Research Philosophy

and
Literature Review

MOHD DAHLAN A. MALEK

DEAN
FACULTY OF PSYCHOLOGY &
EDUCATION
POSTGRADUATE METHODOLOGY
COURSE
CENTRE FOR POSTGRADUATE STUDIES
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 Mohd Dahlan A. Malek
• PhD (Science) in Psychology, University Of
Aberdeen, United Kingdom
• Post Graduate Diploma, Research Method
(Psychology), University Of Aberdeen, United
Kingdom
• Professional Certification, Psychological Assessment
(A,B & C), California State College-Dominguez Hill,
USA
• Master (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)
• Bachelor's Degree (Hons.), Psychology, International
Islamic University (UIA)
• Bachelor's Degree (Hons.), Islamic Revealed
Knowledge and Heritage, International Islamic
University (UIA)
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 PROFESSIONAL AFFILIATIONS
• American Psychological Association, Division 38,
Health Psychology, Member 2010-Present
• American Psychological Association, Division 36,
Psychology of Religion, Member, 2010-Present
• International Association of Applied Psychology,
Member, 2010-Present
• Malaysian Psychological Association (PERSIMA),
Member, 1997-Present.
• Certified Hypnotherapist
• Certified STIFin Personality Test

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• Editorial Board International Journal Social and
Economic research
• Reviewer for Journal of Traumatic Stress, John Wiley
& Sons Inc.
• Reviewer for the International Journal of Cross
Cultural Management: Thousand Oaks, Ca 91320:
Sage Publications.
• Reviewer for the International Journal of Wildland
Fire (IJWF), the journal of the International
Association of Wildland Fire.
• Reviewer for The International Perspectives in
Psychology: Research, Practice, & Consultation.
International Perspectives in Psychology: Research,
Practice, & Consultation.
• External examiner PhD Thesis-UTM, UMS,UKM
• External examiner PhD Thesis-University of Victoria,
Melbourne, Australia
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 CONGRATULATION
 ONE OF THE MOST BEAUTIFUL
CAMPUS
 35 ETHNICS (236 SUB ETHNICS)

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 STRUCTURE OF PRESENTATION
▪ PHILOSOPHY OF RESEARCH
▪ WHY DO WE NEED TO KNOW ABOUT THE
PHILOSOHY OF RESEARCH METHODS
▪ WAYS OF KNOWING & HISTORY OF SCIENCE
▪ SOCIAL SCIENCES
▪ SUBJECT MATTERS OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
▪ PROBLEMS / LIMITATIONS
▪ VARIOUS METHODS / APPROACHES

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 Philosophy of Research
Philosophy is the study of general and
fundamental problems concerning matters
such as existence, knowledge, values,
reason, mind, and language

Research can be defined as the search for

knowledge or any systematic investigation to
establish facts.
 Falsafah
berfikir secara falsafah -ciri-ciri seperti berikut,
1.Berfikir secara radikal,iaitu secara mendalam
hingga keakar umbinya atau asal-usulnya dan
hakikatnya.
2.Berfikir secara universal,iaitu menurut
pengalaman manusia secara umum.Bukan
khusus dan terbatas dengan ilmu tertentu
sahaja.
3.Berfikir secara integral,iaitu berpadu secara
lengkap pada mana-mana bahagian yang ada.
Dari segi sejarahnya, Falsafah merupakan induk
kepada seluruh ilmu pengetahuan.

Daripada falsafah lahirlah cabang-cabang ilmu

yang lain seperti matematik,perubatan dll.
Apakah
Falsafah?????
 ILMU PENGETAHUAN DAN FALSAFAH

> Antara Sumber pengetahuan:

1. Pengetahuan Indera: Pengetahuan yang
umum dan menjadi asas pengetahuan
manusia.
2. Pengalaman pancaindera melalui induksi
menjadi pengetahuan umum yang bersifat
asas.
3. Lain-lain seperti……

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 - Kita mengetahui setiap pagi matahari terbit di
ufuk timur dan tenggelam di ufuk barat;
- Cermat dan rajin bekerja cepat kaya;
-Makin tinggi taraf pendidikan, makin tinggilah
kedudukan seseorang;
Orang selalunya tertarik pada
keindahan dan kecantikan;
Pada hari tua, orang lebih tertarik
pada agama;
Apabila menghadapi kesusahan,
orang kerap teringat pada
Tuhan;
Apabila bercinta semuanya
??????…
Researh perlu mengikuti
proses-
Research akan dinilai
 Falsafah Penyelidikan
Kenapa
Mengapa
Persoalan Kajian
Hipotesis
Keputusan
Analisis
Perbincangan
Sumbangan
 Mengapa perlu faham falsafah
penyelidikan
1. Persiapan mental dan fizikal
2. Persiapan pengurusan
3. Keluarga
4. Kewangan
5. Bahan bahan untuk kajian
6. Mengetahui prosedur universiti/tambah
masa/kelayakan biasiswa
 FALSAFAH

 Kata falsafah (Melayu), philosophie (Belanda), philosophie

(Jerman), philosophy (Inggeris), philosophie (Perancis)
berasal daripada kata bahasa Yunani, iaitu: Philien:
mencintai, Sophia: kearifan, kebijaksanaan, hikmat,
kebenaran…
 Falsafah ialah satu disiplin ilmiah yang mengusahakan
kebenaran yang umum dan asas.
 Sehingga kini, ahli-ahli falsafah masih belum mencapai kata
sepakat mengenai takrifan falsafah. Malah ada yang
mengatakan bahawa falsafah merupakan sesuatu yang
tidak dapat ditakrifkan.

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 CABANG FALSAFAH

Cabang falsafah dapat dirumuskan seperti

yang berikut:

* Metafizika
* Logika
* Etika
* Estetika
* Epistemologi

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 Metafizik
Bidang falsafah ini memikirkan tentang
kewujudan.Contoh soalannya: Jenis benda
yang wujud?
Apakah sifat "semulajadi - nature" benda
tersebut? Adakah sesuatu wujud tanpa
pergantungan kepada deria manusia?
Apakah sifat ruang dan masa? Apakah sifat akal
dan berfikir? Apakah yang dikatakan manusia?
Apakah yang dikatakan sedar? Adakah Tuhan
wujud?
 Epistemelogi
Bidang falsafah ini memikirkan tentang ilmu
pengetahuan. Contoh soalannya adalah
seperti: Apa itu pengetahuan? Adakah ada
pengetahuan? Bagaimana kita tahu apa
yang kita tahu? Bagaimana kita tahu
terdapat minda yang lain?
 Etika
Bidang falsafah ini memikirkan tentang
kemoralan manusia. Contoh
soalannya:Adakah terdapat perbezaan
antara tindakan bermoral dan tindakan
yang salah ?
Jika ada, apakah perbezaannya?
Tindakan yang mana betul dan
tindakan yang mana salah? Adakah
nilai mutlak, atau perbandingan?
Bagaimana seseorang itu harus hidup?
 Estetika
Bidang falsafah memikirkan tentang
keindahan. Contoh soalannya:
Apakah itu indah? Pelbagai
jawapan….
 ALIRAN / MAZHAB FALSAFAH

