OUR LADY OF LOURDES SCHOOL

RESEARCH ACTIVITY
in
STRUCTURE IN ENGLISH

Submitted by:

Jose A. Gonzales, Jr.

Submitted on: November 21, 2020

Submitted to:

1 |Structure in English
1.The English Language –

 The term "English" is derived from Anglisc, the speech of the Angles—one of the three
Germanic tribes that invaded England during the fifth century. The English language is
the primary language of several countries, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand,
the United Kingdom and many of its former colonies, and the United States, and the
second language in a number of multilingual countries, including India, Singapore, and
the Philippines.
 English is the first choice of foreign language in most other countries of the world, and it
is that status that has given it the position of a global lingua franca. It is estimated that
about a third of the world’s population, some two billion persons, now use English.
 It is the world's most widely-used language in international business and
telecommunications, newspaper and book publishing, scientific publishing, mass
entertainment and diplomacy.

English uses a writing system based on the classical Latin or Roman alphabet—the
English alphabet with twenty-six letters that have:

o small or lowercase forms

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
o and capital or uppercase forms
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
 English is a language—originally the language of the people of England

Level of Usage

Understanding English Levels with CEFR

The Common European Framework of References for Languages (CEFR) is an international
standard for language ability and comprehension. This standard includes 6 distinct English
levels: A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, and C2. Some institutions also recognize the pre-A1 level, though it
is not as common. What do these designations actually mean about your English abilities?
All CEFR language levels were originally created by the Council of Europe in order to
standardize language ability. These standards are used to determine language ability for
speakers all over the world. Let’s take a closer look at each English level to see what they
mean:
A1 – Beginner (Basic)
The A1 level refers to speakers who have a basic grasp of the English language. If you are at
the A1 level, you can understand some common phrases and words in English. You can ask
and answer simple questions (i.e. How old are you? Where do you live? What’s your favorite
color?).

2 |Structure in English
 Your interactions will be relatively basic, and you may need other people to speak slowly with
you in order to understand.
This level is common among those who have only been studying English for a short time (less
than 6 months) or those who have not studied English for many years and do not practice
regularly.

A2 – Beginner (Basic)
At the A2 level, you can speak in full sentences and phrases on simple topics. Your vocabulary
covers a broader array of subjects than it did at the A1 level, but your interactions are still limited
to direct exchanges of information.
You can likely have a full conversation about yourself and various parts of your life. While your
listening comprehension has improved, you might still need others to speak slowly or repeat
themselves from time to time.
This level is common among adults in their first year of study or those who have not studied
English for many years.
B1 – Intermediate (Independent)
Once you reach B1 level English, your English abilities are at the “intermediate” level. This
means that you can speak and understand English for matters related to your daily routine. You
can also be much more descriptive about your life and experiences. Finally, you can talk (using
relatively simple terms) about more abstract or subjective topics, like aspirations, dreams, or
opinions.
This level is common among adults who have been continuously studying English for more than
one year or those who have the opportunity to practice English on a semi-regular basis.
B2 – Intermediate (Independent)
The B2 level is often referred to as the “upper intermediate level.” As a B2 English speaker, you
can take part in conversations on a variety of concrete and abstract topics. You may not know a
lot of technical vocabulary, but you can still convey complex thoughts, explanations,
experiences, or concepts with moderate accuracy.
This English proficiency level is common among adults who have been studying English for
several years and practice regularly.
C1 – Advanced (Proficient)
Once you have reached the C2 level, you are considered an advanced student of the English
language.
You now have a firmer grasp of more complex grammar structures, implicit meaning in both text
and speech, as well as the ability to speak English fluently in almost any environment. Though
you will naturally make some errors from time to time, they are likely small and infrequent.
In order to reach the C1 level, you will likely need to study English formally for several years and
practice speaking or reading English on a regular basis. This level of English proficiency is
3 |Structure in English
 common among those who have lived in an English-speaking country for an extended period of
time.
C2 – Advanced (Proficient)
C2 is the highest assessment of all 6 CEFR levels.
At this level, you can understand the vast majority of English, spoken or written, that you
encounter. Though you may make rare errors, your proficiency is near or equal to that of a
native English speaker. You can understand the finer nuances of tone, pacing, and word choice,
even in complex texts or situations.
C2 level speakers have likely been studying English for many years, practicing the language
regularly or even on a daily basis with native speakers.
Self Evaluation

