MINERALS AND MINING

FORM 1 FORM 2 FORM 3 FORM 4

 Distribution  Factors  Small scale  Environmental

of minerals influencing mining in conservation
and mines mining in Zimbabwe and
of Zimbabwe environmental
 Extraction
Zimbabwe management
 Methods of and
 Ores and mining processing of  Environmental
mineral minerals in impact
 Environmental
groups Zimbabwe assessment in
impacts of
and Africa mining
 use and mining
importance  Health and  Sustainable
of minerals safety utilisation of
mineral
 Beneficiation
resources
and value
addition

MINING- refers to the extraction of valuable minerals from the earth’s surface.

Distribution Of Minerals And Mines Of Zimbabwe

Mineral wealth should be a source for equitable growth and poverty reduction. Zimbabwe has
wealth in minerals with the major ones being Gold, Platinum, Chromium, Nickel and asbestos,
Copper among others. Most of these are found in the Great Dyke.

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ECONOMIC MINERALS

GOLD

Gold mining and exploration in Zimbabwe has been going on from ancient times and it is estimated
that a third (about 700 tonnes) of all historical gold production was mined locally from the seventh
century until the introduction of mechanized mining methods with the arrival of Europeans about a
century ago. There are over 4000 recorded god deposits, nearly all of them located on ancient
workings.

The occurrence of gold in Zimbabwe is mainly confined to hydrothermal vein and shear zone
deposits found exclusively in rocks of the Basement Complex age formed 2400 million years or more
ago. The only noteworthy production from outside the Zimbabwe craton has been Renco Mine,
which is in ancient deformed, high-grade metamorphic rocks of the Archean age North Marginal
Zone of the Limpopo Mobile Belt and a number of mines in the Proterozoic Piriwiri Group of
metamorphosed argillaceous sedimentary rocks with minor volcanics. Some gold is also recovered as
a by-product from copper deposits in the Deweras Group Sediments. The production of alluvial gold,
present along all the major rivers draining the greenstone belts, has largely been the domain of
illegal gold panners.

SILVER

It occurs as native silver in association with other minerals such as gold, copper and lead. With
exception of the Osage Mine in Zimbabwe it is declared as a by products from the mining of
platinum, gold and copper. Gold mines in the Odzi greenstone belt have the highest silver and gold
ratios.

PLATINUM GROUP ELEMENTS

Platinum Group Metals (PGMs) consist of platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium and
osmium and have a high demand worldwide because of their wide variety of uses in industry.
Zimbabwe’s Great Dyke, a linear early Proterozoic layered mafic-ultramafic intrusion trending over
550km at a maximum width of about 11kilometres, has the second largest platinum reserves in the
world after the Bushveld Complex in South Africa. An estimate of 2.8 billion tonnes PGM ore at 4g/t
are estimated to lounge on the Dyke. Notably, PGMs are mined as primary metals only in the
Bushveld in South Africa and along the Great Dyke in Zimbabwe.

The occurrence of PGE mineralization in the Great Dyke was recorded in the early 1920s. Following
these documentations and the discovery of PGMs in the Merensky Reef of the Bushveld Complex of
South Africa, there was a boom in PGM prospecting between 1925 and 1926 that resulted in the
discovery of Wedza Mine. Since the 1950s, several companies have undertaken exploration.
Currently platinum exploration on the Great Dyke has been carried out by CAMEC (Todal Mining) in
the Bougai section in Shurugwi, and Global Platinum Resources in Chegutu.

Mining is currently being carried out at Mimosa, Ngezi and Unki Platinum Mines. Mining operations
ceased at Hartley Platinum Mine in 2000, because of bad ground conditions. Demand for PGMs has
seen an increase in exploration and evaluation of Zimbabwe's platinum deposits.

Off the Great Dyke, the potential for PGM mineralization exists in the following areas Mashava
Igneous Suite, ¨Bubi Greenstone Belt

DIAMONDS

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Zimbabwe is located within an exceptionally rich diamondiferous metallogenic province. Large areas
of the country are covered by the Archaean Craton and the Archaean Limpopo Belt which are likely
to have the best developed mantle root and diamond potential along with discoveries of the
mineralized kimberlites on the Craton (Murowa, Sese, Colossus) and on the Limpopo Belt (River
Ranch) which make Zimbabwe an excellent exploration target with potential for economic
kimberlites. The diamond exploration success in the neighbouring Botswana and South Africa, the
greatest producers of gem quality diamonds has made a positive impact on the diamond
prospectively of the country. More than 120 kimberlites have been discovered but economic grades
occur in two deposits the River Ranch and the Murowa Diamond Mines. Currently evaluation is
being carried out on several kimberlites in the southern area of the country while some were found
to be non-commercial. Of late, the discovery of diamondiferous Proterozoic conglomerates in the
Umkondo basin has led to the opening of several diamond mines within the Chiadzwa area, e.g.
Mbada, Marange Resources, and Anjin etc.