Pelbagai aliran/mazhab…antaranya:
Rasionalisme: Dikenali juga sebagai intelektualisme, iaitu sumber
pengetahuan manusia ialah fikiran, rasio dan jiwa manusia, dan bebas
daripada pengamatan inderawi. Kebenaran tidak dapat diuji dengan
prosedur, tetapi dapat diuji dengan kriteria tertentu
Empirisisme: Pengetahuan manusia berasal daripada pengalaman
manusia, iaitu dari dunia luar yang ditanggap oleh pancaindera. Semua
idea merupakan abstraksi yang dibentuk menerusi penggabungan apa-
apa yang dialami
Kritisisme: Pengetahuan manusia berasal daripada dunia luar, dan
berasal daripada jiwa atau fikiran manusia
Realisme: Pengetahuan manusia ialah gambar yang baik dan tepat
daripada kebenaran, kerana gambar yang baik akan memancarkan
kebenaran. Manifestasi daripada kebenaran ialah menerima apa-apa
yang ada walaupun tidak menyenangkan

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 ALIRAN / MAZHAB FALSAFAH

Eksistensialisme: Falsafah yang bertitik tolak pada manusia, yang

eksistensi (konkrit), iaitu cara manusia berada dalam bentuk maujud, dan
mendahului emosi. Oleh sebab pusat pemerhatiannya ialah manusia,
maka aliran ini bersifat kemanusiaan
Pragmatisme: Benar atau tidaknya ujaran, dalil atau teori bergantung pada
manfaat ujaran, dalil atau teori itu. Kebenaran ptraktis berasaskan
kepentingan subjektif setiap individu
Fenomenologi: Hasrat sebenar akan tercapai jika kita cuba mengamati
fenomenon realiti yang sering terjadi di sekeliling kita. Aliran ini berpusat
pada analisis gejala kesedaran manusia terhadap diri dan alam sekeliling
Positivisme: Peristiwa yang dialami oleh manusia dilihat dari perspektif yang
positif berasaskan fakta pengetahuan. Ilmu alam merupakan sumber
pengetahuan yang benar, dan menolak nilai kognitif

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 ALIRAN / MAZHAB FALSAFAH

Epistemologi: Dikenali juga sebagai Teori Pengetahuan, iaitu pengetahuan

tentang pengetahuan. Hal ini terlihat jelas dalam aliran Realismne dan
Idealisme
Logika: Falsafah yang menekankan ujaran yang dapat difahami atau akal
budi yang berfungsi dengan baik, dan sistematik. Asasnya ialah
penyataan premis ke suatu penyataan selanjutnya, iaitu kesimpulan.
Logika juga dikenali dengan nama Instrumen Ilmu
Aliran Falsafah Hidup: Falsafah yang baik wujud jika akal dipadukan
dengan keperibadian atau seluruh kehidupan
Cabang falsafah yang menjadi sumber paling penting dalam aliran
pemikiran dan kebahasaan ialah metafizika, logika dan epistemologi.
Cabang falsafah ini dijelmakan melalui tiga cara atau gaya, iaitu falsafah
Spekulatif, falsafah Preskriptif, dan falsafah Analisis

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 Research
Research can be defined as the search for
knowledge or any systematic investigation to
establish facts.
PhD
Master
Research Methods and
Statistics are tools.

Concern is:
•How to use them?
•When to use them?
What is Science?
Science is not a state;
But a process by which one
establishes knowledge or
obtains information.
 Ways of Knowing (Kerlinger, 1986)

1. Method of Tenacity/drive (Always Believed)

2. Method of Intuition/feeling (Feels Good)
3. Method of Authority (Respected Source)
4. Method of Science (Empirical/Objective )
What are the Goals
of Science?
 Goals of Science:
1. Description
2. Explanation
3. Prediction
4. Control
 Description
Try to characterize how people
and other living beings think,
feel, or act in various kinds of
situations.

What happens? When and

where does it happen? How
does it happen?
 Explanation

Try to understand why living

beings think, feel, or act as
they do.

Why does it happen?

 Prediction

Attempt to predict behavior,

based on available
information about past
performance.

What will happen next?

 Control

Seek to influence behavior.

How can we influence this

behavior or intervene in this
situation?
 Philosophy of Research
You probably think of research as something
very abstract and complicated.
PhD
MA
BA
Process
Learning about research is a lot like learning
about anything else. To start, we need to
learn the jargon people use
 Hubungan antara Epistemologi, Teori Perspektif,
Metodologi dan Kaedah Penyelidikan (Crotty,1998).

Epistemologi Teori Perspektif Metodologi Kaedah

•Kajian • Persampelan
• Positivisme Experimental •Analisis Statistik
• Objektif •Kajian Tinjauan
•Interprativisme •Soalan
•Konstruktif - Interaktivisme •Etnografi •Tinjauan
•Subjektif Simbolik •Kajian •Temuramah
- Phenomenologi Phenominologi •Kumpulan Fokus
•Kritikal Inkuiri •Teori Grounded •Kajian kes
•Feminisme •Inkuri Heuristik •Analisis
•Posmodernisme •Kajian tindakan Dokumen
•Dll. •Dll
 Structure of Research
Most research projects share the same
general structure
The research process usually starts with a
broad area of interest, the initial problem that
the researcher wishes to study
Structure of Research
Deduction
Induction
 Understand the Problem
STAGE 1:
RESEARCH
DEFINITION Identify Questions

Refine/Revise Questions

STAGE 2:
RESEARCH
PLAN/DESIGN Choose Design

Determine Trade-offs Inventory Resources

Assess Feasibility
 Ethical Issues

Phd/MA is a process
Ethic form
Reseach-FRGS
 Ethical Standards
APA Ethics Code
applies to all psychologists (including students)
ethical standards for
research
therapy
teaching
administration
solve ethical dilemmas

© 2009 by The McGraw-

Hill Companies, Inc.
 steps
1. Identified research problem
2. Develop hypothesis
3. Definition –concept & operation (variables)
4. Observation- data collection-
survey/experiment/case study etc
5. Analysis data
6. Discussion-interpretation
 PHILOSOPHY OF RESEARCH

When you start doing academic research

you need to grip with some basic concepts of
research philosophy.

