lever or knob)
actually has a greater effect on the quality of the image to be
=designed to transfer the exposed film to the
formed.
other side or to the take up spool and the
unexposed film will be the opposite side of = a medium or system which converge or diverge light
the lens for another exposure.
rays passing through it to form an image.
C. Shutter speed = is that part of the camera
which regulates the time exposure of the film = Can be a glass or transparent material, which permit
thus, affecting the amount of light reaching light to pass through and change the direction of light.
the sensitized material. It is usually
expressed in a fraction of a second.
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
distance at which when a lens is focused
with a given particular diaphragm opening
Daniel Barbaro = first to introduce the use of lens in the will gives the maximum depth of field.
camera. 3. Focusing = is the setting of the proper distance in
order to form a sharp image. The one that controls
the degree of sharpness of the object.

CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES
1. According to the type of image to be produced 6. CHEMICAL PROCESS
a. Positive or Convex Lens (Converging Lens)
Characterized by the fact that it is thicker at The process of making the latent image visible and
the center and thinner at the side which is permanent.
capable of bending the light together and
forms the image inversely. a. Development (Use of either D-76, Dektol or
b. Negative or Concave Lens (diverging Lens) Universal Solution)
Characterized by the fact that it is thinner at = Is the process necessary for
the center and thicker at the side and forms reducing the silver halides to form
the virtual image on the same side of the the image.
lens.
2. According to Degree of Corrections Elon, Hydroquenone = used as main
a. Meniscus Lens = lens that has no correction. developing agents
b. Rapid Rectilinear Lens – lens corrected of
distortion b. Stop bath = normally composed of water with
c. Anastigmat Lens – correcting astigmatism little amount of dilute acetic acid that serves
d. Achromatic Lens – correcting chromatic as a means to prevent contamination
aberration between the developer and the acid fixer.
e. Apochromatic Lens – correcting both c. Fixation = Is the process by which all
astigmatism and chromatic aberration unexposed silver halides are dissolved or
INHERRRENT LENS DEFECTS removed from the emulsion surface and
1. Spherical Aberration= Inability of the lens to focus making the image more permanent.
light passing the side of the lens producing an image Sodium Thiosulfate (hypo) is the
that is sharp in the center and blurred at the side. main fixing agent that dissolves
2. Coma = (Also known as lateral aberration) = Inability unexposed silver halides.
of the lens to focus light that travels straight or lateral,
thus making it blurred while the light reaching the lens
oblique is the one the is transmitted sharp. Other chemicals used:
3. Curvature of Field = the relation of the images of the Acetic Acid and Boric acid = serves as
different point are incorrect with respect to one neutralizer
another.
Sodium Sulfate = serves as the preservative
4. Distortion = Is a defect in shape not in sharpness. It
can either be Pincushion distortion (curving inward) Potassium Bromide = restrainer or hardener
or Barrel (curving outward).
5. Chromatic Aberration = Inability of the lens to focus Sodium bicarbonate and borax powder =
light of varying wavelength. The lens refracts rays of serves as accelerator
short wavelength more strongly than those of longer
wavelength and therefore bringing blue rays to a Dodging = is the process of eliminating unwanted
shorter focus than the red. portion of the negative during enlarging.
6. Astigmatism= is a form of lens defects in which the
horizontal and vertical axis are not equally magnified. Cropping = is the process of omitting an object during
Inability of the lens to focus both horizontal and the process of enlarging and printing.
vertical lines.
7. Chromatic Difference of Magnification Vignetting = is the gradual fading of the image towards
8. Flares = condition of the lens producing multiple the side through skillful adjustment on the dodging board.
images.
Dye toning = is the process designed in changing the
color tone of the photograph.
LENS CHARACTERISTICS
1. Focal Length – is the distance measured from the Burning-In = refers to additional exposure on a desired
optical center of the lens is set to focus at infinite portion of the negative used for purposes of making a balance
position. As according to focal lenses may be exposure.
classified as:
a. Wide Angle or Short Focus = with focal
length not longer than the diagonal half of
the negative. Useful in taking photograph at
short distance with wider area coverage.
b. Normal or Medium Focus = with focal length
approximately equal but not longer than
twice the diagonal half of the negative.
c. Long or Telephoto Lens = with focal length
longer than twice the diagonal half of the
negative. Best used in long distance
photographing but with narrow area
coverage.
d. ZOOM lens = lens with variable focal length or
that which can be adjusted continuously by the
movement of one or more elements in the lens
system.

2. Relative Aperture – the light gathering power of the

lens expressed in F-number
a. Depth of Field – is the distance measured
POLYGRAPHY
from the nearest to the farthest object in
apparent sharp focus when the lens
b. Hyperfocal distance = Is the nearest
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
Polygraphy – is scientific methods of detecting deception
done with the aid of a polygraph instrument.
TYPES OF ORDEAL
Polygraph = (derived from the Greek words Poly) = many or
several and Graph = (writing chart) is a scientific instrument 1. Ordeal of Heat and Fire = in this test the suspect walked a
capable of recording simultaneously changes in blood certain distance, usually nine feet, over red-hot plowshares or
pressure, pulse rate, respiration and skin resistance as holding a red-hot iron.
indicative of emotional disturbance especially of a lying subject
when being questioned. 2. Ordeal of Hot Water = this test requires that the water had
to be boiled, and the depth from which the stone had to be
retrieved was up to the wrist for one accusation, and up to the
Thomas Jefferson = firs person known who used the term elbow for three or more accusations.
Polygraph to described one of his inventions
3. Ordeal of Boiling Oil = this ordeal was practiced in villages
of India and certain parts of West Africa.

Definition of terms 4. Red Hot Iron Ordeal = the accused will be required to touch
1. Admission = is a statement of facts, partial his tongue to an extremely hot metal nine (9) times (unless
acknowledgement of guilt and usually given with some burned sooner), Once his tongue is burned, he will be
justification or exemplification in admitting. adjudged guilty. In some country instead of hot iron, they used
2. Confession = direct acknowledgement of guilt or a a hot needle to tease the lips and once the lips bleed it is an
statement of guilt.
indication of guilt.
3. Deception = is the act of deceiving or misleading usually
accompanied by lying. 5. Ordeal of Cold Water = this ordeal has a precedent in the
4. Diastolic blood pressure = refers to the downward blood Code of Ur-Nammu and the Code of Hammurabi under which a
pressure representing the low pressure to the closing of
man accused of sorcery was to be submerged in a stream and
the valves and heart relaxed.
acquitted if he survived.
5. Dicrotic notch = refers to the short horizontal notch in a
cardio-tracing located at the middle of the diastolic stem. = in 16th and 17th centuries, ordeal by water was
6. Electrodermal response = it refers to human body
associated with the witch-hunts. Floating is an indication of
phenomenon in which the skin changes resistance
witchcraft.
electrically upon the application of certain external stimuli.
Also referred to a Psycho galvanic skin reflex or galvanic 6. Ordeal of Rice Chewing = a method of detecting deception
skin response.
whereby an accused will be required to take rice (to clergy
7. Emotion = it refers to an emotional response to specific
bread or cheese).If the accused failed to swallow even a
danger that appears to be beyond a persons defensive
power. single grain of concentrated rice he/she will be adjudged guilty.
8. Environment = is the sum total of the dissimulation that a
7. Ordeal of Red Water (Food and Drink Ordeal) = in this
person acquired from the time he was conceived and his
method the accused will be required to run fast for twelve (12
exposure to his surroundings.
9. Heredity = is the transmission of physical and mental traits hours), take a cap of rice and drink a dark colored water (as
of the parents to their offspring through the genes. much as one gallon).
10. Interview = simple questioning of one who is willing and
cooperative. 8. Ordeal of the Cross = the accuse and the accuser stood
11. Interrogation = forceful questioning of a person who is on either side of a cross and stretched out their hands
reluctant to divulge information. horizontally. The one to first lower his arms lost.
12. Lying = is the act of uttering or conveying falsehood or
creating a false or misleading impression with the intention 9. The Test of the Axe = in Greece, a suspended axe was
of affecting wrongfully. spine in the center of a group of suspects, when the axe
13. Normal response = refers to any activity or inhibition of a stopped, whosoever was in line with the blade was supposed
previous activity of an organism or part of the organism to be the guilty as pointed by divine providence.
resulting from stimulation.
14. Ordeal = refers to the oldest form of crime detection done 10. The Test of the Candle = this ordeal was used in Burma,
by subjecting a subject to an obstacle or trial and the accuser and accused were each given identical candles
sometimes even involving third degree. and were lighted at the same time. The candle that burns the
15. Specific response = refers to the response given by the longest determines which the truth.
subject which considered a deviation from the normal
tracing or norms of the subject. 11. Donkey’s tail (Ash tail) Ordeal = a method of ordeal
16. Stimulus = refers to any force or motion coming from the where all accused persons will be instructed to select a cage
environment and which reach an organism has the with a donkey, using a donkey’s tail they will strike the donkey
tendency to arouse. and whichever cries first will be adjudged guilty.
17. Systolic Blood pressure = the upward blood pressure as
the apex of the curve caused by the contraction of the 12. The “Hereditary Sieve” = Dr. Hans Gross mentioned this
heart, valves are open and blood is rushing into the Ordeal in his famous book on Criminal Investigation in which
arteries. beans were thrown into a sieve as the name of each suspect
was called. The deception criteria were described as follows---
Ayur Vida = a hindu book of science and health around “If the bean jumps out of the sieve, the owner of the name
500B.C. Considered as an earliest known reference to a pronounced is innocent, if the bean remains in the sieve, the
method of detecting deception. person named is the thief.