CHROME

Zimbabwe has the 2nd largest high grade chromium ores in the world after South Africa with reserves
of approximately 10 billion tonnes.

Chrome is mainly mined along the Great dyke of Zimbabwe and occurs as seam/strati form deposits.
In greenstone belts off the dyke it occurs as podiform structures in serpentinites, e.g. in Zimasco
mine on Shurugwi Mashava. In Mashava chrome is found in greenstone remnants in the Limpopo
mobile belt south of Mberengwa. Chrome also occurs as elluvial deposits in the greenstone areas,

Giant crystals of up to 1.5m have been found on the dyke. Chrome is mainly used stainless steel
production, as a metal coat, in the chemical industry and in metallurgical processes.

COAL

Zimbabwe has vast high grade coal deposits occurring as fossilized carbon. It occurs in lower Karoo
sediments. These are the middle Zambezi basin to the north and save Limpopo basin in the south of
the country hosts about 12 billion tonnes of good quality coal. About 29 coal localities are known but
major producers are Hwange colliery and Makomo resources. The country’s full potential is however
yet to be exploited.

NICKEL

In Zimbabwe nickel occurs within the Archean craton in rocks of komatitic composition e.g. at Trojan
mine. It also appears layered/unlayered mafic-ultramafic intrusive bodies e.g. Empress, Madziwa
Great dyke. It’s also found in nickel laterite e.g. northern part Great Dyke hydrothermal shear zone
deposits. There are nickel deposits in several serpentinite areas in greenstone belts with igneous
complexes around the country. The country has got huge potential in komatiite and laterite and
more than 30 nickel deposits are known. Currently production is at Trojan mine in Bindura.

ASBESTOS

Asbestos occurs as chrysotile. It’s found in ultramafic complexes e.g. ,Mashava Igneous Complex, in
massive serpentinites and slip fibre zones in which shears are filled with matted fibres in the Great
dyke e.g. Ethel mine. There are 60 deposits scattered in the Masvingo, Insiza, Gwanda, Mberengwa,
and Shurugwi, which have been worked on for chrysotile.

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Zimbabwe was once the world’s 3rd largest producer of asbestos before the demand declined. After
gold asbestos was once largest income producer in the mining sector. Production ceased with the
closure of Gaths Mine and Shabani Mine.

COAL BED METHANE

Coal bed methane is a gas intrinsically associated with coal. Coal is both a source and reservoir for
methane gas occurrence in Zimbabwe. It mainly occurs in the middle Zambezi Basin e.g. in lupine
concession. It’s also found in the Save Limpopo basin e.g. Save Runde district.

Reserve is still a resources studies to ascertain if the gas could be exploited commercially have not
been concluded. Coal bed Methane is used for Electricity generation, Ammonia production for
fertilizer and in Iron production.

COPPER

There are over 70 known deposits in Zimbabwe that have produced copper either as a primary or
secondary product. The main producing area has been the Magondi Basin in an area stretching for
over 150km. Similar copper deposits are found in the south eastern part of the country in the
Umkondo Basin. Several copper prospects also occur in hydrothermal deposits in Archaean
Greenstone Belts and in granite e.g. Inyathi, Copper duke. Primary copper production virtually
ceased following closure of Mhangura, now being produced as a by-product of other minerals e.g.
PGM, Gold, Nickel

IRON

Zimbabwe has huge iron deposits associated with banded ironstone formations in greenstone belts.
Major deposits are estimated to be over 30 billion tonnes of reserves. Magnetite deposit associated
with Carbonatites e.g. Gungwa and Dorowa, Banded Iron Formation in Archaean Greenstone Belts,
magnetite schists e.g. Chiredzi deposits (Mongula and Manyoka), layered Igneous complexes source
of titanium and vanadium also e.g. ChuatsaBanded Iron Formation, Archaean Greenstone belts e.g.
Kwekwe, Buhwa and oxidation of other minerals e.g. Ripple Creek Deposits with high grade ore are
found in Buchwa and Ripple Creek. Significant ironstone deposits include the huge Mwanesi deposit
west of Chivhu and Nyuni near Masvingo. Manyoka and Mongula and several similar deposits in the
Limpopo Mobile belt are also important deposits.

