CAROLINE AGE (1625-1649)
1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE AGE
Introduction The Caroline age is named after Charles I (1625-1649). Caroline is an adjective of
Carolus, the Latin word for Charles. The age of Caroline is an age of poetry of three kinds or
schools: Metaphysical, Cavalier and Puritan schools of poetry. Let‘s see the characteristics of
Caroline Age.
Civil War The entire period was marked by civil war, which divided the people into two
factions: one loyal to the King and the other opposed to him. The crisis began when James I, who
had reclaimed the right of royalty from an Act of Parliament. He gave too much importance to
the Divine Right and began to ignore the Parliament. The Puritans, who had become a powerful
force in the social life of the age, began the movement for social and constitutional reforms. The
Puritans influenced the English middle classes during the reign of James I. It was not till the time
of his successor that Puritanism emerged as a great national power. The hostilities which began
in 1642 lasted till the banishment of Charles I in 1649. There was little political stability from
1649 to 1660. These turbulent years saw the establishment of the commonwealth under the
leadership of Oliver Cromwell. There was great confusion over his death. In 1660 the political
chaos and instability ended with the restoration of King Charles to the throne of England.
The Rise of Puritanism The Puritan Movement may be regarded as a second and Renaissance, a
rebirth of the moral nature of man following the first renaissance, intellectual awakening of
Europe in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Puritanism became a political as well as a moral
and religious force. Puritanism had two chief objects: the first was personal righteousness; the
second was civil liberty. In other words, it aimed to make men honest and to make them free.
Hampden, Eliot, Milton, Hooker and Cromwell were some eminent puritans. From religious
point of view Puritanism included all shades of belief. In course of time it ―became a great
national movement. It included English Churchmen, separatists, Calvinists, Covenanters and
Catholic noblemen. Puritanism exercised great influence upon the tone and temper of English
life and thought. The spirit which it introduced was fine and noble, but it was hard and stern.
During the Puritan role of Cromwell severe laws were passed. Simple pleasures were forbidden,
theatres were closed. Puritanism destroyed human culture and sought to confine it within the
circumscribed field of its own particular interests. It was fatal both to art and literature. Great
literature could not be produced during this period. Milton was an exception. He was the greatest
literary genius of this era. In his finest works he combines the moral and religious influences of
Puritanism with the generous culture of the Renaissance.
Want of Vitality and Concreteness The literature of this period lacks vitality and concreteness.
W.J. Long writes: ―Elizabethan literature generally is inspiring, it throbs with youth and hope
and vitality. That which follows speaks of age and sadness; even its brightest hours are followed
by gloom, and by the pessimism inseparable from the passing of old standard.‖
Want of the Spirit of Unity Despite diversity, the Elizabethan literature was marked by the
spirit of unity, which resulted from intense patriotism and nationalism of all classes, and their
devotion and loyalty to the Queen who had a single-minded mission to seek the nation‘s welfare.
During this period James I and Charles II were hostile to the interests of the people. The country
was divided by the struggle for political and religious liberty, and the literature was divided in
spirit as were the struggling parties.
Dominance of Critical and Intellectual Spirit The critical and intellectual spirit dominates the
literature of this period. W.J. Long writes: ―In the literature of the Puritan period one looks in
vain for romantic ardor. Even in the lyrics and love poems a critical, intellectual spirit takes its
place, and whatever romance assets itself is in form rather than in feeling, a fantastic and
artificial adornment of speech rather than the natural utterance of a heart in which sentiment is so
strong and true that poetry is its own expression.‖
Decay of Drama The influence of Puritanism was detrimental to the growth of drama. The
closing of the theaters in 1642 gave a final jolt to the development of drama. The actual dramatic
work of this period was small and insignificant.
2. POETRY OF THE AGE: Milton’s Poetry
POETRY OF THE AGE Milton represents the best of the Renaissance and the Puritanism.
Though a Puritan, he was also a classicist and humanist. He delighted in everything that pleased
his eyes. He was a passionate lover of beauty. He did not share the Puritan contempt for the
stage. Nevertheless, he possessed the moral earnestness and the religious zeal of the Puritan.
Milton‘s early poems – On the Morning of Christ‘s Nativity, L‘Allegra and II Penseroso exhibit
all that was best in Elizabethan literature. Comus express Puritanic moral zeal in the Renaissance
form of mask. Lycidas is a pastoral elegy which is suffused with the moral zeal of the Puritants.
Arcades is a mosque. His well-known sonnets of this period are On His Deceased Wife, To the
Nightingale, The Massacre in Piedmont and On His Blindness. Milton wrote his finest poetry
when he became totally blind. Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonists were
written during this period.