EARLY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

IMPORTANT PERSONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF
1. Trial by Combat = a method to settle accusations in the POLYGRAPH
absence of witnesses or a confession, in which two parties in
dispute fought in single combat.

2. Trial by Ordeal = a judicial practiced by which the guilt or Daniel Defoe = wrote an essay entitled, “An Effectual Scheme
innocence of the accused is determined by subjecting them to for the Preventing of Street Robberies and Suppressing all
an unpleasant, usually dangerous experience or in the present other Disorders of the Night”
term would mean an employment of “3rd degree”. The word
“ordeal” was derived from the Medieval Latin word “Dei
Indicum” which means “a miraculous decision”.
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
Angelo Mosso = In 1878, science came to the aid of the truth
seeker through the research of an Italian psychologist Angelo
Mosso. He made used of an instrument called plethysmograph Harold Burtt = In 1918, Burtt suggested that the changes in
in his research on emotion and fear and its influence on the respiration were an indication of deception.
heart and respiration. 
= He was able to determine that the changes in
= developed a scientific cradle respiration were of less value in the detection of deception than
the changes in blood pressure

Cesare Lombroso = In 1895, Cesare Lombroso, an Italian

Criminologist and tutor of Angelo Mosso, published the second John A. Larson = encouraged by August Vollmer of the
edition of his book entitled “L’Homme Criminel” which he Berkeley Police Department to conduct a research on
relates the used of hydrosphygmograph during interrogation of deception.
suspects. He called it blood pressure pulse test.
= Cardio-Pneumo Psychogram was Larson’s first
= he is considered as the first person to conceive the instrument which was borrowed from Dr. Robert Jessel and
idea of lie detection and the first to apply the technique in was invented by Earl Bryant
actual criminal suspects
= in 1921, Earl Bryant made an instrument for Larson
in which he used a breadboard as a base and from that it
became in the industry as Breadboard Polygraph – capable
Francis Galton = in 1879, introduced the Word Association of recording continually and simultaneously the respiration and
Test using series of irrelevant questions and relevant question cardiovascular activities.
separated in time.
= today he is known as the Father of Scientific Lie
Detection and at the same time the Father of Polygraph

B. Sticker = believed that the origin of the galvanic skin

phenomenon was under the influence of the exciting mental
impressions and that the will has no effect upon it. Leonarde Keeler = in 1926, he made a modification of
Larson’s instrument. He developed that metal bellows and
= he made the earliest application of kymograph that pulled a chart paper at a constant speed
psychogalvanometer to forensic problems. under recording pens from a roll of chart located inside the
instrument.

= in 1938, 1938, Keeler included the

Sir James Mackenzie = an English clinician and cardiologist, Psychogalvanometer (PGR), a third measuring component of
constructed the Clinical Polygraph in 1892, an instrument to his instrument which was also known as Galvanic Skin Reflex
be used for medical examinations with the capability to (GSR) invented by Italian Physiologist Galvani in 1791.
simultaneously record undulated line tracings of the vascular
pulses (radial, venous and arterial), by way of a stylus onto a = credited as the creator on Relevant-Irrelevant
revolving drum of smoked paper. Technique.

In 1906, Sir James Mackenzie refined his clinical polygraph of = today Keeler is known as the Father of Modern
1892 when he devised the Clinical Ink Polygraph with the Polygraphy.
help of Lancashire watchmaker, Sebastian Shaw. This
instrument used a clockwork mechanism for the paper-rolling
and time-marker movements and it produced ink recordings of
Ruckmick = in 1936, the term Psychogalvanic Reflex used by
physiological functions that were easier to acquire and to
Veraguth was repudiated by Ruckmick and proposed the term
interpret.
Electrodermal Response.

S. Veraguth = he is said to be the first person to use the term

John E. Reid = in 1950, he developed the Control Question
Psychogalvanic Reflex. Veraguth was the first scientist to use
which consist of a known lie and incorporated it into the
the word association test with galvanometer.
relevant/irrelevant technique.
= in 1907, he described his observation on galvanic
= he developed a movement or activity sensor a
phenomena and emotions that there was an ascending
means of recording arm and leg movements
galvanometer curve during the presentation of relevant stimuli
versus the rest curve on non-crucial stimuli. = Reid also developed the silent answer test and
guilt-complex test to be administered to overly responsive
examinee
Vittorio Benussi = in March 1913, he presented a paper
before the second meeting of the Italian Society for Psychology
in Rome where he described how he record the subject’s Cleve Backster = developed the psychological set theory
breathing patter using a Marey Pneumograph which he noted and the anticlimax dampening concept.
the changes in inspiration-expiration ratio during deception.
= he also developed and introduced the
= he also included recording of heart rate and blood Quantification System of Chart Analysis (Numerical
pressure curve in detection of deception and probably the first Scoring) which permits the examiner to score the charts
person to record more than one physiological response. numerically according to standard rules.

Dr. William M. Marston = in 1915 was credited as the creator Richard O. Arther = introduced the Arther II polygraph
of the systolic blood-pressure test used in an attempt to detect instrument which contains a stimulus marker capable of
deception during questioning, and using a standard blood recording the beginning and ending of question and the
pressure cuff and stethescope, requiring repeated inflation of moment the examinee answered.
the pressure cuff to obtain readings at intervals during
examination. This was called Discontinuous Technique. = credited as the creator of Stimulus Marker
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
= developed an instrument with two Galvanic Skin the same, namely mobilizing bodily resources for an
Resistance expenditure of energy, and narrowing attention and focus to
the features of the threat.

Computerized Polygraph Instrument = in 1992, the

polygraph made its official entrance into the computer age When the sympathetic nervous system is activated, it
immediately prepares the body for fight or flight by causing the
adrenal glands to secret hormones known as epinephrine and
TRIPOD FOUNDATION OF POLYGRAPHY norepinephrine and the blood will be distributed to those areas
of the body where it is most needed to meet the emergency.
1. Psychological Leg Premise = states that specific nervous
system component whose stimulation can thus be diagnosed
are so stimulated by the involuntary and emotional processes
Epinephrine = is the hormonal stimulator of the sympathetic
of the individual who is continuously attempting concealment of
nervous system. It acts to constrict peripheral blood flow, raise
deception especially if that individual has something at stake
blood pressure, increase cardiac activity, promote metabolic
and the prevailing circumstances lead him to believe that
activity through the release of glucose, and inhibit digestive
exposure to deception is quite possible although undesirable.
processes.

= it is called Adrenaline in British

2. Physiological Leg Premise = that among the physiological
responses that may be recorded are those that automatically
occur only following the stimulation of specific nervous Norepinephrine = is a hormone secreted by the adrenal
component system gland, it works alongside with epinephrine/adrenaline to give
the body sudden energy in times of stress, known as the "fight
or flight" response.
3. Mechanical Leg Premise = polygraph is capable of making
=it is called Noradrenaline in British.
graphic record containing reliable information regarding
physiological responses of the subject.

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY OF LYING MAJOR COMPONENTS OF POLYGRAPH

The Central Nervous System (CNS) = is composed of the 1. Pneumograph = designed to detect and record changes in
brain and the spinal cord. All other nerve ways are within the respiration of the subject which consists of the ff:
peripheral nervous system which separates into two: The
Somatic Nervous System and the Autonomic Nervous  Rubber Convoluted Tube = about 10
System. inches corrugated rubber attached to the
body of the subject.
 Beaded Chain = used to lock the rubber
convoluted tube.
1. Somatic Nervous System = is involved with voluntary  Recording Pen Unit = consisting of two 5
comparative over skeletal muscles inches recording pen
 Centering Knob = used to center the pen
2. Autonomic Nervous System = involved those involuntary  Sensitivity Knob = used to adjust the
physiological functions of the body and has considerable desired size of tracings
psychological impact as well.  Vent = used to release excess pressure from
the system
 Pneumo Module = located inside the
instrument that receives the reactions
TWO DIVISIONS OF AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM detected by the corrugated tube and moves
1. Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS) = the house the pen to record the reactions on the chart
keeping or braking system. It is responsible for conserving
energy and making sure necessary bodily functions. I 2. Cardiosphygmograph = Designed to detect changes in the
cardiovascular activity of the subject. It consists of:
= restrains sympathetic arousal and attempt to
maintain homeostatic (homeostasis) normal. a. Blood Pressure Cuff = attached to the upper right
arm of the subject, above the brachial artery.
2. Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) – is our emergency,
or action system. b. Sphygmamonometer = used to indicate the
amount of air pressure inflated to the system. Usually
= a system which causes the sudden and dramatic
about 60 mm of mercury for male subject.
change.
c. Recording Pen Unit = five (5) inches length

d. Air Pump/Pump Bulb = designed to supply air to

Homeostasis = is complex interactive regulatory system by
the system
which the body strives to maintain a state of internal
equilibrium. e. Cardio Module = located inside the instrument that
receives the reactions detected by the cuff and moves
the pen to record the reactions on the chart
Hypothalamus = is a series of groups of nerve cells of the
f. Sensitivity Control = used to adjust the desired
brain that control the entire endocrine-hormonal system.
size of tracings

g. Centering Control = designed to center the pen

Fight, flight, freeze = are the three stereotypic behavioral on the chart
responses to threat, sometimes simply called F3. The
h. Vent = Used to release excess pressure from the
physiological responses concomitant to these behaviors are
system
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
Cardiosphygmograph provides a record of the following: b. Cutter Bar = used to cut the paper at the end of
the test
1. Relative Blood Volume/Pressure = is the
changes in the average value of the cardio tracing c. Rubber Roller = the one responsible for pulling the
(waveform) with respect to a baseline. paper out of the machine.

a. Diastolic Blood Pressure = refers to the d. Pen Table = flat portion where the pen write on the
downward blood pressure representing the chart.
low pressure to the closing of the valves and
heart relaxed. e. Paper Rail Guide = serves as the security for the
unnecessary movement of the chart paper or to
b. Systolic Blood Pressure = the upward ensure the paper’s forward movement without
blood pressure as the apex of the curve shaking.
caused by the contraction of the heart,
valves are open and blood is rushing into the f. Synchronous Motor = runs the chart paper at the
arteries. uniform rate speed regardless of the voltage change.