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 What is Research?
The Longman dictionary (1995) defines research as
“the studious study of a subject, that is intended to
discover new facts or test new ideas; the activity of
finding information about something that one is
interested in or needs to know about”

The process of finding solutions to a problem after a

thorough study and analysis (Sekaran,2006)

Systematic inquiry that provides information to guide

decision (Cooper & Schindler, 2001)

Is research always problem-solving based? Yes.

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Paradigm is an interpretative framework, which is guided
by "a set of beliefs and feelings about the world and how
it should be understood and studied." (Guba, 1990).

Denzin and Lincoln (2001) listed three categories of

those beliefs:

1) Ontology: what kind of being is the human being.

Ontology deals with the question of what is real.

2) Epistemology: what is the relationship between the

inquirer and the known: "epistemology is the branch
of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge
and the process by which knowledge is acquired and
validated" (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996)

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3) Methodology: how do we know the world, or gain
knowledge of it?

• Research Paradigm
• Scientific
• Interpretive
• Critical

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 What is Scientific Research

• Application of scientific method to the

investigation of relationships among natural
phenomenon, or to solve a medical or
technical problem.

• The scientific method is the means by which

researchers are able to make conclusive
statements about their studies with a minimum
of bias.

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 Interpretative Research
• Interpretive research focuses on analytically
disclosing those meaning-making practices,
while showing how those practices configure to
generate observable outcomes.

• Interpretive research is an approach to

research in the human sciences that
recognizes the paradigmatic character of all
research.

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 Critical Research

• Research that involves a formal analysis

and evaluation of a text, production, or
performance.

• Critiquing criteria are the standards, rules,

or tests that serve as the bases for
judgments.

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 Research Paradigm: Schools of
thought
Empricism
Empiricism proclaims that experiments and observation
are the main instruments for the acquisition of
knowledge

Positivism
Exploring social reality based on philosophical ideas
with the emphasis of observation and reason as means
of understanding human behaviour. Scientific methods
are used as a means of knowledge generation.

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 Research Paradigm: Schools of
thought
Anti-positivism
Social reality is viewed and interpreted by the individual
according to his or her ideological positions. Therefore,
knowledge is of person’s experience rather than
acquired from or imposed from outside. Reality is multi-
layered and complex and a single phenomenon is
having multiple interpretations.

Critical Theory
Exploring an existing phenomena to develop theory

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 Epistemology, Ontology and
Methodology
• Epistemology: To do with our beliefs about how one
might discover knowledge about the world

• Ontology: To do with our assumptions about how

the world is made up and the nature of things

• Methodology: To do with the tools and techniques

of research

• Relationship of the three: Epistemological and

ontological positions should have some bearing on
the methods that you select for your research
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 What is knowledge?
• Knowledge is a familiarity with someone or something,
which can include information, facts, descriptions, or
skills acquired through experience or education.

• Plato defined knowledge as "justified true belief."

• Theoretical or practical understanding of a subject.

• Implicit knowledge (as with practical skill or expertise)

• Explicit knowledge (as with the theoretical

understanding of a subject)

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 Defining Knowledge
• Knowledge is sometimes considered as justified
true belief.

• However this is insufficient because one must

have a reason or justification for that belief.

• There are situations in which a belief may be

justified and true and yet not as knowledge.

• Knowledge is distinct from belief and opinion.

• In philosophy, the study of knowledge is called

epistemology.
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 What is Epistemology
• The study of our method of acquiring knowledge.
• The explanation of how we think.
• It answers the question, "How do we know?" I
• It encompasses the nature of concepts, the
constructing of concepts, the validity of the
senses, logical reasoning, as well as thoughts, ideas,
memories, emotions, and all things mental.
• It is concerned with how our minds are related to
reality, and whether these relationships are valid or
invalid.

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 Epistemology
• Epistemology comes from the Greek words
episteme (knowledge) and it is a branch of
philosophy that deals with the ratio, origin and
scope of knowledge.

• It attempts to answer the basic question of what

distinguishes true (adequate) knowledge from
false (inadequate) knowledge.

• It relates to truth and belief.

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 Importance of Epistemology

To determine the true from the false by

determining a proper method of evaluation.

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 Key Elements of a Proper
Epistemology
• What are the key elements of a proper
Epistemology?

• Senses are used to gain information about the world.

• Reason is the method of gaining knowledge, and
acquiring understanding.
• Logic is the method of maintaining consistency within
the set of knowledge.
• Objectivity is the means of associating knowledge
with reality to determine its validity.
• Concepts are abstracts of specific details of reality, or
of other abstractions. A proper epistemology is a
rational epistemology.
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 Knowledge Acquisition

It involves complex cognitive processes:

 Perception
 Communication
 Association
 Reasoning

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 What is an Ontology
• Ontology is the study or concern about what kinds
of things exist.

• Ontology comes from the Greek words onto which

means something that exists, and logos which
means logical knowledge.
• Definition: An ontology may take a variety of forms,
but necessarily it will include a vocabulary of terms,
and some specification of their meaning.

• This includes definitions and an indication of how

concepts are inter-related which collectively impose
a structure on the domain and constrain the
possible interpretations of terms
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 What is an Ontology - Cont
• Gruber defines an ontology as “the specification
of conceptualisations, used to help programmes
and humans share knowledge.

• The conceptualiztion is the couching of knowledge

about the world in terms of entitities (things, the
relationships they hold and the constraints
between them).

• Explaining / describing in terms of etimology,

terminology, philosophy of the research variables,
research title, problem statement, research
questions and research objectives.

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Selection of Research Paradigm and
research methods
• Research paradigm: Positivism
• Research Approach: Quantitative
• Research Methods: Survey, longitudinal, cross-
sectional, correlation, experiments

• Examples:
 Attitude of foreign students towards UMS
registration system,
 Relationship between student’s financial
position and their academic performance,
 Effect of emotional intelligence on learning
effectiveness.
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 Selection of Research Paradigm and
research methods (2)
• Research paradigm: Anti positivism
• Research Approach: Qualitative
• Research methods: Biographical,
phenomenological, ethnological, case-study

• Examples:
 A study of autobiography of Ibn Khaldun or
Ahmad Nejad or Zia ul-Haq,
 A study of effective management among
female managers,
 A case-study of UMS distance learning
programme.
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Selection of Research Paradigm and
research methods (3)
• Research paradigm: Critical Theory
• Research Approach: Critical and Action-oriented
• Research methods: ideology critique and action
research

• Examples:
 A study of industrial development in Malaysia
during the Mahathir’s time;
 A study class absenteeism among Muslim
students during the month of Ramadan.