Characteristics of Milton’s Poetry: Milton was the greatest poet after Shakespeare. In his
writing he has blended a wonderful union of intellectual power and creative power. He is also a
consummate literary artist, whose touch is as sure in delicate detail as in vast general effects.
Milton was a superb poetic artist. His poetry is remarkable for the following characteristics:
i) Sublimity: Milton had a noble conception of a poet‘s vocation. To him poetry was not a mere
intellectual exercise or diversion. It was something solemn, sacred and sublime. He pursued this
ideal of poetry all through his life. Milton‘s poetry is sublime and majestic. It is the expression of
a pure mind and noble mind, enriched by knowledge and disciplined by art. His poetry ennobles
and elevates the readers.
ii) Love of Beauty: Milton was possessed of a deep sense of beauty. He loved beauty in all its
manifestations. His love for the external beauty of nature is exhibited in L‘Allegro, II Penseroso
and Lycidas. The beauty of virtue attracted him. It found its earliest artistic expression in Comus.
His last three works – Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes express his love
for beauty and righteousness in a highly poetic manner.
iii) Puritanism: There is also a powerful undercurrent of Puritanism in Milton‘s poetry. There is
a nothing distinctly Puritan in his early poetry. It finds its earliest expression in Comus and
Lycidas. In his later poetry the Puritan note is dominant, but it is always mild and subdued. The
puritan and religious tendency in his later is seen in the choice of subjects, which are taken from
the Bible. The aim of Paradise Lost is ―to justify the ways of God to men.‖ Paradise Regained
portrays Christ‘s resistance to Satan‘s temptations and his victory over them. The theme of
Samson Agonistes is also Biblical and is imbued with moral earnestness.
iv) Classicism: Milton was also a classicist. He was a keen student of ancient classics. His
fondness for classicism is found is his choice for classical and semi-classical forms – epic
(Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained), the Greek tragedy (Samson Agonistes), the pastoral elegy
(Lycidas), and the Ode (Ode on the Nativity of Christ). He designed his style on classical model.
It is noble and sublime. He was fond of classical allusions. His diction is abundantly classical
and his two epics are full of eloquent descriptions and enormous similes which remind us of
ancient epics of Greece and Rome.
v) Flawless Poetic Art: Milton was a flawless poetic artist. Whatever he has written is
remarkable for the excellence of artistic workmanship. Edward Albert writes: ―As a poet Milton
is not a great innovator; his function is rather to refine and make perfect. Every form he touches
acquires a finality of grace and dignity. To Milton the art of poetry is ―a high and grave thing, a
thing of the choicest discipline of phrase, the fine craftsmanship of a structure, the most nobly
ordered music of sound. As a poetic artist Milton was never careless. There is hardly a line in his
poetic work, which is unpoetical – hardly a word which is superfluous.
vi) Milton’s Style: Milton‘s style is the highly distinguished style in English poetry. His mind
was ―nourished upon the best thoughts and finest works of all ages. His language, says Pattison,
was of one ―who lives in the companionship of the great and the wise of the past time.‖ In his
poetic style we inevitably find the imprint of a cultured mind, a lofty soul and an artistic
conscience. Matthew Arnold remarked: ―In the sure and flawless perfection of his rhythm and
diction, he is as admirable as Virgil or Dante, and in this respect he is unique amongst us. No one
else in English literature possesses the like distinction… Shakespeare is divinely strong, rich and
attractive. But sureness of perfect style, Shakespeare himself does not possess. Milton from one
of end of Paradise Lost to the other is in his distinction and rhythm constantly a great artist in the
great style. Above all, there is certain loftiness about the style of Milton which is found alike in
his Ode to Nativity and Paradise Lost.
Milton‘s style, says Raleigh, is not a loose flowing garment but is tightly fitted to the thought. He
packs his meaning in the fewest possible words and in the most musical language. His is the
grand style. ―Of all the English styles‖, says Raleigh, ―Milton‘s is best entitled to the name of
classic. It is noticeable for compactness, force and the unity of emotional impression, which are
the distinctive characteristics of true classical style.
Milton was a conscientious artist and weighed every word he used for its meaning, weight and
sound.
vii) Milton’s Versification: Tennyson called Milton ―God – gifted organ voice of England‖
and ―mighty – mouthed inventor of harmonies.‖ His entire poetry is marked by a unique
musical quality. As a versifier, Milton reformed the loose dramatic blank verse of Elizabethan
dramatists and made it a worthy epic metre. W.H. Hudson writes: ―His bank verse in particular
deserves the closest study. Though this form, as we now know, had long been used in the drama,
it had not thus far been adopted for any non-dramatic poem. Milton was therefore making an
experiment when he took as the measure of Paradise Lost ―English heroic verse without rime.