Learning how to study , read, listen and understand

Here is a practical example: reading is the first element to work on so you can advance your
English skills. It’s best to start with a book that has an audiobook accompaniment. This means
you can read the book and listen to the audiobook. The real advantage to your learning will be
when you write a summary report about the book and speak about your report aloud and
discuss it with a native English speaker.
This strategy would be perfectly implemented in a book club setting, but assuming that you do
not have access to one, don’t worry: there are many other ways that you can implement these
four elements into your practice.
Read English news, books, websites, literature, and wherever you find written content.
Listening can also come in the form of news and you can watch movies and English
entertainment to help you learn more about the language and advance your listening skills.
4 |Structure in English
 Writing is challenging, it’s ideal to have someone give you feedback and correct you. If you do
not have someone fluent enough in English to do so, there are online forums you can join
devoted to helping language learners advance their skills. You can also find websites where you
can pair up and be a language learning buddy, my suggestion is that you go
to www.italki.com where you will help someone learn your native language and they help you
learn theirs.
Websites like this are also a good source for speaking English aloud with a native speaker, with
many users being able to pair up for Skype calls. However, if this is not an option. You can start
by speaking English aloud on your own. Try it! Record yourself, listen to it later, compare your
pronunciation and structure to that of a native English speaker. It’s embarrassing at first but
you’ll get over it.
Another way is to repeat native English speakers’ pronunciation and techniques. Children learn
by imitating. You should too. Go to www.youtube.com and watch short 1-2 minute English
videos. You will often find the transcripts on the page so can read along and copy the
pronunciation.
These are just some of the methods through which you can make sure to implement all four
elements of the language into your practice. The important thing is that you realize that there is
absolutely no excuse to not be practising all four elements. Also, although you may be wanting
to improve your ability to speak English, realise that you will achieve this faster if you integrate
other inputs and outputs. If you choose not to focus on one, you’re only slowing down your
progress.
1. What is a dictionary?
 a book or electronic resource that lists the words of a language (typically in alphabetical order)
and gives their meaning, or gives the equivalent words in a different language, often also
providing information about pronunciation, origin, and usage.
 a reference work on a particular subject, the items of which are typically arranged in
alphabetical order.
 a set of words or other text strings made for use in applications such as spelling checkers.
What is encyclopedia?
 A comprehensive reference work containing articles on a wide range of subjects or on numerous
aspects of a particular field, usually arranged alphabetically.
 The circle of arts and sciences; a comprehensive summary of knowledge, or of a branch of
knowledge.
What is a reference book?
 a book intended to be consulted for information on specific matters rather than read from
beginning to end.
2. What are the difference between the three?

• Encyclopedia is more concerned with general knowledge. On the other hand, a dictionary focuses
upon the grammatical structure of language and a reference book is purely a source of information
where you find certain information resources.

• Dictionaries do not come in many volumes. Their words belonging to all subject areas are listed in
alphabetical order and come in one comprehensive volume. Encyclopedias come in many
volumes, sometimes each volume is dedicated to a certain subject matter.

• An entry in an Encyclopedia is long and descriptive. An entry in the dictionary is usually very
short. An Encyclopedia is a general, broad and informative book. It is not classified as dictionaries.
Dictionaries can be classified as general purpose and specialized purpose.
5 |Structure in English
 3. How do we take notes from a library report?

 Use index cards to keep notes and track sources used in your paper.
 Create Work Cited cards for each source.
o Include the citation (i.e., author, title, publisher, date, page numbers, etc.) in MLA format. It will be easier to
organize the sources alphabetically when creating the Work Cited page.
o Number the source cards.
 On each note card:
o Use only one side to record a single idea, fact or quote from one source. It will be easier to rearrange them
later when it comes time to organize your paper.
o Include a heading or key words at the top of the card.
o Include the Work Cited source card number.
o Include the page number where you found the information.
 Taking notes:
o Use abbreviations, acronyms, or incomplete sentences to record information to speed up the notetaking
process.
o Write down only the information that answers your research questions.
o Use symbols, diagrams, charts or drawings to simplify and visualize ideas.

Use one of these notetaking forms to capture information:

 Summarize: Capture the main ideas of the source succinctly by restating them in your own words.
 Paraphrase: Restate the author's ideas in your own words.
 Quote: Copy the quotation exactly as it appears in the original source. Put quotation marks around the text and note
the name of the person you are quoting.

6 |Structure in English
 4. What are the basic sentence patterns? Give example for each.

7 |Structure in English
 5. What are the different forms/kinds of sentences? Give at least example for each.