PEGMATITE MINERALS

Pegmatites which are ubiquitous in several geological environments especially on the edges of
greenstones and in metamorphic belts, are a source of a variety of minerals including tantalite, tin
and wolframite, beryl, mica, feldspar, and gemstones such as emerald, aquamarine, chrysoberyl,
alexandrite and euclase.

DIMENSION STONES

Granites, gneisses, migmatites, gabbro-norites, dolerite, marbles and quartzites, suitable for use as
dimension stones are typical rocks belonging to Zimbabwe’s geological environments. The most
well-known dimension stone in Zimbabwe is black granite ubiquitous in the north-eastern part of the
country which has attracted considerate foreign investors.

Use And Importance Of Minerals

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-Phosphates is used in the manufacture of fertiliser

-Limestone is used in cement manufacturing and as a flux in the manufacture of steel

-Diamond is used to make jewellery, ornaments, glass cutters and drills

-Soapstone is used for sculpture

-Copper is used to make jewellery, electrical wires and coins

-Gold is used to make medals and jewellery and as a basis of world currency

-Coal is used in curing tobacco, smelting of iron and generation of thermal electricity

-Iron is used in the manufacture of steel, rails and cutlery

-Tin is used to make utensils

-Chrome is used in the manufacture of alloys

-Asbestos is used in the making of roofing material and fire proof materials

-Nickel is used to harden steel, car parts

Factors influencing mining in Zimbabwe

1) Availability and Value of Mineral

Minerals of high value will be mined even if they occur in small quantities because one sold it will be
possible to offset mining costs and make a profit and vice versa.

2) Quality of Ore

Mining can be done if the mineral deposits have high mineral content because they are economical
to work on but deposits with low mineral content are rarely worked on except if the mineral in them
is rare e.g. uranium.

3) Size of Deposit

Minerals which aren’t of high value have to occur in large quantities for them to be mined so that it
will be a possible to recover mining costs and make a profit.

4) Availability of Capital

Lack of capital causes developing countries not to exploit minerals and leave it to international
companies because a lot of money is needed for exploration, infrastructure, salaries, energy etc e.g.
titanium mining at Kwale is being done by Tiomin company from Canada.

5) Method of Mining

A mineral requiring open cast mining will be mined even if the mineral deposit is large but one
requiring underground mining will be extracted if its in large deposit or if its of high value or rare.

6) Transport costs

Minerals occurring in remote areas far from the markets are not likely to be exploited if the
transport system is poorly developed since mineral ore is heavy and bulky and transporting it by
road and railway is expensive.

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7) Availability of Market for the Mineral

Mining can be done if the mineral is in demand and if the prices are reasonable so that mining costs
are offset and a profit is realised.

8) Government policies

The government may promote or discourage the mining of a particular resource, for example, the
buying price of gold in Zimbabwe is determined by the reserve Bank of Zimbabwe. If it puts a low
buying rate, then very few investors would put their money in mining of gold.

9) Labour

Exploitation of some minerals require skilled workers and if they lack it may not be done as is the
case in developing countries because expatriates have to be engaged and are very expensive to pay
which may reduce the profits accruing from mining.

The five broad activities embracing the mining process are:

1 exploration and mine design,
2 mine construction and development,
3 production,
4 mine closure and
5 post-closure management

Methods of Mining

1)Open Cast Mining

-Method of extracting minerals which are near the earth’s surface 1-50 metres.

How open cast mining occurs

-there is removal of the overburden

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-terracing of the pit sides
-drilling of rocks for blasting
-ore is extracted by blasting
-loading ore into lorries
-ore is carried to the surface by lorries

Advantages of open cast mining

-cheap to carry out
Disadvantages of open cast mining
-dust
-deforestation
-water and air pollution
-noise
-eyesore
-land degradation

Types

a)Stripping

-Stripping off of the unwanted material lying on top of the mineral deposit and then digging to
remove the mineral bearing rock if it’s soft or if it’s hard explosives may be used to loosen it and
then huge power shovels are employed to dig up the mineral deposits.

b)Hill-slope Boring

-Using boring instruments known as augers to drill out mineral deposit and bring it to the surface.