Of this measure he remains our greatest master.
3. POETRY IN JACOBEAN AGE
THE METAPHYSICAL POETS
THE METAPHYSICAL POET: The term ‘Metaphysical’ is loosely applied to a group of 17th
century poets who did not belong to a school of poetry, but were united by “common
characteristics of wit, inventiveness, and a love of elaborate stylistic manoeuvres” ( Ian Ousby).
Their poetry was rich in intellectual complexity both in their thought and expression they are
startlingly different from their predecessors, being fond rather of the subtle than the plain, of
what lay beneath than on the surface. A new kind of poetry, known as the metaphysical poetry,
began with John Donne. It is characterized by much genuine poetic feeling, harsh metres, and
those strained and whimsical images and turns of speech, which are called conceits.
Let‘s see the major poets of Metaphysical School in a nutshell: 1. John Donne‘s works include
Satires, Songs and Sonnets and Elegies. His poetry is classified into three categories – amorous,
religious and satirical. His poetry reveals ―a depth of philosophy, a subtlety of reasoning, a
blend of thought and devotion, a mingling of the homely and the sublime, the light and the
serious, which make it full of variety and surprise. Donne‘s poetry bears the stamp of his
scholarship. His images are far-fetched, obscure, unusual and striking. 2. George Herbert is the
most widely read of all the metaphysical poets. His poems were published posthumously. His
poetry is distinguished by clearness of expression, concrete imagery and intelligible conceits. He
preferred simple, homely, racy language and naturalness of expression. His poetry is sensitive to
the most delicate changes of feeling.
3. Richard Crashaw was both secular and religious in his poetry. His best work is Steps to the
Temple (1646). His poetry is noticeable for striking but fantastic conceits, for its religious fire
and fervour. It is emotional rather than thoughtful. 4. Henry Vaughan was at heart a mystic. His
books include Poems, Olor Iscanus, Silex Scintillans and Thalia Rediviva. He had a considerable
gift for fantasy. Edward Albert writes: ―His regard for nature, moreover, has a closeness and
penetration that sometimes suggest Wordsworth. 5. Abraham Cowley distinguished himself as a
classical scholar. His well-known poems are The Mistress, The Davideis and the Pindaric Odes.
He is important as a transitional poet of this period. He was the last of the metaphysical poets
and in many respects he foreshadows the English classicists. With all his priety, his fantasy, his
conceits and his Pindarism, Cowley is, first of all, an intellectual. His lyrics are often sweet and
graceful.
The following are their chief characteristics of Metaphysical Poetry:
I. Fantastic Conceits: Their poetry is seldom and an expression of what has been expressed by
earlier poets. It abounds rather in thoughts brought from ―afar‖, from the innermost recesses of
their own mind. Donne, thus, speaks of the wreath of his mistress‘s hair capable of holding his
decaying body together in the grave as his soul did in life, calling it therefore his soul in death.
II. Treatment of the Inwards: The Metaphysical poets deal not so much with the outward world
—man, nature, and human life— as with what passed in their own mind. The Elizabethan, even
when personal, dealt with what was but common experience. But the Metaphysicals lived in the
world of their own fancy and speak of that only. This makes their thought novel and startling. As
a child, Vaughan says in The Retreat, he had glimpses of his prenatal existence to which he
longs to go: Some men a forward motion love, But I by backward steps would move.
III. Far-Fetched Images: The images suggested by Metaphysical poetry are often strange. They
are usually the product of unnatural combinations of dissimilar objects and ideas. There is no
obvious connection between love and geographical zone. But Carew compares the warmth of
love to the Torrid Zone, its lack to the Frigid Zone, and its normal proportion to the temperature
zone.
IV. Monstrous Hyperboles: Metaphysical poetry abounds in hyperboles that not only could not
be credited but could not be imagined. In Sweetest Love, I Do not Go, Donne‘s mistress sighs,
she exhales not breath but soul; and when she weeps, she sheds not tears but his blood.
V. Obscurity: For all foregoing reasons metaphysical poetry is not easily intelligible,
comprehensible and understandable. T. S. Eliot says that in trying to find words for their subtle
thoughts and feelings, the Metaphysicals fail to carry the readers along with them.
VI. Learning: Dr. Johnson says that Metaphysicals were men of learning that is an advantage to
any poet but sometimes the reader is completely mystified in search of meaning.