 Declarative sentences (also called assertive sentences) give information. They may state a
fact or an opinion. Declarative sentences end with periods.

Examples: I like riding my bicycle around the park.

My essay is better than yours.
I love my family.
It is a nice day.
Lindsay plays the trumpet and trombone.

 Interrogative sentences ask a question. Interrogative sentences end with question marks.
In English, interrogative questions often begin with interrogative words
like who, when, where, why, what, and how.
Examples: Why are you late?
What time is it?
Where is the library?
How did you do that?
When do we go to San Pablo?

 Imperative sentences give a command, a request, advice, a suggestion, a warning, or a wish.

They can be followed by a period, a question mark, or an exclamation mark.
Examples: Be quiet. (a command)
Please have a seat. (a request)
Watch out! (a command)
Enjoy yourselves. (a wish)
Pick up your toys. (a command)

 Exclamatory sentences exclaim, or show great emotion. Exclamatory sentences end with
exclamation marks. Use exclamation marks only when necessary. It's easy to overuse them.
Examples: Wow!
That magic trick was amazing!
What wonderful weather we are having today!
How lovely to see you!
I love you!

6. What are the different forms/structure of sentences? Give at least 5 example for each.

 A simple sentence has only the most elemental building blocks of a sentence: a subject and a
verb used in a complete thought, also called an independent clause. Simple sentences are
usually short.
Examples:

Joe waited for the train.

8 |Structure in English
 "Joe" = subject, "waited" = verb

The train was late.

"The train" = subject, "was" = verb

Mary and Samantha took the bus.

"Mary and Samantha" = compound subject, "took" = verb

I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station.

"I" = subject, "looked" = verb

Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station early but waited until noon for the bus.
"Mary and Samantha" = compound subject, "arrived" and "waited" = compound verb

 A Compound sentences refers to a sentence made up of two independent clauses (or

complete sentences) connected to one another with a coordinating conjunction.
Coordinating conjunctions are easy to remember if you think of the words "FAN
BOYS" (For,And,Nor,But,Or,Yet,So)

Examples: Joe waited for the train, but the train was late.

I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station, but they arrived at the station
before noon and left on the bus before I arrived.

Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, and they left on the
bus before I arrived.

Mary and Samantha left on the bus before I arrived, so I did not see them at the
bus station.

 A Complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and one or more dependent

clauses connected to it. A dependent clause is similar to an independent clause, or complete
sentence, but it lacks one of the elements that would make it a complete sentence..

o Dependent clauses such as those above cannot stand alone as a sentence, but they
can be added to an independent clause to form a complex sentence.

o Dependent clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions. Below are some of the
most common subordinating conjunctions : after,although,as,because,before,even
though,if,since,though,unless,until,when,whenever,whereas,wherever,while.

Examples:
Because she woke up late when her alarm malfunctioned, Kristina missed her morning
train.

As Kristina watched the train pull out of the station, she realized she would be late for
work yet again.

9 |Structure in English
 I did not see them at the station because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station
before noon.

Joe realized that the train was late while he waited at the train station.

Mary and Samantha realized that Joe was waiting at the train station after they left on
the bus.

 A Compound-complex sentence consists of at least two independent clauses and one or

more dependent clauses.

Examples:
John didn't come, because he was ill, so Mary was not happy.
He left in a hurry after he got a phone call, but he came back five minutes later.

7. Negative form of simple sentence, the simple sentence, the compound sentence,
punctuating sentences, using the interrogative expression in giving logical answer to
questions. Give example for each.

A negative sentence is a sentence that states that something is false. In English, we create negative
sentences by adding the word 'not' after the auxiliary, or helping, verb. An example of an auxiliary verb is the
helping verb 'be.' There are different forms that 'be' takes, including 'am,' 'is,' 'are,' 'was,' and 'were.'

Examples: David is not a happy person.

The clouds were not blocking the sun's rays.
Mark does not take his dog outside for a walk.
It is not going to be a rainy day tomorrow.
Nicole and Erin are not going to the beach today.

Simple sentence Examples :

I like coffee.
Mary likes tea.
The earth goes round the sun.
Mary did not go to the party.
She drinks iced tea.

Compound Sentence Examples:

Mary ran fast, but she couldn't catch John.
He felt cold, for it was snowing.
I have known him for a long time, yet I have never understood him.
He was feeling sick, so he went to the doctor.
Should they take the test now, or should they wait until next month?