2. Pulse Amplitude = is the changes in pulse

amplitude (tracing height) independent of baseline.
Pen and Inking System = the one that provides for the
3. Pulse Rate = changes in heart rate or time permanent record of the test
between pulses.
Capillary Ink = a water based ink intended for polygraph
4. Dicrotic Notch = changes in relative position of the instruments
dicrotic notch or pulse waveform

= short horizontal notch in a cardio-tracing located at

FORMULATION OF TEST QUESTIONS
the middle of the diastolic stem
General Rules in formulating Test Questions

 Questions must be simple and direct

3. Galvanograph = designed to detect changes in skin  They must not involve legal terminologies
resistance of the subject. Consists of:  They must be as simple and as short as possible
 Answerable by Yes or No.
a. Finger Electrode Assembly consists of:
 They must not be in a form of accusatorial.
a.1. finger Electrode Plate and Retainer  Their meaning must be clear and they must be
phrased in a language that the subject can easily
Bond = attached to the index and ring finger of the
understand.
subject.
 They must never contain inference which
a.2. Connecting Plug = attached the system presupposes knowledge on the part of the subject.
 They must refer to one offense only
to the instrument
 They must refer to one element of the offense.
b. Recording Pen Unit = usually 7 inches  They must not contain inference to ones religion, race
or belief.
c. Amplifier Unit = designed to support the
galvanometer in converting electrical to mechanical
1. Irrelevant Question = a question that has no connection
current.
with the matter under investigation and deals with known facts
d. Sensitivity Control = used to adjust the desired that the subject cannot be denied. It is designed to be
size of tracings emotionally neutral to examinees and usually answerable by
“yes’. Also called Neutral Question.
e. Centering Control = designed to center the pen on
the chart

f. GSR Module = located inside the instrument that Characteristics of Irrelevant

receives the reactions detected by the finger
1. It has no connection to the matter under investigation.
electrodes and moves the pen to record the reactions
on the chart 2.No threat to subject (usually).

3. Neither innocent nor guilty suspects have reason to lie.

How does it Records? 4. Usually about the suspect’s background.

Galvanic Skin Response = is the change in the body’s 5. Generally used at the beginning of polygraph technique to
resistance to the passage of a minute electrical sensing establish a ‘norm’ for examinee, or throughout the examination
current. as needed to reestablish norm pattern.

The electrodes electrically connect the subject to the

instrument. These provide a 5 microamp sensing current to
the subject, far below the threshold of feeling. Purposes of Irrelevant Question

1. Establish the professional authority in the room that means,

the examiner asks questions and the suspect answers.
Keymograph = serves as the paper feed mechanism of the
polygraph machine 2. It allows the examiner to assess the subject’s normal
behavior for this heightened emotional situation.
= It is a motor that pulls or drives the cart paper under
the recording pen simultaneously at the rate of five seconds 3. Allows the examiner to identify something he has in common
per vertical chart division or twelve divisions in one minute run. with the subject, to establish rapport.

a. Chart = approximately 100 ft. rolled graph paper 4. It minimizes resistance.

with approximately ¼ inch horizontal division and ½
inch vertical division equivalent to 5 seconds run
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
2. Symptomatic Question = is designed to ensure that the = PLC questions are broad in scope and usually
examiner will not ask un-reviewed questions or that the based on actions categorically similar to that of the issue under
examinee is not afraid that the examiner will ask un-reviewed investigation
questions.

Examples:
Types of Probable Lie
 Do you believe me when I promised not to ask a
question in this test I have not gone over word for a. Inclusive = a comparison question which include the
word? relevant time period under investigation. It was originally
 Even though I promised I would not, are you afraid I designed by Reid.
will ask a question in this test I have not gone over
word for word? = this type of question usually starts with the phrase:
“In your entire life,…..”. Also termed as inclusionary.

3. Sacrifice Relevant Question = it introduces the relevant

question to the subject
b. Exclusive = a comparison question separated in time,
= designed to absorb the response generated by the place and category from the relevant question. It was
introduction of relevant question in the series introduced by Cleve Backster. He believes that this prevents
the guilty suspect from perceiving the comparison question as
Example:
an ambiguous relevant question.
 Regarding the (matter under investigation), are you
willing to answer the questions truthfully?
Example:
4. Relevant Question = a question deals with the matter under  During the first __ years of your life, did you ever
investigation. Color coded red in computerized instruments. It ____?
is designed to generate reactions from deceptive subject.  Prior to 2009, did you ever _____ ?
 While in college ______?
 Between the ages of __ & __, did you ever _____?
Types of Relevant Question
Types of Polygraph Technique/Test
a. Primary Relevant (Strong Relevant) = addresses the
primary issue or direct involvement of the subject on the matter 1. General Question Test = consist of series of relevant,
under question. It is use primarily with the single-issue irrelevant control questions in a planned order. Developed by
examination. John E. Reid
 Ex. Did you take that missing money?
b. Secondary Relevant (Weak Relevant) = deals with the
physical acts that support the primary issue. This is usually use 2. Relevant/Irrelevant Test = consists primarily of series of
in multi-issue examination. irrelevant questions and relevant question pertaining to the
crime under investigation. Developed by Keeler.
 Ex. Did you participate in the theft of that missing
money?
c. Guilty Knowledge = designed to probe whether the subject
possesses information regarding the identity of the offender or 3. Peak of Tension Test = consist of only one relevant and a
the facts of the case under question. series of irrelevant questions.

 Ex. Do you know who took that missing money? = resemble, in every general way, the card test, for it
d. Evidence Connecting Question = test question in which consist essentially of the asking of a series of question in which
the examinee is asked about a particular piece of physical only one has any bearing upon the matter under investigation.
evidence that would incriminate the guilty person. It could be
items left at the crime scene by the perpetrator or stolen = padding questions before and after the relevant
property. questions.

 Ex. Do you know where any of that missing money is

right now?
Two Types of POT Test

 Known Solution Peak of Tension Test (KSPOT) =

5. Comparison Question = a question which is the same in
is used to determine whether the examinee is aware
nature with that of the relevant question but broad in scope. of details of a crime that have been kept from the
general public and would presumably only be known
= is used for comparative purposes with the relevant
to the perpetrator of the crime or those with
question.
incriminating knowledge.
= designed to generate reactions from truthful subject.  Searching Peak of Tension Test (SPOT) = is used
to determine details of a crime that are not known to
officials, such as the location of an unrecovered body,
but would be known to a participant in the crime.
Types of Comparison Question

a. Directed Lie Comparison Question (DLC) = a comparison 4. Card test / Acquaintance Test / Stimulation Test = the
question in which the examinee is instructed by the examiner subject is presented with seven (7) previously numbered cards
to answer the questions untruthfully. face down.

Some examiners actually get admission to = he will be instructed to take one, look at it and return
comparison questions and then instruct the examinee to lie to it with the rest of the cards.
that question when it is asked.
= the examiner will shuffle the cards and each card
b. Probable Lie Comparison Question (PLC) = a question to will be shown to him, with the instruction that he will answer
which it is likely that the examinee is untruthful with his answer. “NO” to all cards , even if the one being shown to him is the
one he has seen earlier.
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
a.2. the subject if female should not be
pregnant
5. Guilt Complex Test = used primarily for overly responsive
subjects. a.3. the subject should not be hungry

= a totally fictitious incident but a similar nature to the a.4. the subject should not be physically or
matter being investigated and make him believe it is real. emotional abuse

= The purpose is to compare the response with those a.5. the subject should not be suffering high
response made concerning the actual matter under blood or hypertension.
investigation
b. Informing the subject of his Constitutional Rights (if the
examiner is a law enforcement officer)

6. Silent Answer Test = Subject is instructed not to give any c. Taking of the subject consent
verbal answer, the subject will only answer in his mind.
d. Taking of the subject personal data

e. Discuss with the subject the crime/issue under investigation

7. Comparison Question Test (CQT) = the reactions on the
control and relevant questions are compared via numerical f. Preparing the subject for the test – administration of
scoring stimulation test

Polygraph Examiner = is one who is capable of detecting

deception and verifying the truthfulness of statement through
2. ln-Test (Actual Test) = is the actual conduct of the test
the use of a polygraph instrument.
administered by a polygraph examiner
= is someone who has successfully completed formal
education and training in conducting polygraph examination
and is certified by his agency to conduct such examination. Conditions of the Room

 It should be spacious for two persons

 Well lighted
Subject = is any person who undergoes polygraph  Well ventilated
examination.  Sound Proof
 Not decorated

Polygraph Examination = a process that encompasses all 3. Post-test Interview or Interrogation = is an interview or
activities that take place between a polygraph examiner and an an interrogation administered by a polygraph examiner after
examinee during a specific series of interactions. For a valid the test designed to obtain confession or admission by the
polygraph examination to exist, respiration, EDA, and subject. = interview is conducted when the reactions indicate
Cardiovascular activity must be monitored and recorded. an innocent response and very cooperative to the examiner.
= interrogation is conducted when the reactions show sign
of deception and being uncooperative to open an
Two Types of Polygraph Exam information.