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 Types of Research
Applied Research
Applying the result of research finding to
solve specific problem happening in an
organization. The aim is to solve current problem.

Basic Research
Enhancing the understanding of certain
problem that commonly occur in organization
setting and seek method of solving them. The
aim is to generate knowledge, understand
phenomena/problem that occur in various
organization setting.

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 Scientific Research
 Provides scientific information and theories
 Follows a certain structural process though the step order may
vary depending on the subject matter and researcher
 The following steps are usually part of the most formal
research both basic and applied
 Observations and Formation of the topic
 Hypothesis
 Conceptual definitions
 Operational definition
 Gathering of data
 Analysis of data
 Test, reviving of hypothesis
 Conclusion
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 Research Methods
The goal of the research process is to
produce new knowledge.

This process takes three main forms:

1. Exploratory research which structures and
identifies new problems
2. Constructive research which develops
solutions to a problem
3. Empirical research which tests the
feasibility of a solution using empirical
evidence.
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 Level of Research
PhD : Theoretical Gap: Improving the
latest theory on research focus; There is
contribution of new knowledge.

Master: Empirical gap: Application of

tested theoretical framework to solve
current problems.

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 Research Process
Step 1 - Choose your topic.
Step 2 - Find basic information.
Step 3 - Refine your topic.
Step 4 - Locate and retrieve materials.
Step 5 - Evaluate relevancies of materials.
Step 6 - Take notes.
Step 7 - Construct your project. Writing

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 You are in the process of becoming

SCHOLARS / SCIENTISTS

Right Attitude & Commitment

towards knowledge
production

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 WHY DO WE NEED TO KNOW ABOUT THE
PHILOSOPHY OF RESEARCH METHODS

• To make us aware and practice of the way of science in

doing research
• Be serious and committed when doing scientific research
• Especially when choosing and applying research
method/s
• The underlying reasons / justification for choosing a
certain research method and not others
• To enjoy the freedom in choosing & designing research
methods / to admit the limitation
• To make a good social scientists – Attitude &
Commitment

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 PHILOSOPHY OF RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
▪ Research Methods
· Ways of doing research / Methods used to do
research
▪ Philosophy
· Thoughts / Applying rational or logical thinking
▪ Philosophy of Research Methodology
· Thoughts that form the basis for various ways of
doing research
· Thoughts that justify research methodology
· Rationale for using certain methods in research

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 SCIENCE / SOCIAL SCIENCE
• Observation-based knowledge

• Often changing / Falsifiable

SCIENCE – GENUINE KNOWLEDGE /TRUTH

TO UNDERSTAND / EXPLAIN - THE WAY ANY
REALITIES / PHENOMENON OPERATE
▪ Optimism about Perfectibility of Knowledge and
achievement of progress through intellectual effort
▪ Confidence in discovering causality – the way the
natural and social world operates
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 SCIENCE AND RESEARCH
▪ NO SCIENCE WITHOUT RESEARCH

▪ Research is the cornerstone of any science

▪ It refers to the organized, structured, and

purposeful investigation

▪ Aimed at discovering, interpreting, and revising

human knowledge on different aspects of the
natural /social/human world by someone first
hand

▪ Structured attempt at gaining knowledge

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What i s Resear ch
“Research is to see what everybody else has
seen, and to think what nobody else has
thought”
Albert Szent-Gyorgyi
Hungarian physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
in 1937

Going beyond experience, thought s,

personal feelings
and opinions

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Basis of sci ent i f i c knowl edge
production

Philosophy of Rationalism

Philosophy of Empiricism

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SCI ENCE : RATI ONALI SM

Faith in the autonomy of reason

/rationalism

▪Conviction that principles governing

nature, man and society are knowable
through Reasoning- Mind / Thinking is the
starting point

▪Rene Descartes (CARTESIAN)

“ I THINK, THEREFORE I AM”
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Empi r i cal Sci ence/ Empi r i ci sm

Scientists are more inspired by Newton’s

scientific method of
discovery rather than Descartes’
"reason“

Not by abstraction and definition (via reasoning)

but by the method of observation

Based on Facts (Observable facts)

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Empi r i cal Sci ence

▪ Newtonian discovery provided a rational

foundation for empirical science

▪ Empirical ways and means of knowledge

production and mathematical confirmation as
exemplified by Newtonian Physics alone became
recognized as ‘scientific method.’

▪ Forms of knowledge based on non-empirical ways

of knowing and nonmathematical ways of proving
thus got excluded from science

87
 Empi r i ci sm / Posi t i vi sm

Application of scientific method in

understanding and explaining social world

Auguste Comte (SOCIOLOGIST)

“Positive philosophy” of science held that

ONLY through objective, scientific method
we could understand and solve society’s
problems, and make progress toward
enlightenment

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Pr oduct i on of soci al knowl edge
The positivist method / empiricism : (Basic
Assumptions)

Natural = Social (their existence governed by

law)

▪Unity of Science: All sciences must follow the

same rules
▪Direct observation (Experience) rather than
rational speculation should be the basis of
scientific discovery

▪Observable facts of Social World

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The general elements of positivist
philosophy
▪ Methodological: all research should be quantitative, and that only
research which is quantitative can be the basis for valid generalisations
and laws

▪ Causality: the aim should be to identify causal explanations and

fundamental laws that explain human behaviour

▪ Operationalisation: concepts need to be

operationalised in a way that enables facts to be
measured quantitatively

▪ Value-freedom: the choice of what to study, and how to study it, should
be determined by objective criteria rather than by human beliefs and
interests

▪ Independence: the role of the researcher is independent of the subject

under examination

▪ Reductionism: problems are better understood if they are reduced

90
to the simplest possible elements.
Per f ect Obser vat i ons ( ?)

Observable facts
Record only what is directly
observed with the senses
Can social scientist free from
what their mind says?

Value-free Knowledge:
The researcher must remain free
of bias
can social scientists be value-
free researcher? 91
Pr oduct i on of soci al knowl edge
Problems in investigating subject matter that is
‘social’ in nature via Science

▪ Complexity of the subject matter and its

irreducibility (the actual source/cause)

Interrelated phenomena, too many factors

may involve to establish any causal
sequence
(The chicken or the egg ? (causality dilemma)

▪ Every social event is unique

92
Li mi t at i ons of Soci al Sci ence

COMPLEXITY OF HUMAN SOCIAL

WORLD

▪Not an orderly cosmos but chaos

David Hume - An empirical study of the
nature of man, reveals not an identical set of
motives, ..