Punctuation is the system of signs or symbols given to a reader to show how a sentence is
constructed and how it should be read.
The Basic Signs of Punctuation

 the comma ,
 the full stop .
 the exclamation mark !

10 |Structure in English
  the question mark ?
 the semi-colon ;
 the colon :
 the apostrophe '
 quotation marks “ ”
 the hyphen -
 brackets ( ) or [ ]
 the slash /

The Comma (,)

The comma is useful in a sentence when the writer wishes to:
pause before proceeding, add a phrase that does not contain any new subject
separate items on a list, use more than one adjective (a describing word, like beautiful)
Examples:
The boy, who knew that his mother was about to arrive, ran quickly towards the opening
door.
Note that if the phrase or clause were to be removed, the sentence would still make
sense although there would be a loss of information. Alternatively, two sentences could
be used:
The boy ran quickly towards the opening door. He knew that his mother was about to
arrive.

Full Stop (.)

A full stop should always be used to end a sentence. The full stop indicates that a point has
been made and that you are about to move on to further explanations or a related point.
Less frequently, a series of three full stops (an ellipsis) can be used to indicate where a section
of a quotation has been omitted when it is not relevant to the text, for example:
“The boy was happy… at the start of his summer holiday.”
A single full stop may also be used to indicate the abbreviation of commonly used words as in
the following examples:
Telephone Number = Tel. No.
September = Sept.
Pages = pp.

Exclamation Mark (!)

An exclamation mark indicates strong feeling within a sentence, such as fear, anger or love. It is
also used to accentuate feeling within the written spoken word.
For example:
“Help! I love you!”
In this way, it can also be used to indicate a sharp instruction
“Stop! Police!”
or to indicate humour
“Ha! Ha! Ha!”

Question Mark (?)

The question mark simply indicates that a sentence is asking a question. It always comes at the
end of a sentence:

11 |Structure in English
 For example:
Are we at the end?
Note that the question mark also serves as a full stop.

Semi-colon (;)
The semi-colon is perhaps the most difficult sign of punctuation to use accurately. If in doubt,
avoid using it and convert the added material into a new sentence.
As a general rule, the semi-colon is used in the following ways: When joining two connected
sentences.
Example:
We set out at dawn; the weather looked promising.
or
Assertive behaviour concerns being able to express feelings, wants and desires appropriately;
passive behaviour means complying with the wishes of others.
The semi-colon can also be used to assemble detailed lists.
Example:
The conference was attended by delegates from Paris, France; Paris, Texas; London,
UK; Stockholm, Sweden; Colombo, Sri Lanka; and Mumbai, India.

Colon (:)
The colon within a sentence makes a very pointed pause between two phrases. There are two
main uses of the colon: It is most commonly used when listing.

For example:
She placed the following items into the trolley: beer, fruit, vegetables, toilet rolls, cereals
and cartons of milk.
Or it can be used within a heading, or descriptive title.
For example:
Human Resource Management: Guidelines for Telephone Advisers

Apostrophe (’)
The apostrophe, sometimes called an inverted comma has two main uses.

The apostrophe indicates possession or ownership.

For example:
The girl's hat was green, (girl is in the singular).
This shows the reader that the hat belongs to the girl.
The girls' hats were green, (girls in this instance are plural, i.e. more than one girl, more
than one hat).
This indicates that the hats belong to the girls.

Another use of the apostrophe is to indicate where a letter is omitted:

For example:
We're going to do this course. (We are going to do this course.)
Isn’t this a fine example of punctuation? (Is not this a fine example of punctuation?)
The time is now 7 o’ clock. (The time is now 7 of the clock)
Note that a common mistake is to confuse its with it’s.
12 |Structure in English
 It’s indicates to the reader that a letter has been omitted.
For example:
It’s a lovely day is an abbreviated way of saying: It is a lovely day.
Note that in most formal writing, the practice of using abbreviated words is inappropriate.
Quotation or Speech Marks (“….”)
Quotation or speech marks are used to: To mark out speech, When quoting someone else's
speech
For example:
My grandpa said, "Share your chocolates with your friends."
"George, don't do that!"
"Will you get your books out please?” said Mrs Jones, the teacher, “and quieten down!"

It is worth noting that to report an event back does not require speech or quotation marks.
For example:
Mrs Jones told the pupils to take out their books and to quieten down.