1. Mixed Issue Exam = multiple-issue polygraph testing like

screening of applicants or audit of employees or persons with
security clearances. Chart markings = are annotations of the physiologic tracings
to denote stimulus (question) onset and offset, examinee’s
2. Diagnostic Exam = a test which involves specific case answer, question number, question label, artifacts, and other
investigation. details important to the interpretation of the physiological data.

Types of Diagnostic Exam Two Types Chart Markings

1. Single Issue Exam = a test which inquires direct 1. Primary Markings = these are markings which indicate the
involvement of subject into a specific case under question. beginning and end of examination as well as the questions and
answers of the subject. These are usually placed at the bottom
2. Mult-facet Exam = test format in which the relevant or top of the polygraph chart
questions are targeted toward different elements of the same
crime.

Stages in the Conduct of the Polygraph Test a. X – it indicates the start of the test. The examiner
informs the subject that the test is about to begin.

 Initial Interview With the Investigator b. I I – is a stimulus mark. The first vertical line marks
when the examiner starts asking question. Second
vertical line marks when the examiner finishes asking
1. Pre-test Interview = an interview conducted by the question.
polygraph examiner designed to prepare or condition the
subject for the actual test. It usually last for about 20 – 30 c. + - a positive sign which indicates that the subject
minutes answers the question with “yes”. This also indicates
the period when the subject answers the question and
a. Determining the subject physical, mental and psychological usually followed by a “number” indicating the order
suitability to undergo the test number of question, example +3, +4, +5….)

a.1. the subject should avoid taking drugs at d. – a negative sign indicating that the subject answers
least 12 hrs before the test the stimulus with “no”. This also indicates the period
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
when the subject answers the question and usually (phasic response) or a newly established baseline
followed by a “number”. (tonic) response.
 Recovery = A deviation in polygraph tracing
e. XX – indicates the end of test. attributable to a physiological phenomenon occurring
as a compensatory action after a response or an
artifact.
2. Secondary Markings = are markings which are placed only  Response = A physiological change that occurs
if the examinee does something which will cause the following, and is attributable to the presentation of
physiological tracings to distort. These markings are usually applied stimulus.
placed below the affected tracing.  Phasic Response = A known origin response to a
specific stimulus that is generally seen as an upward
movement from the baseline with subsequent return
a. M – Movement to the pre-stimulus or original baseline.
b. T – Talking  Tonic Response = A known origin response to a
c. DB – Deep Breath specific stimulus that is generally seen as a
d. C – Cough movement from the pre-stimulus baseline and
e. CT – Clear Throat establishment of a new baseline without returning to
f. SW – Swallow the pre-stimulus baseline.
g. SNF – Sniff  Response Amplitude = The displayed physiological
h. Y – Yawn activity reflected in a polygraph tracing occurring
i. SZ – Sneeze between response onset and response peak (highest
j. LGH – Laugh level from pre-stimulus baseline).
k. SLP – Sleep  Response Duration = The physiological activity
l. B – Belch (time) displayed between response onset and offset.
m. OSN – Outside Noise Typically, this is the time from response onset until
n. ISN – Inside Noise return to the pre-stimulus baseline (phasic response)
o. EE – Examiner Error or a newly established baseline (tonic response).
p. WRQ – Will Repeat Question  Response Latency = The time between stimulus
q. MI – Movement Instruction onset and response onset.
r. TI – Talking Instruction  Response Onset = The first indication of change
s. AI – Answering Instruction from the pre-stimulus level of physiological activity to
t. BI – Breathing Instruction an applied stimulus.
u. WU – Wake-Up  Response Onset Window = The period of time
v. TDB – Take Deep Breath between stimulus onset (verbal presentation of
question) and an examinee’s verbal answer to that
stimulus.
 Spot Analysis = The procedure wherein each
component tracing is separately evaluated by
INTERPRETATION OF POLYGRAPH DATA comparing the response of a relevant question to the
response of a comparison question.
Important Terms to Consider
 Stimulus Onset = It is the beginning of the
 Analysis Spot = The relevant and control questions presentation of the first word of a question.
that are actually evaluated during spot analysis.  Tonic Level = It describes the examinee’s
 Artifact = A change in an examinee’s physiological physiological response when resting. An examinee’s
pattern that is not attributable to a reviewed test level of physiological activity occurring prior to
question. It includes examinee’s movements during stimulus onset. This is sometimes referred to as the
the examination. resting or baseline activity level.
 Blind chart Analysis = Evaluation of PDD recordings  Zone = A concept coined by Cleve Backster. A zone
without the benefit of extrapolygraphic information, is a twenty to thirty-five seconds block of polygraph
such as subject behavior, case facts, pretest chart time initiated by a question having a unique
admissions, base rates of deception, etc psychological focusing appeal to a predictable group
 Deception Indicated (DI) = A decision of DI in PDD of examinees
means that (1) the physiological data are stable and
interpretable, and (2) the evaluation criteria used by
Two types of Chart Interpretation
the examiner led him to conclude that the examinee is
not wholly truthful to the relevant issue.  Global Analysis
 Exosomatic = Something generated from outside the  Numerical Scoring
body. Skin resistance is exosomatic measures  Manual Numerical Scoring
because electrical current is applied from outside  Computer Scoring Algorithm
sources to detect the electrodermal activity.
 EDA Recovery Phase = The physiological activity
displayed in an EDA tracing that occurs between the GLOBAL ANALYSIS
highest peak and subsequent return to the pre-
stimulus or newly established baseline. The EDA In global analysis, the examiner looks for
recovery phase begins once the tracing ahs reached significant reactions that occur repeatedly which is referred to
its highest peak. as “Conspecnificance”. Conspecnificance is the consistency
 EDA Rise Time = The physiological activity displayed of reaction to a specific question with significant magnitude
in an EDA tracing beginning with response onset and
ending at the peak.  NUMERICAL SCORING
 No Deception Indicated (NDI) = is a conventional The numerical scoring is a method of
term in PDD, NDI signifies that the polygraph test rendering polygraph decisions that are based exclusively on
recordings are stable and interpretable and the numeric values that have been assigned to physiological
evaluation criteria used by the examiner led him to responses recorded during a structured polygraph examination
conclude that the examinee was truthful to the
relevant issue.
 Test Data = The signal of interest that may consist of
artifacts, recovery or examinee’s physiological ELEMENTS OF SCORING SYSTEM
response to stimuli.
 Test Data Analysis = Analysis of the 1. Reaction Features = are raw physiological data that a
psychohysiological response activity (time) displayed polygraph examiner should look into the polygraph chart for
between response onset. Typically, this is the time numerical interpretation. It can be scored using the seven
from response onset until return to the pre-stimulus position or three position rules. Only reactions on the relevant
and comparison questions are scored during interpretation.
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
2. Transformations = In transforming physiological data, Threshold of Accuracy According to American Society for
combine observations of reactions to relevant and control Testing Materials (ASTM)
stimulus into a single value for each component and for each
presentation of each of the target stimuli.  Ninety (90) Percent = for evidentiary polygraph
examinations. Evidentiary polygraph examinations are
 Red questions (relevant) are compared to Green those conducted specifically for courtroom purposes.
question (control)  Eighty (80) Percent = for investigative polygraph
 Assign a - score when there is a larger response to a examination. Investigative polygraph examinations
relevant question are used for non-judicial purposes.
 Assign a + score when there is a larger response to a  Both evidentiary and investigative examinations are
control question permitted to an inconclusive rate of twenty (20)
 Different scoring systems used different scoring rules percent.
in assigning numerical value to particular reaction
features on the relevant and comparison questions.
3. Decision Rules = determines when data meet the criteria Result Errors
for inclusion in a particular category.
 False Negative = refers to the failure to detect the
= final step in polygraph numerical scoring, producing presence of a particular event or item.
= in polygraphy refers to the incorrect decision that
decisions of Deception Indicated, No Deception Indicated, and
deception was not practiced by the examinee.
Inconclusive.
 False Positive = is the false detection of something
= artifacts such as deep breaths, coughs, movements,
that is not actually present. In polygraphy
and physiological abnormalities (premature ventricular
= it is the incorrect decision that deception was
contractions) affect the quality of tracings for scoring. All these
practiced by the examinee.
should not be scored.

Admissibility of Result
ACCURACY AND RELIABILITY OF POLYGRAPH RESULTS
In the Philippines, polygraph results are not admitted
 Accuracy = the condition or quality of being true,
as evidence. Many polygraph examiners and lawyers have
correct, or exact
attempted presenting polygraph evidence in court but all
 = refers to validity (state or quality of being well
founded). resulted to futile.

Types of Validity
Philippines
 Face Validity = opinion or consensus of experts
 Rule 130 section 49 of the Rules on Evidence
 Content Validity = selection of pertinent issues of
provides that:
inquiry
“The opinion of a witness on matter
 Predictive Validity = ability to predict a future outcome
requiring special knowledge, skill, experience or training which
 Concurrent Validity = ability to identify what is already
known he shown to posses, may be received in evidence.”
 Convergent Validity – new info coincide with extant
info
 Divergent Validity – new info separates extant ideas U.S. United States v. Frye – 1923 – NOT ADMITTED AS
 Construct Validity – meaningful defined and EVIDENCE (First case in Polygraphy)
understandable relationships (correlations) between
various phenomena  
 Criterion Validity – accuracy of category decisions
 Incremental Validity – professional decision accuracy Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals - 1993 (U.S.)
improves with the use of additional information
Areas of Inquiry:

Reliability = refers to stability or consistency of measurement.  the theory or technique in question can be
Reliability studies in PDD often examine the rate of decision (and has been) tested;
agreement among examiners on polygraph test charts.  whether it has been subjected to peer review
and publication;
Two Types of Reliability  its known or potential error rate;
 the existence and maintenance of standards
1. Interrater reliability = denotes agreement among controlling its operation; and
examiners  whether it has attracted widespread
acceptance within a relevant scientific
2. Intrarater agreement (test-retest reliability) = pertains to community.
an examiner agreement with his own decisions when
evaluating the charts on different occasions.
In New Mexico, the Supreme Court, in State v. Dorsey in
Note: 1973, ruled that:

Reliability is not the same as validity, which

means accuracy. A technique cannot be more valid than it is
reliable. A technique can have high agreement without high “Polygraph results are admissible as long as
accuracy, though the reverse is not true. (1) the polygraph operator is competent, (2) the procedure
used is reliable, and (3) the “tests made on the subject” are
valid.”