These are the major characteristic features of Metaphysical poetry.
4. THE CAVALIER POETS
THE CAVALIER POETS Cavalier poets, a group of English poets associated with Charles I
and his exiled son. Most of their work was done between 1637 and 1660. Their poetry embodied
the life and culture of upper-class, pre-Commonwealth England. They mixed sophistication with
naïveté, elegance with raciness. Writing on the courtly themes of beauty, love, and loyalty, they
produced finely finished verses and expressed with wit and directness. The poetry reveals their
indebtedness to both Ben Jonson and John Donne. The leading Cavalier poets were Robert
Herrick, Richard Lovelace, Sir John Suckling, and Thomas Carew. Cavalier Poetry is an
early seventeenth century movement centered mainly on Robert Herrick, Thomas Carew, John
Suckling, Richard Lovelace, and Carew. Most of these poets were admirers of Ben Jonson.
Cavalier Poetry gets its name from the supporters of King Charles I in the seventeenth century
who was at that period called the Cavaliers. They were royalists during the Civil Wars. Cavalier
Poetry is different from metaphysical poetry since it does not use complicated metaphors and
unrealistic imagery, but prefers a rather straightforward expression. This poetry was erotic and
its strength lied in its shortness. Simply, it did not confuse readers with deep meaning and
allegory but reflected every thought as they were supposed to be understood along with their
motto "Carpe Diem" meaning "seize the day".
The most common characteristic of Cavalier Poetry is its use of direct language which expresses
a highly individualistic personality. In more detail, the Cavaliers, while writing, accept the ideal
of the Renaissance Gentleman who is at once a lover, a soldier, witty, a man of affairs, a
musician, and a poet, but abandon the notion of his being also a pattern of Christian chivalry.
They avoid the subject of religion, apart from making one or two graceful speeches. They
attempt no plumbing of the depths of the soul. They treat life cavalierly, indeed, and sometimes
they treat poetic convention cavalierly too. In short their features can be succinctly given in the
following points:
I. Generally they were intended to entertain rather than instruct.
II. They were influenced by John Donne for his elaborate conceits and meditative tone and
influenced by Ben Jonson for his admiration for ancient Greek and Roman poetry.
III. Their style features conversational style based on natural speech patterns.
IV. Classical Influence was exercised on these poets in terms of regular rhythmic patterns,
carefully structured stanzas and simple but elegant language
V. Theme of love was popular in their compositions. The love expressed was characterized by
idealized love, addressed to imaginary women with classical names, sarcastic commentaries on
the pursuit of coy beauties, mistress no longer goddess but woman spoken to and poem more
important to poet than woman.
VI. Their writing owes something to both styles. They used direct and colloquial language
expressive of highly individual personality. They enjoyed the casual, the amateur and the
affectionate poem. They did not write religious poetry, nor do they explore the depth of the soul.
And finally, they celebrate minor pleasures and sadness of life.
The Cavalier poetry no longer remains on the domain of English literature. They soon disappear
from the scene of poetry. Though they flourished during reign of Charles I, they were disgraced
when Puritan leader, Oliver Cromwell, became leader. Some fled London; others arrested or
imprisoned; while only Herrick lived to see restoration of Monarchy. Now, let‘s introduce these
poets and their contribution to the development of Cavalier Poetry as follows:
I. Thomas Carew (1595–1639): Carew was one of the Cavalier poets. He was educated at
Merton College, Oxford. He had a short diplomatic career on the Continent, then returned to
England and became a favorite of Charles I and a court official. He is best known for his courtly,
amorous lyrics, such as ―Ask me no more where Jove bestows and ―He that loves a rosy
cheek, but of equal importance are his ―Elegy on the Death of Dr. Donne, and the highly erotic
poem, ―A Rapture. In his use of metaphysical and classical material, he shows the influence of
both John Donne and Ben Jonson. Thomas Carew shows great lyrical talent in Poems. His style
and verification are so polished and refined that he anticipates the neo-classical poetry. He is
neither obscure nor uncouth.
II. Richard Lovelace (1618–1657: He is another English Cavalier poet. He was the son of a
Kentish knight and was educated at Oxford. In1642. He was briefly imprisoned for having
presented to Parliament a petition for the restoration of the bishops. An ardent royalist, he served
with the French army during the English civil war. On his return to England in 1648, he was
imprisoned by the Commonwealth. His royalist sympathies lost him his entire fortune, and he
died in extreme poverty. He is remembered almost solely for two extremely graceful, melodic,
and much-quoted lyrics, ―To Althea, from Prison‖ and ―To Lucasta, Going to the Wars. The
first volume of his poems, Lucasta: Epodes, Odes, Sonnets, Songs, &c., appeared in 1649; the
companion volume, Lucasta: Posthume Poems, in 1660.