▪Real life experiments are necessary for

social knowledge to evolve as science. The
lack of possibilities to conduct such
experiments prevent the possibility
93
Laws and ability to generalize
Human Behavior – Impossible
?

‘Inphysics, it is possible …to formulate laws relating

to… the expansion of metal when heated. From
such laws, the amount of expansion that will
occur in particular circumstances can be
predicted. However, when a man loses his job
and becomes depressed, it does not mean that
he will be depressed each time he loses his job, nor
can we say that everyone who loses his job
becomes depressed’ (Parahoo 1997).

94
METHODOLOGY OF SOCI AL SCI ENCES
Various research methodology in social sciences need
be employed
Complexity subject matters of social world
▪Social behaviors, incidents, social problems, social
changes, developments

▪Individual, organizations, society, social structures,

artifacts

▪Tangible behaviors & materials, intangible social

meanings

▪Cultural, historical and situational differences from place

to place
95
Soci al Wor l d: Mul t i pl e Di mensi ons
▪ Attitudes / Emotional /Perception / Ideas
▪ Culture
▪ Organization
▪ Relationships & Processes
Social
Economical
Political
Formal
Informal

96
Mul t i pl e l evel s and pr oper t i es

Levels of operation:
▪ Micro (Individual/Interpersonal)
▪ Meso (Organizational and Groups)
▪ Macro (Wider community/ Higher social forces)

Propert ies
▪ Social actor
▪ Social Organizations
▪ Process/Emergence/ Negotiation
▪ Events and practices
▪ Objective and Subjective elements

97
Nat ur e of t he soci al phenomena

▪ Variety
▪ Complexity
▪ Absence of universality
▪ Dynamism
▪ Incomprehensibility
▪ Lack of objectivity
▪ Qualitative nature
▪ Difficulty in prediction

98
Soci al Sci ences: Di ver si t y
▪ Variety of Philosophies & Methodologies

▪ Positivist Science / Empirical / quantitative

▪ Interpretative Science / Understanding of the

meanings / Qualitative
▪ Critical Science / Rationalism

EMPIRICISM & RATIONALISM

99
PHI LOSOPHI CAL FOUNDATI ONS

Positivism
Hermeneutics / Interpretivism
Critical Theory
Realism
Feminism
▪ Postmodernism

(Epist emology & Ont ology / Aims /Met hodology)

100
 Ai ms, Appr oaches & Met hods
Aims:
Why & How ? - Explanation (Theory/Law?)
What - Understanding (Social Processes &
Meaning)
Approaches:
Quantitative -Using measuring tools
-Statistical Relationship
Qualitative -Observation via direct participation
-Interpretation of Meaning
Methods :
▪ Questionnaires
▪ Interviews
▪ Participation
Observation
▪ Quasi –Experimental
▪ Content Analysis

101
Var i et i es of Appr oaches & Met hods
▪ Quantitative Methods
▪ Qualitative Methods
▪ Mixed-method research

▪ All research is quantitative, because

anything can be counted - even purely verbal
responses, perhaps after sorting comments
into similar groups.

▪ All research is qualitative, because answers

to even the firmest numeric questions may
conceal a variety of meanings.

102
The St r at egi es of Sci ence i n Soci al Sci ences

Induction
Observations Empirical Generalizations
Theory

Deduction
Theory Hypotheses Observations Testing of
Hypotheses Theory
(Statistical Analysis /significance)

103
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Interpretivism positivistic

Inductive deductive

Holistic particularistic

subjective centered objective centered

process oriented outcome oriented

anthropological worldview natural science worldview

relative lack of control attempted control of variables

dynamic reality assumed static reality assumed

discovery orientated verification orientated

Exploratory / Understanding Confirmatory/ Explanatory

104
 Choose a quant i t at i ve met hod
when most f ol l owi ng condi t i ons appl y

▪ The research is confirmatory/explanatory rather than

exploratory

i.e. this is a frequently researched topic, and (numerical) data from earlier
research is available..

▪ You are trying to measure a trend (almost impossible with

qualitative research)

▪ There is no ambiguity about the concepts being measured, and

only one way to measure each concept

105
 Choose a qual i t at i ve met hod
when most of t hese condi t i ons appl y

▪ The research is exploratory/ understanding than

explanatory/confirmatory
▪ You have no or very little data existing research data on
this topic.
▪ The most appropriate unit of measurement is not
certain (Individuals? Households? Organizations?)
▪ The concept is assessed on a nominal scale, with no
clear demarcation points.
▪ You are exploring the reasons why people do or believe
something.

106
Types of Resear ch Or i ent at i ons

▪ Basic Research
▪ Applied Research
▪ Exploratory Research
▪ Descriptive Research
▪ Explanatory Research
▪ Case Studies

107
Basi c & Appl i ed Resear ch

▪ Social research is often considered to

have 2 orientations: applied and basic (or
pure)
▪ In reality, these orientations intertwine
▪ Most basic research contributes to our
understanding of the social world
▪ Most applied research is applicable to
policy situations

108
Basi c Resear ch
▪ Focuses on refuting or supporting theories about social life

▪ Source of most new ideas and theories

▪ Theory construction, in particular, can take years of work

▪ Builds these ideas through cycles of research, replication, and revision

▪ Also produces most of the new methods in the discipline

▪ Usually the testing ground for new methods and instruments

▪ Mostly performed & consumed by academics

▪ Some basic research crosses disciplines

▪ A small percentage of this research reaches the mass media and public

109
 Appl i ed Resear ch
▪ Conducted to address a specific concern or to
develop solution
Types of Applied Research

Evaluation
Evaluates a program—does it work?