Goals of Polygraph Testing

 Sensitivity = Ability to detect or notice the issue. In 1983, New Mexico then codified the admissibility of
polygraph results with Rules of Evidence, which states
that:
 Specificity = Ability to reject non-involved cases.
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
"Subject to the provisions of these rules, the 8. Genuine documents erroneously or fraudulently attacked
opinion of a polygraph examiner may in the discretion of the or disputed.
trial judge be admitted as evidence as to the truthfulness of any 9. Documents containing printing or type prints.
person called as a witness if the examination was performed
by a person who is qualified as an expert polygraph examiner.” Writings and Signature:
System of Writing – is the combination of the basic shape and
designs of letter and the writing movement which was taught in
school.
Copy book form – is an illustration of the basic designs of
letters that is fundamental to the writing system.
Writing movement – refers to factors relative to the motion of
the pen such as, pressure, rhythm, pen lifting, etc.
QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS EXAMINATION Writing – is the visible result of a very complicated series of
acts, being as a whole or a combination of certain forms which
Document are the very visible result of mental and muscular habits
Any material that contains a mark symbol or sign, acquired by long continued painstaking effort.
either visible, partially visible or invisible that may presently or Handwriting – is a visible effect of bodily movement which is
ultimately convey a meaning or a message to someone. an almost unconscious expressions of fixed muscular habits,
It is any written statement by which a right is reacting from fixed mental impression of certain ideas
established or an obligation extinguished. (People vs. Moreno, associated with script form.
C.A., 38 O.G. 119) Writing Habits – refers to any repeated elements of once
handwriting which serves as an identifying characteristics.
Two Categories of Document Significant Writing Habits – elements of one’s writing that are
1. Questioned Document – Document to which an issue sufficiently unique and well fixed to serve as a strong basis of
has been raised or which is under scrutiny. The focal individuality.
point of the examination and to which the document Slant = refers to the relative degree of writing inclination
examiner relies as to the extent of the problem. (also relative to the baseline.
referred to as disputed document). Baseline = an imaginary or straight line in which the writing
2. Standard Document – Document in which the origin is rest.
known can be proven and can legally be used as sample
to compare with other things is questioned. Types of Handwritings
1. Cursive – Writing in which the letters are for the most part
      Types of Standards joined together.
a. Collected/Procured Std. – Standard specimen 2. Handlettering – refers to writing characterized by a
executed in the regular course of man’s activity or that disconnected style.
which are executed on the day to day writing activity. 3. Natural Writing – a specimen of writing that is executed
b. Requested/Dictated (Post litel motam std.) – a normally and without any attempt of altering its usual
Standard document which are executed upon request, writing habits.
they are prepare at one time. 4. Disguised – a specimen of writing executed deliberately
with an attempt of changing its usual writing habits in the
Contemporary document = documents which are not hope of hiding one’s identity.
more than five (5) years before or after. 5. Guided/assisted – a specimen of writing executed while
the writer’s hand is at steadied. Usually employed by
Legal Classification of Documents: beginners in writing.
1. Public Document = a document created,
executed or issued by a public official in response Signature – a name of person signed by himself on a
to the exigencies of the public service, or in the document as a sign of acknowledgement.
execution of which a public official intervened. Model signature – genuine signature which has been used in
= is any instrument authorized by a preparing a simulated or traced forgery.
notary public or a competent public Evidential Signature – specimen signature which was
official, with the solemnities executed in particular date, particular time and place, under a
required by law ( Cacnio , et.al. vs. particular writer’s condition and for a particular purpose.
Baens, 5 Phil. 724).
2. Official Document = a document which is issued Classes of Signature
by a public official in the exercise of the functions 1. Formal or complete – used in signing very
of his office. Am official document is also a public important document
document as a larger classification. 2. Informal or cursory – used for routine document
3. Private Document = A deed or instrument 3. Careless scribble – used for not so important
executed by a private person without the document such as delivery of mail or receipt of
intervention of a notary public or other person purchase equipment etc.
legally authorized, by which documents, some
disposition or agreement is proved, evidenced or Forgery – is an act of falsifying or counterfeiting any treasure or
set forth. (US Vs. Orera, 11 Phil 596) e.g. Theater bank notes, paper bills or any documents which are payable to
Ticket. the bearer.
4. Commercial Document = any document defined - is an act of simulating or tracing somebody’s
and regulated by the Code of Commerce signature without the latter’s consent for profit.
( People Vs. Co Beng, C.A. 40 OG 1913) or any
other commercial law. Major types of Forgery
1. Simple forgery – a forges signature where no attempt has
Classes of Questioned Documents: been made to make a copy or facsimile of the genuine
1. Document with questioned Signature (most common). writing of a person purported to sign the document. Also
2. Document containing fraudulent alteration (Any form of known as spurious signature
changes either an addition or deletion to the contents of a 2. Simulated or Copied forgery – a forged signature which
document). resembles the genuine signature written in free-hand.
3. Holograph Document – a document that is completely Considered as the most skillful type of forgery.
written and signed by one person 3. Traced Forgery – forged signature which closely
4. Document questioned as to the material used in their resembles the genuine made by some tracing process or
production. outline form.
5. Documents questioned as to their age or date. Methods of tracing
6. Documents involving typewriting a. Carbon outline process – used of carbon paper.
7. Document which may identify a person through b. Indention process- used of considerable
handwriting pressure, Canal-like process.
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
c. Projection or transmitted light process- used of 7. Shading – refers to the more obvious increase in
light from the back or bottom. the width of the letter strokes.
d. Laser method – used of hologram. 8. Pen Position – is the relative location of the pen
CHARACTERISTICS IN WRITING: in relation to the paper surface.
Characteristics – refers to any property, marks or elements 9. Pen scope – represents the reach of the hand
which distinguishes. Also referred to as identifying details. with the wrist at rest.
10. Retracing or retraced – is the strokes which goes
Types of characteristics: back over another writing strokes that is slightly
1. Class Characteristics – characteristics or properties to occur in other’s writing.
which are common or which can be found in the specimen 11. Retouching or patching – is a stroke, which goes
writing of other person. Gross characteristics. back over a defective portion of a writing to repair
2. Individual Characteristics – characteristics which are or correct an error.
highly personal or peculiar. That which is unlikely to occur
in other’s handwriting. Factors that affects writing characteristics:
Elements of Forms in Writing: 1. Natural Variations – is the usual or normal deviation
1. Arc – the rounded inner part of an upper curve, bend or found in a repeated specimen of an individual’s
crook, handwriting or in the product of any typewriter.
2. Beard – is an introductory up and down strokes found in 2. Transitory Change – are meant to those changes which
some capital letters. Also called as double hitch. only continue to exist while the basic cause of the
3. Blunt – is a part of a stroke characterized by a abrupt deterioration is still affecting the writer, once the such
beginning or end at which the pen does not creates a cause has been removed from the writer, the writing will
diminishing strokes. reverts in its normal form.
4. Buckle Knot is a horizontal or loop strokes used to 3. Tremor – is the weakening of the strokes characterized by
complete letters A, H, F and D. a wavering or shaky strokes.
5. Central Part – is the body of the letter. Characterized by a a. Genuine Tremor
small rounded or circular strokes. a.1. Weakness of sickness
6. Ductus-link, Ductus-broken- refers to the connection a.2 Old age
between letters, either joined or disconnected. a.3. Illiteracy (lack of skills)
7. Eyelet/ eyeloop – refers to small oblong strokes. b. Tremor of Fraud
8. Hitch – an introductory backward strokes found in most 4. Writing Conditions – refers to all factors affecting the
capital letters and in some small letters. over-all quality of writing such as the writer’s condition
9. Hiatus = an obvious gap between letters. under which the writing was prepared.
10. Humps – is the outer portion of an upper curve bend or
crook, (see arc) 5. Writing instrument
11. Knob – is a tiny pool of an ink at the beginning or ending a. Ball point pen (John Loud) consisting of a ball
strokes. bearing at the point of the pen.
12. Loop – is an oblong strokes b. Fountain pen (Lewis Watterman) consisting of
13. Stem/shank/staff – is considered as the backbone of the pen nib point.
letter characterized by a long downward strokes c. Fiber pen (originally designed by Hongkong)
14. Initial/terminal Spur – a long running initial or terminal
strokes. Miscellaneous Document Problem
15. Through – refers to any garland form of a letter strokes 1. Detection of Alteration
16. Whirl – is the long upward strokes usually found opposite Alteration - refers to any form of changes either
the stem an addition or a deletion to the original content of the
document which is not a part of its original preparation.
Embellishments – added strokes that serves as an 2. Decipherment of Erased Writings
ornamental or flourish to the design of the letters. They Erasure – refers to removal of a writings or
considered unnecessary to the legibility of the writing. any part of a document either by mechanical or
Diacritics = strokes added to complete certain letters. They chemical process.
are necessary to the legibility of the letters. Mechanical Erasure – done by means of
Writing Movement – refers to all factors relative to the motion abrasive method through rubbing or scrapping.
of the pen. Chemical Erasure – done with the aid or
use of bleaching agent called ink eradicator.
Line Quality – is the visible records in the written strokes of the Usually examined with the aid or fuming,
basic movements and manner of holding instrument. It is transmitted light, oblique light and ultra-violet
derived from a combination of factors, including writing skill, light examination.
speed, rhythm, freedom of movement, shading and pen 3. Decipherment of Obliterated writing
emphasis. Obliteration – is the process of smearing over an
original writing to make it undecipherable or illegible.
Types of movement: Done with the used of superimposing inks.
1. Finger (used by beginners) Usually  examined with the used of Infra-red light.
2. Hand (wrist serves as the point of pivotal & of 4. Examination of Charred Document and water soaked
limited freedom) document
3. Forearm (most skillful type of movement) Charred Document – refers to partly burned or brittle
4. Whole arm (used for ornamental or large writings) document. Decipherment is usually accomplished
with the used of infra-red light examination.
Elements of Writing Movement 5. Development of Invisible writing
1. Pen pressure – is the average or usual pressure Invisible writing – writing that has no readily visible
applied in the writing. ink strokes. Made by Sympathetic inks such as acids,
2. Pen Emphasis – is the act of intermittently forcing juice and others. They are possible of development
the pen against the paper surface with an depending on the ink used. Methods of development
increase in speed. can be by heat. Water, chemical  fuming or by ultra-
3. Rhythm – is the harmonious or balance violet light process.
recurrence of strokes or impulses.
4. Skills – refers to the degree of writer’s proficiency
in writing
5. Speed – cannot be measured precisely from the 6. Decipherment of Contract writing
finished handwriting but it can be interpreted in Contact writing – refers to partially visible ink strokes
broad term as to either fast, slow or moderate. cause by sudden contact between a sheet of paper
6. Pen-lift – an interruption is strokes caused by with another paper containing fresh ink. Can be
sudden removal of the writing instrument from the enhanced through fuming or ultra-violet light
paper surface. process.