2)underground Mining

-Method employed when the mineral lies very deep below the surface and the overburden is too
thick to be removed by mechanical means.

Types

a)Shaft Method

-Method employed when the mineral bearing rock doesn’t out crop.

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How it’s carried Out
-Vertical shafts are sunk into the earth’s crust to reach the layer with the mineral.
-Horizontal tunnels are dug from the vertical shaft to reach the mineral.
- Props are erected to support the roof to prevent it from collapsing.
-The mineral bearing rock is blasted loose by explosives.
- The deposit is transported on light rail or conveyor belt to the bottom of the shaft.
- It is then brought to the surface in a crane or a lift called cage.
Advantages of shaft mining

-less pollution
-less land used
-deep seams are mined
-little deforestation
-limited disturbance of ground infrastructure

Disadvantages of shaft mining

-expensive to establish
-it can collapse
-flooding
-gas explosions
-accidents
-rock falls
-poor ventilation
-noise and air pollution
-earth tremors

b) Drift/Adit Mining

-Method employed when the mineral deposit can be reached from the valley sides. Horizontal
tunnels (adits) are constructed from the side of the hill. Railway line is constructed into the mine to
bring out the mineral.

C) Drilling

-Method employed in exploitation of petroleum. Wells (oil derricks) are drilled. Oil and natural gas
are brought to the surface under their own pressure or by pumping.

Importance of Minerals/Mining
-brings in foreign currency.
-creates employment
-improve people’s standards of living
-promotes the development of industries
-promotes the development of infrastructure
-promotes the development of towns
-mining is a source of market for other industries
-increase government revenue through taxes
-promote skills development
-provision of social services
-brings income
-improves technology
-source of raw materials for other industries

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Disadvantages of mining
-Exploitation of workers.
-Environmental degradation
-Exhaustion of mineral leading to ghost towns
-creation of multiracial societies
-Repatriation of profits by transnational companies.
-Antisocial behavior: in mining compound such as commercial sex (prostitution) and drug abuse.

Impacts of mining on the Environment

-open pits left on land are breeding places for mosquitos

-heaps of rock waste litter dumped on land causes land pollution.
-pollutes the environment
-loss of biodiversity due to destruction vegetation
-soil erosion
-land scarification
Measures To Reduce The Impact Of Mining On The Environment
-recycling
-legislation
-education
-afforestation
-Reclamation or reprocessing of mine dumps.
-Filling in of smaller open cast pits.
-Replanting of trees.
-Opening up of mining activities in old mining schemes.
-Transformation of mining compound into useful projects e.g. Kamative vocational training centre
which is located on the premises of old Kamative tin mine.

Small Scale Mining -involves the extraction of minerals on a small scale.

Characteristics of small scale mining

-Less damage to the environment

-operate on a small piece of land
-Less machinery is needed to carry out operation.
-Labour costs are minimized.
-Profits benefit communities directly.

Challenges faced by small scale miners

-lack of capital to import necessary equipment.

-lack of machinery
-difficulty in marketing the minerals.
-lack of skills to effectively exploit the minerals.
-unfair competition from big mining companies.

Contribution or benefits of small scale mining

-brings income
-forex earnings
-creates employment
-improve people’s standards of living

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-reduction in criminal activities
-provide raw materials to other countries
-are a market to informal traders
-add to the country’s gold reserves

Gold panning refers to the extraction of gold from alluviums and river valleys.

Benefits of gold panning

-Income and wealth generation.
-Foreign currency earnings.
- Employment creation.
-Creates a market for informal traders.

Effects of gold mining activities

- Pollution
- Soil degradation and siltation.
- Land degradation – open pits and trenches are dangerous to people.
- Accelerates deforestation - disappearance of valuable plant species.
- Damage to buildings.
- Reduction in tourism potential
- Loss of life due to collapse of tunnels.
- Social pathology.
Measures to control problems of gold panning
- Licencing of panners.
- Enforcing environmental laws.
- Education and training of panners on environmental friendly methods of mining.

Disadvantages
- Neglecting development of other economic activities like agriculture.
- Pollution of the environment.
- Landslides occur on mine dumps.