Action Research
Research tied to social action and change Advance causes
through public awareness

Social Impact Assessment Research

Estimates the consequences of a planned program

110
 Expl or at or y Resear ch
▪ For new or undiscovered topics

▪ Uncovers basic facts about the topic

▪ Formulates and focuses questions for later

studies

▪ Suggests directions and feasibility of future

research
▪ Usually focused on the “what,” not the “why”

▪ May not have a specific research question

111
 Descr i pt i ve Resear ch

▪ Presents a picture with specific details of

the situation or behavior
▪ Requires a focused research
question/topic

▪ Focuses on “how” and “who” questions

▪ Is necessary for good explanatory

research

112
 Expl anat or y Resear ch

▪ Focuses on “why”, or the reason a

situation or behavior occurs

▪ Builds on descriptive research, and other

explanatory research

▪ Uses theory & Hypotheses

113
Ti me Di mensi on- Based Resear ch
Some research neglects the element of time, other research
focuses heavily on time

Cross-Sectional
▪Observations at a limited point in time
▪Frequently used by social scientists
▪Although it does not capture time, change, or process, it is often
used in explanatory research

Longitudinal Research
▪Much more expensive and time-consuming than cross-sectional
▪Time-series: multiple observations over time of the several units
▪Panel Study: multiple observations over time of the same units
▪Cohort Study: multiple observations over time of similar groups

114
Case St udi es
▪ Investigates only one or a few cases but in depth

▪ Data is more varied, detailed and extensive

▪ Just start with research questions

▪ Researchers do not focus on the discovery of a

universal, generalizable truth, nor do they typically
look for cause- effect relationships; instead,
emphasis is placed on exploration and description

▪ Can be used to build theory

▪ May be cross-sectional or longitudinal, exploratory,

descriptive or explanatory

115
Basi c f or m of Resear ch Desi gns
Main Types of Quantitative Research
▪Survey
▪Hypothetical-deductive theory
▪Descriptive / Correlations
▪Quasi-experimental
▪Experimental

Main Types of Qualitative Research

▪Case Study (presentation of detailed information)
▪Grounded Theory (inductive method)
▪Phenomenology (As perceive and understood by
human)
▪Ethnography (everyday life and practices)
▪Historical (study of past and changes)
116
Dat a Col l ect i on Met hods

▪ Observation
▪ Interviews
▪ Questionnaires
▪ Focus group discussion
▪ Projective techniques

117
 Then What ' s t he Pr obl em?
▪ Lack of real understanding of the scientific
methodology of various methods

▪ Uncritically adopted scientific methodology to study

social phenomenon that may challenge the validity
and reliability of methods used and its consequent
results

▪ Blindly applying "standard" data collection and

analytic strategies

118
WHAT KIND OF
SCIENCE IS
SOCIAL
SCIENCE?

SOFT SCIENCE OR SLOPPY SCIENCE?

119
What soci al sci ent i st s must do?
▪ Avoid sloppy practices in the name of doing
research
Be serious in the practices of knowledge
production/ truthful researcher
▪ Social science knowledge, though
‘constructed’, but it should be constructed
scientifically
▪ Know the methods /approaches/strategies
/theories / the nature of subject matters/ and
be critical in your thinking/be objective
critically
▪ Pseudo Scholars (‘cut and paste’
knowledge) 120
AT THE END OF THE DAY

No Study is perfect, however:

▪Knowledgeable and be skillful
▪Professionalism & Honest
▪Committed /Keen observer
▪Willing to tries new approaches /
methods (creative)
▪We needs scientific social scientists, not
indoctrinated social scientists.

121
THANK YOU

122
Literature Review

Mohd Dahlan A. Malek

2017
Sinopsis kursus
 Ringkasan sinopsis kursus

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 2
Philosophy of Research

 Philosophy is the study of general and

fundamental problems concerning
matters such as existence, knowledge,
values, reason, mind, and language
Research
 Research can be defined as the search
for knowledge or any systematic
investigation to establish facts.
 The originality of work
What is
literature?????
 FRGS
 MA

 PhD

 Process

 Sample
 Sample UTM
 Sample UTM2
6
Working with Literature

What should I be reading and

what do I do with it all?

Lecture note
7
 Isu
 Menulis sorotan literatur bukanlah sesuatu yang
mudah.
 Ini kerana penulisan sorotan kajian memerlukan
anda membahaskan kajian-kajian lepas bagi
menjelaskan kedudukan kajian anda dalam konteks
semasa.
 Anda perlu mengkritik kajian-kajian lepas untuk
memberikan laluan kepada kajian anda mengisi gap
yang belum terjawab sepenuhnya oleh kajian-kajian
tersebut.
O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage
Chapter Six 8
 Structure of the thesis
 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH TOPIC
 LITERATURE REVIEW
 OBJECTIVES/ RESEARCH QUESTIONS
 METHODOLOGY
 RESULTS

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 9
 A literature review IS NOT a
straightforward
 summary of everything you have read
on the
 topic and it is not a chronological
description
 of what was discovered in your field.
 Combines both summary and synthesis

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 10
 LITERATURE REVIEW: WHAT IT IS?
 AN EXAMINATION OF RESEARCH THAT HAS BEEN
CONDUCTED IN A PARTICULAR FIELD OF STUDY
 MORE THAN THE SEARCH FOR INFORMATION,
AND
 GOES BEYOND BEING DESCRIPTIVE
 EVALUATING AND SYNTHESISING AVAILABLE
 INFORMATION RELATED TO YOUR STUDY
 ALL WORKS INCLUDED IN THE REVIEW
 ALL WORKS INCLUDED IN THE REVIEW MUST BE
 READ, EVALUATED AND ANALYSED
O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage
Chapter Six 11
 ILLUSTRATE HOW THE SUBJECT HAS BEEN
 STUDIED PREVIOUSLY
 GIVE READER/EXAMINERS AN OVERVIEW
OF SOURCES YOU HAVE EXPLORE
 TO DEMOSTRATE HOW YOUR RESEARCH
FITS INTO THE LARGER FIELD OF STUDY
 AVOID DUPLICATION / AVOIDING FROM
MAKING THE SAME MISTAKES AS OTHERS

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 12
 POSITIONING YOURWORK IN THE
CONTEXTOF PREVIOUS RESEARCH
 CREATING ‘RESEARCH SPACE’ FOR YOUR
WORK /TO IDENTIFYGAPS IN THE
LITERATURE
 TO PROVIDE INTELECTUALL CONTEXT
FOR YOURWORK

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 13
 TO CARRY ON FROM WHERE OTHERS
HAVEALREADY REACHED / BUILD ON THE
PLATFORM OF EXISTING KNOWLWDGE AND
IDEAS
 TO PROVIDE RATIONALE / JUSTIFICATION
FOR YOUR STUDY
 IDENTIFY KEY CONTACT / TO IDENTIFY
OTHER PEOPLE WORKING IN THE SAME
FIELDS / NETWORKINGAMONG
RESEARCHERS