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
medical practitioner with particular reference to those
EXAMINATION OF TYPEWRITING arising from the doctor-patient relationship.
Scope of Legal Medicine
Definition of Terms:  It is the application of medical and paramedical
1. Typeface – is the printing surface of the type block in a sciences as demanded by law and administration of
conventional typewriter. In electric typewriter it is the justice.
printing surface of the rotating head sphere. Nature of the Study of Legal Medicine
2. Typeface defect – any form of peculiarity of the type  A knowledge of legal medicine means the ability to
printing caused by actual damage to acquire facts, the power to arrange those facts in their
the typeface metal or which maybe an abnormality in its logical order, and to draw a conclusion from the facts
printing condition. which may be useful in the administration of justice.
3. Characters – in connection to typewriting, it is used to Brief History of Legal Medicine
include letters, symbols, numerals      or points of  Imhotep: earliest recorded medico-legal expert
punctuation.  Hippocrates: discussed the lethality of wounds
4. Pica typeface – type face impression ordinarily spaced ten  Antistius: the “first police surgeon” or forensic
(10) characters to the      horizontal inch. pathologist
5. Elite typeface – type face impression ordinarily spaced  Paulus Zacchias: a papal physician, regarded as the
twelve (12) characters to the horizontal inch. “father of forensic medicine”
6. Proportional spacing machine – a typewriter with a type  Orfila: introduced chemical methods in toxicology
letter spacing similar to the type spacing of conventional On December 23, 1975, Presidential Decree 856 was
printed in which all letters are allotted horizontal in promulgated and Sec 95 provides:
conformity with their relative widths.  Persons authorized to perform autopsies:
7. Transitory Defects – is an identifying typewriter  health officers
characteristics which can be eliminated  medical officers of law enforcement agencies
by simply cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon.  members of the medical staff of accredited
8. Permanent Defects – any identifying typewriting hospitals
characteristics of the type face which      cannot be  Autopsies shall be performed in the following
corrected by simply cleaning the machine or replacing the cases:
ribbon.  whenever required by special laws
9. Mal alignment or alignment defects – refers to defect in the  upon order of a competent court, a mayor
printing condition of the type      character in which the and a provincial or city fiscal
letters are printed either at the top or bottom, left or right of  upon written request of police authorities
inclined      from its proper position.  whenever the Solicitor General, provincial, or
city fiscal deem it necessary to disinter and
Principal technique utilized in typewriting identification take possession of the remains for
1. Measure the type face pitch examination to determine the cause of death
2. Verify the type size and design (W-G-T)  whenever the nearest kin shall request in
3. Look for individual type face defects writing the authorities concerned to ascertain
the cause of death
Typeface Defects MEDICAL EVIDENCE
1. Vertical mal alignment – a character printing above or  Evidence is the means, sanctioned by the Rules of
below of its proper position. Court, of ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth
2. Horizontal mal alignment – an alignment defect in which respecting a matter of fact (Sec1, Rule128, Rules of
the characters are printed to the left or right of its proper Court)
position.  It is the species of proof, or probative matter, legally
3. Twisted letters – letters and characters are designed to be presented at the trial of an issue by the act of the
printed at a certain angle to the baseline. Once letters parties and through the medium of witnesses,
leans to the left or right of its proper position such is called records, documents, concrete objects, etc, for the
twisted letters. purpose of inducing belief in the minds of the court as
4. Off-its-feet – is a condition of the type face printing at to their contention.
which then character outline is not equally printed, that is Methods of Preserving Evidences
the printing is heavier in one side than the remainder of  A: Photographs, audio and/or video tape, micro-film,
the outline of the character. Photostat, Xerox, voice tracing, etc
5. Rebound – typeface defect in which a character prints a  Photography is considered to be the most practical,
double impression with the lighter one slightly off-set to the useful and reliable means of preservation.
right or left. 1. Sketching
6. Actual breakage – any peculiarity of typewriting caused by 2. Description
actual damage to the type face metal. 3. Manikin Method
7. Clogged type face (dirty) – is a typeface defects 4. Preservation in the Mind of the Witness
characterized by dirty prints due to constant used without 5. Special Methods
cleaning of the type bar or due to use of new carbon. whole human body
These are common in closed letter outline such as o, a, p,  soft tissues (skin, muscle, visceral
g etc. organs)
 blood
 stains (blood, semen)
 poison
Rules in Personal Identification
LEGAL MEDICINE a. The greater the number of points of similarities and
 branch of medicine which deals with the application of dissimilarities of two persons compared, the greater is
medical knowledge to the purpose of law and in the the probability for the conclusion to be correct. This is
administration of justice known as the Law of Multiplicity of Evidence in
 it is the application of basic and clinical, medical and Identification.
paramedical sciences to elucidate legal matters b. The value of the different points of identification varies
 Originally the terms legal medicine, forensic in the formulation of conclusion.
medicine and medical jurisprudence are c. The longer the interval between the death and the
synonymous and in common practice are used examination of the remains for purposes of
interchangeably. identification, the greater is the need for experts in
 Strictly speaking, legal medicine is primarily the establishing identity.
application of medicine to legal cases while forensic d. In as much as the object to be identified is highly
medicine concerns with the application of medical perishable, it is necessary for the team to act in the
science to elucidate legal problems. shortest possible time especially in cases of mass
 Medical Jurisprudence denotes knowledge of law in disaster.
relation to the practice of medicine. It concerns with
the study of the rights, duties and obligations of a
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
e.There is no rigid rule to be observed in the procedure  it occurs the moment a physician or the other
of identification of persons. members of the family declare a person has expired,
Methods of Identification and some of the early signs of death are present
1. by comparison  immediately after death the face and lips become
a: latent fingerprints pale, the muscles become flaccid, the sphincters are
b: dental findings relax, the lower jaw tends to drop, the eyelids remain
2. by exclusion open, pupils dilate and the skin losses its elasticity
 the body fluid tends to gravitate to the most
Points of Identification Applicable to the Living Persons dependent portions of the body and the body heat
Only gradually assumes the temperature of the
1. Characteristics which may be changed surroundings
 growth of hair, beard or mustache b: Molecular or Cellular Death
 clothing  after cessation of vital functions of the body there is
 frequent place of visit still animal life among individual cells
 grade of profession  this is evidenced by the presence of excitability of
 body ornamentations muscles and ciliary movements and other functions of
2.Characteristics that may not easily be changed individual cells
 mental memory  about 3-6 hours later, there is death of individual cells
 speech c: Apparent death or state of suspended animation
 gait (ataxic, cerebellar, cow’s gait)  is not really death but merely a transient loss of
 mannerism consciousness or temporary cessation of the vital
 hands and feet functions of the body on account of disease or
 complexion external stimulus
 changes in the eyes  it may arise especially in hysteria, uremia, catalepsy
 facies and electric shock
Scientific Methods of Identification  there are records of cases wherein a person was
 fingerprinting pronounced dead, placed in a coffin and later angrily
 dental identification rise from it and walk unaided
 handwriting Signs of Deaths
 identification of skeleton 1. cessation of heart action and circulation
 determination of sex 2. cessation of respiration
 determination of age 3. cooling of the body (algor mortis)
 identification of blood and blood stains a: After death the metabolic process inside the body ceases.
 identification of hair and fibers No more heat is produced but the body loses slowly its
temperature by evaporation or by conduction to the
MEDICO-LEGAL ASPECTS OF DEATH surrounding atmosphere
Importance of Death Determination b: It is rapid during the first 2 hours after death and as the
 civil personality of a natural person is temperature of the body gradually approaches the temperature
extinguished by death of the surroundings, the rate becomes slower
 property of a person is transmitted to his heirs at 4. Insensibility of the body and loss of power to move
the time of death 5. Changes in the skin
 death of a partner is one of the causes of 6. Changes in and about the eye
dissolution of partnership agreement 7. Action of heat on the skin
 criminal liability of a person is extinguished by Changes in the Body Following Death
death 1. Changes in the muscle
 civil case for claims which does not survive is a. After death, there is complete relaxation of the
dismissed upon death of the defendant whole muscular system
Death is the termination of life. It is the complete cessation of b. The entire muscular system is contractile for 3-6
all the vital functions without possibility of resuscitation. It is an hours after death, and later rigidly sets in
irreversible loss of the properties of living matter. c. Secondary relaxation of the muscles will appear
Kinds of Death just when decomposition has set in
a. Somatic Death or Clinical Death 3 Stages of Muscle Tissue after Death
 it is the state of the body in which there is complete, a. Stage of primary flaccidity
persistent and continuous cessation of the vital The muscles are relaxed and capable of contracting
functions of the brain, heart and lungs which maintain when stimulated. The pupils are dilated, the sphincters are
life and health relaxed, and there is incontinence of urination and defecation.
b.
Stage of post-mortem rigidity (cadaveric rigidity or death The following officials of the government are authorized to
struggle of muscles or rigor mortis) make death investigation:
The whole body becomes rigid due to the contraction  Provincial and City Fiscals
of the muscles. This develops 3-6 hours after death and may  Judges of the Courts of the First Instance (now
last from 24-36 hours. Regional Trial Courts)
c. Stage of secondary flaccidity or commencement of  Justice of the Peace (now Municipal Trial Courts)
putrefaction (decay of the muscles)  Director of the National Bureau of Investigation
The muscles become flaccid, no longer capable of  Chief of Police of the city of Manila
responding to mechanical or electrical stimulus and the  Solicitor General
reaction becomes alkaline. Stages of Medico-Legal Investigation
2. Changes in the blood 1. crime scene investigation: investigation of the place of
a. coagulation in the blood commission of the crime
b. post-mortem lividity or cadaveric lividity, or post-  The crime scene is the place where the
mortem suggillation or post-mortem hypostasis or livor mortis. essential ingredients of the criminal act took place.
3. Autolytic or autodigestive changes  It includes the setting of the crime and also the
4. Putrefaction of the body adjoining pieces of entry and exit of both offender and
victim.
MEDICO-LEGAL INVESTIGATION OF DEATH Autopsy: investigation of the body of the victim
Inquest Officer:  An autopsy is a comprehensive
 an official of the state charged with the duty of study of a dead body, performed by
inquiring into certain matters a trained physician employing
 charged with the duty of investigating the manner and recognized dissection procedure
cause of death of a person and techniques
 authorized to summon witnesses and direct any  It includes removal of tissues for
person to perform or assist in the investigation when further examination
necessary Autopsy vs. Post-Mortem Examination
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
 Post-mortem examination: refers to an external  Autopsy: indicates that, in addition to an external
examination of a dead body without incision being examination, the body is opened and an internal
made, although blood and other body fluids may be
collected for examination
 examination is conducted
Kinds of Autopsies
a. hospital or non-official autopsy
b. medico-legal or official autopsy
Distinction between Pathological (Non-official) and Medico-Legal (Official) Autopsies