Environmental conservation and environmental management

Anyone involved in mining in Zimbabwe should be familiar with the provisions of these pieces of
legislation as they detail the obligations of holders of mining locations.

-Mines and Minerals Act Chapter 21:05

-Explosives Regulations
-Mining (General) Regulations
-Mining (Managements and Safety) Regulations
-Mining (Health and Sanitation) Regulations
-Mines and Minerals (Custom Milling Plants) Regulations
-Gold Trade Act
-Precious Stones Trade Act
-Environmental Management Act
-Environmental Regulations
-Forestry Act
-Water Act
-Zimbabwe National Water Authority Act

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There are other pieces of legislation that impinge on the operation of commercial ventures such as
the Companies Act, the Sales Tax Act, Exchange Control Act and others that mining companies as
commercial activities need to comply with. (Hard copies of all pieces of legislation may be purchased
from the Printflow).

PROSPECTING, EXPLORATION AND MINING TITLES

The Mines and Minerals Act Chapter 21:05 is the law for the mining industry in Zimbabwe. There are
other Acts and Regulations that draw their existence from this Mines and Minerals Act. The Act has
been acknowledged as a good piece of legislation by both local and international investors. Given
recent developments in the SADC region there is a growing need to refine the Act so that it
continues to provide a competitive operating framework for investors. The government is in the
process of amending the Mines and Minerals Act to provide stronger environmental provision in
line with the Environmental Management Act that came into force in 2007. The amendments are
also intended to:

-Simplify the Mines and Minerals Act

-Provide for a computerised cadastre unit to manage mining titles

Mineral resources are vested in the President of the Republic of Zimbabwe. This provision conforms
to the international norm where resources are held by the state on behalf of the people of the
country. One acquires the right to search for and work the resources by obtaining licences. These
licences are applied for through the Mining Commissioner from the mining district in which the
resource is located.

PROVISIONS IN CURRENT MINES AND MINERALS ACT

Rights to minerals

The dominion in the right of searching and mining for and disposing of all minerals, mineral oils and
natural gases is vested in the President. Any person of 18 years of age or older who is a permanent
resident of Zimbabwe or his agent may acquire one or more prospecting licences on payment of the
appropriate fee. The licence to acquired is valid for 24 months. Any person may make written
application to the Mining Affairs Board for authority to prospect on reserved ground

Beneficiation and value addition

Value addition is the processing of raw materials into finished products in bid to improve its value
that is diamonds into modelling rings.

Beneficiation is any process that improves (benefits) the economic value of the ore by removing the
gangue minerals which result in a high grade product and a waste stream that is froth flotation and
gravity separation.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) refers to the tool or process of the predicting
environmental impacts likely to rise from any project significantly before it is carried out.

Stages of EIA

-Scoping and screening

-Identification of impacts

-Mitigation measures

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-Environmental monitoring plan

-Preparation of EIA document

-Decision-making

-Monitoring of project implementation and impacts

Importance of EIA

-Modify and improve the project design

-Ensure efficient resource use to achieve sustainable development

-Enhance social equity

- Identify the measures for monitoring and managing environmental impacts

-Provide project sustainability

Sustainable utilisation of minerals-refers to the wise use of mineral resources by the present
generation so that they are available for the future generation

Problems in faced in the mining sector in Zimbabwe

-Non-compliance of developers to their Environmental Management Plans.

-Poor Rehabilitation.
-Inappropriate pollution abatement materials such as lining.
-Failure to use certain environmentally friendly technologies at the expense of environment.
-Poor plans for the decommissioning stage.
-Failing to implement conditions of the EIA certificate.
-implementation of projects by Project developers without EIA certificates and violations of the EIA
regulations.
-Abandonment of mining claims as the pits and shafts will be filled with water.
-No environmental consideration in project planning & design, implementation and
decommissioning
-Environmental pollution and degradation.
-Deforestation
-Spillages and discharges of Hazardous substances into the environment
-Infrastructural destruction
-Veld fires

Measures for sustainable utilisation of minerals

-legislation
-indigenise
-substitution
-use of permits
-licensing
-recycling dumbs
-education
-recycling of metals
-beneficiation
-use of alloys

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-quota system
-Environmental Impact Assessment
-Use of new technology

Benefits of indigenise the mining sector

-empowerment of youth and women

-reduced poverty
-reduced criminal activities
-increased skills in mining
-creates employment
-improves people’s standards of living
-brings income to the native people

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