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 14
O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage
Chapter Six 15
 WHAT YOU NEED TO DO?
 READING BROADLY ON THE TOPIC
 REFINING TOPIC AND ESTABLLISH
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE
 IDENTIFY YOUR RESEARCH QUESTION/S
 IDENTIFY EXTENT AND QUALITY OF
WORK ALREADY
 CARRIED OUT INTHE SUBJECT AREA
O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage
Chapter Six 16
 WHAT YOU NEED TO DO?
 DESCRIBE, SUMMARISE, EVALUATE AND
CLARIFY THESE LITERATURE
 READ AND CRITICALLY EVALUATE THE
INFORMATION THAT YOUR LOCATE
 PLAN, ORGANISE AND WRITE CRITICALLY
ABOUT THE LITERATUTE
 FILE AND STORE YOUR READINGS AND
NOTES
 ADDING AND REWRITE LITERATURE REVIEW

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 17
 Plagiarism includes

 Using another writer’s words without

propercitation
 Using another writer’s ideas without proper
citation
 Citing a source but reproducing the exact
word without quotation marks


O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 18
 Borrowing the structure of another
author’s phrases/sentences without
giving the source
 Using paper-writing service or having a
friend write the paper

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 19
STRUCTURING LITERATURE
REVIEW
 IT IS A SYSTEMATIC WRITE-UP
 LITERATURE REVIEW HAS A LOGICAL
 AND COHERENT STRUCTURE
 THIS STRUCTURE IS CLEARLY
APPARENT TO THE READER

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 20
Timbul persoalan!!!!!
 Siapalah saya untuk mengkritik kajian
lepas oleh pakar-pakar?
 Mampukan saya untuk menganalisis
dan seterusnya mensintesis kajian oleh
pakar-pakar tersebut?
 Ini belum termasuk lagi sungutan
pelajar seperti berikut:

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 21
 Bagaimana hendak memulakan sorotan
literatur ?
 Apa yang perlu ditulis dalam sorotan
literatur ?
 Berapa banyak artikel yang perlu di
baca?

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 22
 Bagaimana hendak menyusun
kandungan sorotan literatur?
 Bagaimana hendak mengetahui bahawa
kajian ini belum dilakukan di mana-
mana di dunia ini?
 Macamana hendak mengkritik kajian
lepas?
 Bagaimanakah cara untuk
mengemukakan hujah?

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 23
 Apakah yang dimaksudkan dengan
mensintesis kajian lepas?
 Bagaimana hendak mengulas pendapat
yang berbeza-beza dalam artikel-artikel
yang berbeza?
 Apakah kerangka teoritikal dan konseptual
yang digunakan dalam bidang yang anda
kaji?

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 24
 Mana satukah metodologi yang penting?
 Siapakan penulis utama kerana terlalu
banyak yang menulis isu yang sama?
 Mengapa ada artikel-artikel yang
mempunyai dapatan yang bercanggah

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 25
 questions
 How much literature do I need to look at?
 How far back do I need to go in reviewing
the literature?
 What related ideas do I need to explore
(subtopics or overarching ideas)
 What literature provides a framework for my
research?
 Why use a particular instrumens for my
study
O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage
Chapter Six 26
 Isu utama
 Menjadi asas kepada anda (dan pembaca) mengetahui
kedudukan kajian anda dalam perkembangan pengetahuan
dan kajian-kajian lepas dalam bidang yang sama sejak dulu
hingga sekarang.
 Menjadi asas penentuan skop dan fokus kajian anda
kerana bidang yang anda kaji adalah luas. Penentuan ini
dilakukan dengan mengambil teori tertentu sahaja,
menghadkan pemilihan variabel, penggunaan sampel
tertentu, pemilihan metodologi kajian dan teknik analisis
data.

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 27
 A literature review is a body of text
that aims to review the critical points of
current knowledge including substantive
findings as well as theoretical and
methodological contributions to a
particular topic. Literature reviews are
secondary sources, and as such, do not
report any new or original experimental
work.
 A literature review is an account of what has been
published on a topic by accredited scholars and
researchers.
 We will be required to write a chapter on literature
review.
 In writing the literature review, our purpose is to
convey to our reader what knowledge and ideas
have been established on the topic you have chosen,
and what their strengths and weaknesses are.
 As a piece of writing, the literature review must be
defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research
objective, the problem or issue you are discussing,
or your argumentative thesis).
 It is not a descriptive list of the material available,
or a set of summaries

29
Purpose
 to discover what is known about a
certain topic
We should look for 4 things about the
topic:
 Theory

 Facts

 Opinions

 Method
purpose
 Established what is already known
about a particular topic and what
methods have been used in researching
the topic
 Prevents you from reprodusing what is
already known
 Exposes gaps in literature and help you
in position your research
O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage
Chapter Six 31
example
 A physiotherapist wanting to treat patients

with continuous passive motion (CPM)

needs to know:
 Theories about how CPM works

 Facts about protocols and results

 Opinions of therapists on the future of

clinical use of CPM
 Methods that others used to assess effects
of CPM
O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage
Chapter Six 33
 Types of literature
 Primary sources: original reports of
research (journal articles, theses and
dissertations, conference abstracts
and proceedings)
 Secondary sources: in which authors
summarize their own work and the
work of others (book chapters, review
articles)
Evaluating the literature

 1.Classify the variables

 2.Compare purposes and conclusions
 3.Describe design and control elements
 4.Identify threats to validity
 5.Compare the study with other research
(does it add new information?)
 6.Evaluate the utility of the study
 Conducting a Literature Review
 Obtain a “relatively”complete set of articles
on the topic
 Decide which articles are relevant to your
research question
 Identify the designs and variables used
previously to address the question
 Determine the validity of the studies
 Make comparisons across studies
 Specify problems that need further study
36
Finding the literature
 Consult your subject specialist reference
librarian
 Check cited by list in Google Scholor
 Previous thesis (pro Quest )

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 37
The Importance of Working with
Literature
Working with literature is an essential part
of the research process that:

 generates ideas
 helps form significant questions
 is instrumental in the process of research
design

38
Working with literature
Working with
Literature

Find it! Manage it! Use it! Review it!

Knowing the Reading Choosing your research Understanding the

literature types efficiently topic lit review’s purpose

Keeping track Ensuring adequate

Using available resources Developing your question
of references coverage

Honing your Writing relevant Arguing your Writing

search skills annotations rationale purposefully

Informing your work with Working on

theory style and tone

Designing
method

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 39
Important
 Plan
 Systematic search
 Timeline

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 40
Finding literature
Finding relevant literature can be made easier if
you are able to readily access and draw on a
wide variety of resources such as:
 reference materials
 books
 journals
 grey literature
 official publications
 archives

41
 Grey literature
 Grey literature is informally published
written material (such as reports) that may
be difficult to trace via conventional channels
such as published journals and monographs
because it is not published commercially or is
not widely accessible.