Pathological Medico-Legal

Must have the consent of the next of It is the law that gives the consent. Consent
a. Requirement
kin. of relatives not needed.

Confirmation of clinical findings of Correlation of tissue changes to the criminal

b. Purpose
research. act.

Emphasis laid on effect of wrongful act on

the body. Other findings may only be
c. Emphasis Notation of all abnormal findings.
noted in mitigation of the criminal
responsibility.

Summation of all abnormal findings Must be specific for the purpose of

d. Conclusion irrespective of its correlation determining whether it is in relation to
with clinical findings. the criminal act.

If the investigator things it will be useful in

e. Minor or Non-
Need not be mentioned in the report. the administration of justice, it must
pathological
be included.

The Following Manner of Death should be Autopsied:

 death of violence
 accidental death
 suicides
 sudden death of persons who are apparently in good health
 death unattended by physician
 death in hospitals or clinics (DOA) wherein a physician was not able to arrive at a clinical diagnosis as the
cause of death.
 death occurring in an unnatural manner

CAUSES OF DEATH
The primary purpose of a medico-legal autopsy is the determination of the cause of death.
The cause of death is the injury, disease or the combination of both injury and disease responsible for initiating the trend or
physiological disturbance, brief or prolonged, which produce the fatal termination.
a. immediate (primary) cause of death
 applies to cases when trauma or disease kill quickly that there is no opportunity for sequelae or
complications to develop
 example: extensive brain laceration as a result of vehicular accident
b. proximate (secondary) cause of death
 the injury or disease was survived for a sufficiency prolonged interval which permitted the development of
serious sequelae which actually caused the death
 example: stab wound in the abdomen later caused generalized peritonitis, then peritonitis is the proximate
cause of death
mechanism of death
 is the physiological derangement or biochemical disturbance incompatible with life which is initiated by the
cause of death
 it may be hemorrhagic shock, metabolic disturbance, respiratory depression, toxemic condition, cardiac
arrest, tamponade, etc
manner of death
 the explanation as to how the cause of death came into being or how the cause of death arose
 it maybe:
natural death: fatality is caused solely by disease
violent or unnatural death: due to injury of any sort (gunshot, stab, fracture, traumatic shock)
Instantaneous Physiological Death (Death from Inhibition, Death from Primary Shock, Syncope with Instantaneous Exitus)
 this is sudden death which occurs within seconds or a minute or 2 (no more) after a minor trauma or
peripheral stimulation of relatively simple and ordinarily innocuous nature
 examples: a blow to the larynx, a kick in the scrotum, pressure on the carotid sinus
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL

Medico-Legal Classification of the Cause of Death b. negligent death

a. Natural death  death due to reckless imprudence, negligence, lack of
b. Violent death skill or lack of foresight
1. accidental death c. suicidal death
2. negligent death  destruction of one’s self
3. infanticidal death d. parricidal death (killing of one’s relative)
4. parricidal death • Art246, Revised Penal Code
5. Murder • Any person who shall kill his father, mother
6. homicidal death or a child whether legitimate or illegitimate,
Penal Classification of Violent Deaths or any of his ascendants or descendants, or
a. accidental death his spouse, shall be guilty of parricide and be
 death due to misadventure or accident punished by the penalty of reclusion
 an accident is something that happens outside the perpetua to death.
sway of our will, and although it comes about through
some act of will, lies beyond bound of human
foreseeable consequences
e. infanticide death (killing of a child less than 3 days old)  Without the knowledge of the convict, the flat-form
 Art255, Revised Penal Code suddenly collapses which causes the sudden
 The penalty provided for parricide in Art246, and for suspension of the body and the tightening of the
murder in Art248 shall be imposed upon any person noose around the neck.
who shall kill any child less than 3 days of age  Death may be due to asphyxia or injury of the cervical
f. murder portion of the spinal cord.
 Art248, Revised Penal Code 3. death by musketry
 Any person who, not falling within the provisions of  The convict is made to face a firing squad and is put
Art246 shall kill another, shall be guilty of murder and to death by a volley of fire. The convict may be facing
shall be punished of death, if committed with any of or with his back towards the firing squad.
the following circumstances: 4. death by gas chamber
 with treachery, taking advantage of superior strength,  The convict is enclosed in a compartment and an
with the aid of armed men, or employing means to obnoxious or asphyxiating gas is introduced. The
weaken the defense or of means or persons to insure most common gas used is carbon monoxide.
or afford impunity Euthanasia
 in consideration of a price, reward or promise  or mercy killing
 by means of inundation, fire, poison, explosion,  deliberate and painless acceleration of death of a
shipwreck, stranding of a vessel, derailment or assault person usually suffering from an incurable and
upon a street car or locomotive, fall of an airship or distressing disease
with the use of any other means involving great waste Death from Starvation
and ruin.  Starvation or inanition is the deprivation of a regular
 on occasion of any of calamities. and constant supply of food and water which is
 with evident premeditation. necessary to normal health of a person.
 with cruelty, by deliberately inhumanly augmenting the Types of Starvation
suffering of the victim, or outraging or scoffing at his 1. acute starvation: is when necessary food has been
person or corpse suddenly and completely withheld from a person
g. homicidal death 2. chronic starvation: is when there is a gradual or deficient
 Art249, Revised Penal Code supply of food
 Any person who, not falling within the provisions of Length of Survival
Art246 shall kill another, shall be deemed guilty of The human body without food loses 1/24th of its weight daily,
homicide and be punished by reclusion temporal and a loss of 40% of the weight results to death.
Pathological Classification of the Causes of Death The length of survival depends upon the presence or absence
a. death from syncope of water. Without food and water, a person cannot survive
 due to sudden and fatal cessation of the action of the more than 10 days, but with water a person may survive
heart with circulation included without food for 50 to 60 days.
b. death from asphyxia Factors that Influence the Length of Survival
 asphyxia is a condition in which the supply of oxygen a. age
to the blood or to the tissues or to both has been b. condition of the body
reduced below normal working level c. sex
c. death from coma d. environment
 coma is the state of unconsciousness with DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD BODY
insensibility of the pupil and conjunctivae, and inability Methods of Disposal of the Dead Body
to swallow, resulting from the arrest of the functions of 1. embalming
the brain  artificial way of preserving the body after death by
injecting 6-8 quarts of antiseptic solution of formalin,
SPECIAL DEATHS perchloride of mercury or arsenic, which is carried into
Methods of Judicial Death the common carotid and the femoral arteries
1. death by electrocution 2. burial or inhumation
 A person is made to sit on a chair made of electrical  Body must be buried within 48 hours after death
conducting materials with straps of electrodes on both (Sec 1092, Rev Admin Code) except:
wrists, ankles and head. An alternating current a. when it is still a subject matter of legal
voltage of more than 1,500 volts is put on until the investigation
convict dies. b. when it is specifically authorized by the
2. death by hanging local health authorities that the body may be buried
 The convict is made to stand in an elevated more than 48 hours after death
collapsible flat-form with a black hood on the head, a c. impliedly when the body is embalmed
noose made of rope around the neck and the other  If the person died of communicable disease, the body
end of which is fixed in an elevated structure above must be buried within 12 hours unless the local health
the head. officer permits otherwise.
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
 If the body is not buried within 48 hours after death, b. contre-coup injury: physical injury found opposite
the permit previously issued is deemed cancelled and the site of the application force
there is a need for a new permit. c. coup contre-coup injury: physical injury located at
 Considering the climatic conditions in the Philippines, the site and also opposite the site of the application of
the time limit provided by the law regarding burial time force
should be reduced to 24 hours instead of 48 hours. d. Locus Minoris Resistencia: physical injury located
not at the site nor opposite the site of the application
3. disposing of the dead body in the sea of force but in some areas offering the least
 Some dead bodies are not buried, embalmed or resistance to the force applied
cremated but thrown over board in an open sea e. extensive injury: physical injury involving a greater
provided that the deceased is not suffering from area of the body beyond the site of the application of
dangerous communicable disease. force
 Such manner of disposal may be the will of the 6. special types of wounds
deceased or a part of religious practice. a. defense wound: result of a person’s instinctive
4. cremation reaction of self-protection
 pulverization of the body into ashes by the application b. patterned wound: wound in the nature and shape of
of heat an object or instrument and which infers the object or
5. use of the body for scientific purposes instrument causing it
 use of remains for medical studies and scientific c. self-inflicted wound: wound produced on oneself.
research Person has no intention to end his life
Exhumation Legal Classification of Physical Injuries
 The deceased buried may be raised or disinterred 1. mutilation (Art 262, Revised Penal Code)
upon the lawful order of the proper authorities.  act of looping or cutting off any part or parts of the
 The order may come from the provincial or city fiscals, living body
from the court, and from any entity vested with  in order to be punishable under the Code, it must be
authority to investigate. intentional, otherwise it will be considered as a
Physical injury is the effect of some forms of stimulus on the physical injury
body. 2. serious physical injuries
 The effect of the application of stimulus may be  Any person who shall wound, beat, or assault
immediate or may be delayed. A thrust to the body of another, shall be guilty of the crime of serious physical
a sharp pointed and sharp edged instrument will lead injuries.
to the immediate production of a stab wound, while a  The crime of serious physical injuries may be due to:
hit by a blunt object may cause the delayed a. wounding
production of a contusion. b. beating
Causes of Physical Injuries c. assaulting
a. physical violence d. administering injurious substances without
b. heat or cold the intent to kill
c. electrical energy 3. administering injurious substances or beverages (Art
d. chemical energy 264, Revised Penal Code)
e. radiation by radio-active substances  Any person who, without the intent to kill, shall inflict
f. change of atmospheric pressure (barotrauma) upon another any serious physical injury, by
g. infection knowingly administering to him any injurious
Classification of Wounds substances or beverages or by taking advantages of
1. as to severity his weakness of mind or credulity
a. mortal wound: caused immediately after infliction or 4. less serious physical injuries (Art 265, Revised Penal
shortly thereafter that is capable of causing death Code)
b. non-mortal wound: not capable of producing death  Any person who shall inflict upon another physical
immediately after infliction or shortly thereafter injuries but which shall incapacitate the offended party
2. as to kind of instrument used for labor 10 days or more, or shall require medical
a. wound brought about by blunt instrument (contusion, attendance for the same period, shall suffer the
hematoma, laceration) penalty of arresto mayor.
b. wound brought about by sharp instrument (incision, 5. slight physical injuries and maltreatment (Art 266,
puncture, stab) Revised Penal Code)
c. wound brought about by tearing force (laceration) Kinds of Slight Physical Injuries Punishable by the Code
d. wound brought about by change of atmospheric a. physical injuries which incapacitate the victim for labor
pressure (barotrauma) from 1-9 days, or require medical attendance for the
e. wound brought about by heat or cold (frostbite, burns, same period
scald) b. physical injuries which did not prevent the offended
f. wound brought about by chemical explosion (gunshot, party from engaging in his habitual work or which did
shrapnel) not require medical attendance
g. wound brought about by infection c. ill-treatment of another by deed without causing any
3. as to the manner of infliction injury
a. hit (bolo, blunt instrument, axe) 6. physical injuries inflicted in a tumultuous affray (Art 252,
b. thrust or stab (bayonet, dagger) Revised Penal Code)
c. gunpowder explosion (projectile or shrapnel wound) Elements of the Crime:
d. sliding or rubbing or abrasion a. there is a tumultuous affray
4. as regards to the depth of the wound b. participant(s) suffered from serious physical
a. superficial: when the wound involves only the layers injuries
of the skin c. the person(s) who inflicted such serious
b. deep: when the wound involves the inner structure physical injuries cannot be identified
beyond the layers of the skin d. all those who appear to have used violence
1. penetrating: one in which the wounding agent upon the person of the offended party shall be penalized
enters the body but did not come out or the mere piercing of a by arresto from 5-15 days
solid organ or tissue of the body (example: punctured, stab Fatality of Wounds
and gunshot) 1. wound may be directly fatal by reason of:
2. perforating: when the wounding agent produces a. hemorrhage
communication between the inner and outer portion of the b. mechanical injuries on the vital organs
hollow organs (point of entry and exit of instrument) c. shock
5. as regards to the relation of the site of the application of 2. wound may be indirectly fatal by reason of:
force and the location of injury a. secondary hemorrhage following sepsis
a. coup injury: physical injury which is located at the b. specific infection
site of the application of force c. scarring effect
Complications of Trauma or Injury
 MAIGNES CRIMINOLOGY REVIEW and TUTORIAL
a. Shock 3. lacerated wound may show contusion of the neighboring
b. hemorrhage skin
c. infection e. extension of the wound
d. embolism 1. extensive injury may show marked degree of force
1. fat embolism applied in the production of the wound
2. air embolism 2. in homicidal cut-throat cases, it is generally deeper than in
MEDICO-LEGAL INVESTIGATION OF WOUNDS cases of suicide
The following rules must always be observed by the physician 3. homicidal wounds are extensive and numerous
in the examination of wounds:
1. All injuries must be described, however small for it f. direction of the wounds
may be important later. 1. is material in the determination of the relative position
2. The description of the wounds must be of the victim and the offender when such wound has
comprehensive, and if possible a sketch or been inflicted
photograph must be taken. 2. the direction of the incised wound of the anterior
3. The examination must not be influenced by any other aspect of the neck may differentiate whether it is homicidal or
information obtained others in making a report or a suicidal
conclusion. g. number of wounds
Outline of the Medico-Legal Investigation of Physical  several wounds found in different parts of the
Injuries body are generally indicative of murder or homicide
1. General Investigation of the Surroundings h. conditions of the locality
a. examination of the place where the crime (1.) degree of hemorrhage
was committed (2.) evidence of struggle
b. examination of the clothing, stains, cuts, hair (3.) information as to the position of the body
and other foreign bodies that can be found in (4.) presence of letter or suicide note
the crime scene (5.) conditions of the weapon
c. investigation of those persons who may be
the witnesses to the incident or those who
could give light to the case
d. examination of the wounding instrument
e. photography, sketching, or accurate
description of the crime scene for the
purpose of preservation
b. examinations that are applicable only to the living
(1.) determination whether the injury is dangerous to
life
(2.) determination whether the injury will produce
permanent deformity
(3.) determination whether the wound(s) produced
shock
(4.) determination whether the injury will produce
complication as a consequence
c. examinations that are applicable to the dead victim
(1.) determination whether the wound is ante-mortem
or post-mortem
(2.) determination whether the wound is mortal or not
(3.) determination whether death is accelerated by a
disease or some abnormal developments which are present at
the time of infliction of the wound
(4.) determination whether the wound was caused by
accident, suicide or homicide
3. Examinations of the Wound
a. character of the wound
1. description must first state the type of
wound (abrasion, contusion,
2.
3. , incised, lacerated, stab)
4. must include the size, shape, nature of the
edges, extremities and other characteristic
marks
5. must also state the presence of contusion
collar in case of gunshot wound of entrance,
scab formation in abrasion and other open
wounds, infection, surgical intervention, etc
b. location of the wound
1. the region of the body where the wound is situated
must be stated
 it is advisable to measure the distance of the wound
from some fixed point of the body prominence to
facilitate reconstruction (to determine the course of
wound inside the body)
c. depth of the wound
1. determination of the exact depth must not be
attempted in a living subject if in so doing it will
prejudice the health or life
2. depth is measurable if the outer wound and the inner
end is fixed
3. no attempt must be made in measuring a stabbed wound of
the abdomen because of the movability of the abdominal wall
d. condition of the surroundings
1. in gunshot wound near or contact fire will produce
burning or tattooing of the surrounding skin
2. in suicidal incised wound, there may be superficial tentative
cuts (hesitation cuts)