III. Robert Herrick: In August 1591 Robert Herrick was the seventh child and fourth son born
to a London goldsmith, Nicholas, and his wife, Julian Stone Herrick. When Herrick was fourteen
months old, his father died. At age 16, Herrick began a ten-year apprenticeship with his uncle.
The apprenticeship ended after only six years, and Herrick, at age twenty-two, matriculated at
Saint John's College, Cambridge. He graduated in 1617. Over the next decade, Herrick became a
disciple of Ben Jonson, about whom he wrote five poems. In 1623 Herrick took holy orders, and
six years later, he became vicar of Dean Prior in Devonshire.
His post carried a term for a total of thirty-one years, but during the Great Rebellion in 1647, he
was removed from his position because of his Royalist sympathies. Following the restoration of
Charles II, Herrick was reinstated at Dean Prior where he resided from 1662 until his death in
October 1674. He never married, and many of the women mentioned in his poems are thought to
have been fictional. His principal work is Hesperides; or, the Works Both Human and Divine of
Robert Herrick, Esq. (1648). A group of religious poems printed in 1647 appear within the same
book under a separate title page bearing the name His Noble Numbers. The entire collection
contains more than 1200 short poems, ranging in form from epistles and eclogues to epigrams
and love poems. Herrick was influenced by classical Roman poetry and wrote on pastoral
themes, dealing mostly with English country life and village customs.
IV. John Suckling: He is a cavalier poet and playwright best known for his lyrics. He wrote four
plays including Aglaura which had two fifth acts, one tragic and one with a happy outcome and a
comedy. The Goblins (1638) was much influenced by Shakespeare's Tempest and generally
thought to be his best. His chief works are included in Fragmenta Aurea including his best
known lyrics 'A Ballad Upon a Wedding' and 'Why so Pale and Wan, Fond Lover?'. He also
wrote a satire A Session of the Poets (1637), a send-up of contemporary poets.
V. Andrew Marwell combined Renaissance sensuousness and humanism with Puritanism in his
poems. His poems deal with the theme of nature as in Garden and Upon the Hill; love as in The
Gallery, To His Coy Mistress; and patriotism as in Cromwell‘s Return from Ireland.
5. PROSE OF CAROLINE AGE
The development of prose was copious and excellent in kind. Jeremy Taylor, the most
prominent literary divine of this period, is remembered for his collection of sermons, known as
The Liberty of Prophesying, Holy Living and Holy Dying. These are fine specimens of religious
prose. The Puritan Richard Baxter wrote The Saint‘s Everlasting Rest which is purely religious
is matter and aim. Thomas Fuller, another divine, wrote much on religious subjects. His most
memorable work is Worthies of England.
Sir Thomas Browne, a physician, wrote Vulgar Errors, Hydriotaphia or Urn Burial and Religio
Medict. Religio Medict, his finest work, is an excellent prose companion to the metaphysical
verse of the age. His writings are collections of independent papers. He is personal and intimate.
Browne‘s style in pedantic, ornate and strongly Latinised. His style is a model for musical prose.
Milton wrote most of his prose during the middle period of his life when he was busy with
public affairs. He wrote a number of pamphlets on various topics of public interest. Aeropagitica,
a great and impassioned treatise on the freedom of the press, is his finest prose work. Owen
Feltham wrote Resolves: Divine, Moral, and Political. These are essays which show Bacon‘s
influence. William Drummond made the first conscious and sustained effort in English to write
political prose in a Cypress Grave. Abraham Cowley cultivated a form of essay more intimate
and confidential, though less profound, weighty and philosophical than the Baconian. As a writer
his output consists of some discourses and prefaces. His essays are remarkable for intimacy and
sincere self – revelation. His essay Of Myself is the finest of his compositions. James Howell is
the forerunner of Queen Anne essayists. His prose has no poetic quality. It is intellectual, simple,
familiar and essay. Howell‘s Epistolae Hoe is a collection of familiar letters, domestic and
foreign, partly historical, political and philosophical. He anticipated the periodical essay.
Conclusion
Thus the Caroline Age is characterized by civil war, rise of Puritanism, lack of spirit of unity,
dominance of intellectual spirit and decline of drama. We studied the poetry of the age including
Puritan Poetry and Milton as a puritan poet extensively; Metaphysical Poetry, Cavalier poetry
along with their features and major poets and the prose of Caroline age especially the prose
writers and their contribution to its development.