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 42
Finding literature
Don’t go it alone!!
When looking for literature be sure to
call on the experts such as:
 librarians
 supervisors
 other researchers
 practitioners

43
Intersecting Areas of Literature
BODY PIERCING
▪
 

FOUCAULT   
▪ TEENAGERS
 ▪
 

RITES OF PASSAGE
▪

▪ background literature
 moderate relevance
 high relevance
 highest relevance

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 44
Managing the literature
It also pays to be organized and diligent when it
comes to keeping references.
 Keep and file copies of relevant books, articles, etc.
 Avoid lending out your ‘only copies’

 Find out about the recommended referencing style

and use it from the start

 Consider using bibliographic file management

software such as Procite, Endnote, or Reference
Manager
O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage
Chapter Six 45
 Annotating Sources
Annotating your sources provides you with a
record of relevant literature. It should include:
 the citation
 articulation of the author and audience
 a short summary
 critical commentary
 notes on relevance that remind you of the significance,
accuracy, and quality of the sources cited

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 46
 Using the Literature
Literature is used for disparate purposes
throughout the research process. Whether it be:
 focusing interests
 defining questions
 arguing a rationale
 theoretically informing your study
 developing appropriate design, or writing a formal
literature review
every stage of the research process demands
literary engagement
O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage
Chapter Six 47
The Formal Literature Review

Most find the writing of a literature

review a difficult task that takes
patience, practice, drafts, and
redrafts

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 48
The Formal Literature Review
The formal literature review is a very
specific piece of writing designed to:
 inform your readers of your topic
 establish your credibility as a researcher
 argue the need for, and relevance of, your
work

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 49
Reviewing the Literature vs.
‘The Literature Review’

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 50
Writing your Literature Review

A good literature review is an argument

that is more purposeful than a simple
review of relevant literature

51
Writing your Literature Review
Writing a good review requires you to:
 read a few good reviews
 write critical annotations
 develop a structure
 write purposefully
 use the literature to back up your arguments
 review and write throughout the research process
 get feedback
 and be prepared to redraft
O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage
Chapter Six 52
Writing your Literature Review
Style and Tone…
 Writing a good literature review can be
likened to holding a good dinner party
conversation
 They both require individuals who can
engage, learn, debate, argue, contribute, and
evolve their own ideas, without being
hypercritical or sycophantic
53
 A Good Literature Review is:
 Focused - The topic should be narrow. You should only
present ideas and only report on studies that are closely
related to topic.
 Concise - Ideas should be presented economically. Don’t
take any more space than you need to present your ideas.
 Logical - The flow within and among paragraphs should be
a smooth, logical progression from one idea to the next
 Developed - Don’t leave the story half told.
 Integrative - Your paper should stress how the ideas in
the studies are related. Focus on the big picture. What
commonality do all the studies share? How are some
studies different than others? Your paper should stress
how all the studies reviewed contribute to your topic.
 Current - Your review should focus on work being done on
the cutting edge of your topic.
 Research Problem
 Research question
 Definition –concept and operation
 Hypothesis/objectives

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 55
 Now you can start writing
 DECIDE ON A TOPIC
 NARROW YOUR TOPIC
 CREATE AN INTRODUCTION FOR YOUR LITERATURE REVIEW
 ORGANIZE THE BODY OF YOUR PAPER
 Scan each article to get an overview of each one.
 Group the articles by categories.
 Read each article carefully, taking notes on each one.
 WRITE THE BODY OF YOUR PAPER
 Make the structure and organization of your write-up explicit.
 Integrate the studies you summarize in your paper.
 At the end of each section wrap up studies in a paragraph that tells the reader
how the studies relate and address your topic.
 Make sure you take note of key terms and definitions.
 Identify landmark studies in your write-up
 Identify major trends across the studies you are reading.
 WRAP THE PAPER UP
 Present your conclusions.
 Present implications.
 Present suggestions for future research.
Persoalan yang dulu menghantui saya adalah:

 Bagaimana nak tulis sorotan literatur

 - Apa isi sorotan literatur?
 - Bila nak kritik secara mendalam dan
bila nak sekadar cite sahaja kajian
lepas?

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 57
 Aspek penting dalam LR
 5 aspek sorotan literatur:
 (1) sejarah perkembangan / latarbelakang / epistemology berkaitan
kajian anda
 (2) perbincangan berkaitan teori / konsep / variabel yang relevan yang
mendasari kajian anda termasuk kerangka teoritikal
 (3) perbincangan kritis kajian lepas dalam bidang berkaitan
 (4) sorotan perkembangan terkini (jika boleh 5 tahun kebelakangan)
berkaitan kajian yang melibatkan perbahasan / isu / persoalan /
terminology baru yang timbul
 (5) bagaimana kajian anda mengisi ruang (gap) dari perkembangan
terkini tersebut.
O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage
Chapter Six 58
 JANGAN menulis seperti membuat sebuah laporan sebab sungguh
MEMBOSANKAN dan menjadikan anda sebagai seorang yang hanya
meringkaskan kajian terdahulu. Ramai pelajar suka menulis seperti:


 Suyansah (2008) menyatakan bahawa....Ini disokong oleh kajian Azizi Wafa

(2009).
 Ismail Ali (2010) menambah bahawa....Seterusnya Suyansah (2008)....
 Azizi Wafa (2009) menegaskan bahawa.....Kajian ini selari dengan kajian
Ismail Ali (2010)....
 Akhirnya yang ditulis adalah ringkasan kajian lepas.... bukannya kajian anda
yang menjadikan kajian lepas sebagai sokongan....kerana suara anda tidak
kedengaran dalam sorotan literatur !

Kalau setakat meringkaskan kajian lepas ”sesiapa pun boleh buat" ..... betul
tak....ini yang membezakan kesarjanaan….


O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 59
 Contoh sintesis
 Contoh kelemahan

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

Chapter Six 60
 Final checklist
 Have I fulfilled the purpose of the literature review?
 Is it written at a level appropriate to its audience?
 Are its facts correct?
 Is all the information included relevant?
 Are the layout and presentation easy on the eye?
 Is the language clear, concise and academic?
 Does the abstract summarise the entire review?
 Does the introduction adequately introduce the topic?
 Is the body organised logically?
 Does the conclusion interpret, analyse and evaluate?
 Are the recommendations reasonable?
 Does the table of contents correspond with the actual contents?
Are page numbers correct?
 Have I acknowledged all sources of information through correct
referencing?
 Have I checked spelling, grammar and punctuation?
 Have I carefully proof-read the final draft?
61
tools
 Atlas.ti.
 http://www.atlasti.com/demo.html

 Mendeley
 http://www.mendeley.com/features/

O'Leary, Z. (2004) The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage

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