Hyphen (-)
The hyphen is used to link words together.
For example:
sub-part
eighteenth-century people
week-end
second-class post
gender-neutral
non-verbal
The hyphen is also used when a word is split between two lines. The hyphen should be placed
between syllables at the end of the upper line and indicates to the reader that the word will be
completed on the next line.
Computer applications such as Word Processors can be set to automatically hyphenate words
for you, although it is more common to use extra spacing to avoid hyphenation.

Brackets ( )
Brackets always come in pairs ( ) and are used to make an aside, or a point which is not part of
the main flow of a sentence. If you remove the words between the brackets, the sentence
should still make sense.
For example:
“The strategy (or strategies) chosen to meet the objectives may need to change as the
intervention continues.”
Another example is as follows:
“We can define class as a large-scale grouping of people who share common economic
resources, that strongly influence the types of lifestyle they are able to lead. Ownership
of wealth, together with occupation, are the chief basis of class differences. The major
classes that exist in Western societies are an upper class (the wealthy, employers and
industrialists, plus tops executives – those who own or directly control productive
resources); a middle class (which includes most white-collar workers and professionals);
and a working class (those in blue-collar or manual jobs).” (Giddens, 1997, p.243)

Square Brackets […]

A different set of square brackets [ ] can be used:
to abbreviate lengthy quotations
to correct the tense of a quotation to suit the tense of your own sentence
to add your own words to sections of an abbreviated quotation.
To abbreviate lengthy quotations in an essay or report

13 |Structure in English
 Examples: “We can define class as a large-scale grouping of people who share common
economic resources, that strongly influence the types of lifestyle they are able to
lead. Ownership of wealth, together with occupation, are the chief basis of class
differences. The major classes that exist in Western societies are an upper class
[…]; a middle class […] and a working class […].”
(Giddens, 1997, p.243)
To adjust a quotation to suit your own sentence
For example, if you were writing about class structure, you might use the following:

According to Giddens, (1997, p.243) the “[o]wnership of wealth, together with

occupation, are the chief basis of class differences”.
Note, that when using square brackets, only the occasional letter as in the above
example or the occasional word (for example when changing the tense of the sentence)
would be placed in square brackets in this way.

Slash (/)
Many people use the slash instead of or, and etc., but this is not always helpful to the
reader. There is, however, a modern convention in gender-neutral writing to use ‘s/he’.

Capital Letters
The correct use of capital letters is also important in writing.

Using the interrogative expression in giving logical answer to questions

To mean what directly in front of any noun

What book do you read?
What food do they eat?

When asking for a definition or an explanation

“What does it mean?” or “What is it?”

When you're asking for a choice or specific answer.

What is your address?
A: My address is the house number, the street name, city, state, and zip code where I
live.
B: My address is 555 Kingston Lane, Carrollton, Ohio 44615.

Often used as a response when someone fails to hear a comment and would like it
repeated.
What?

8. What are the different parts of speech? Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs and adverbs
etc..

The Noun (n.)

A noun is a word which gives a name to something, in some cases you might hear them referred to as
a ‘naming word.’ There are various different subcategories of nouns such as the proper noun, the
collective noun, the possessive noun and the common noun. Each one of these serves a different
purpose, let’s look at this a little more closely.
Noun Examples:

14 |Structure in English
 Jeffrey, Korea, pen, New Year, dog, cat, elephant, garden, school, work, music, town, Manila, teacher,
farmer, Bob, Sean, Michael, police officer, France, coffee, football, danger, happiness…
Noun example sentences:

 The teacher told the children to stop chattering in class.

 John is good at French but weak at History.
The Proper Noun
The proper noun is used to name a specific item, for example the names of places or people or
perhaps a movie or song title.
 The capital of England is London.
 Sarah is beautiful.
The Collective Noun
A collective noun is used to refer to a group of nouns, for example people or animal groups.
 The swarm of bees were headed straight towards our picnic.
 At church on Sunday, the choir sings loudly.
The Possessive Noun
A possessive noun is used to show ownership of something, this is done by adding an apostrophe and
an s, like in the following examples.
 This is my dog’s ball.
 That is Sarah’s friend.
The Common Noun
A common noun is the most simple form of a noun and gives a name to an item.

 Here is a cup.
 Do you want a cake?
The Article (art.)
An article is a word used before a noun to modify the noun. “The” is called the definite article and “a“,
“an” are called the indefinite article.
Examples:
An umbrella, the boy, the school, a mouse, an apple, an hour.
Article example sentences:

 I would like an apple.

 He was sitting in a chair.
 The whale is in danger of becoming extinct.
The Verb (vb.)
A verb is one of the most important parts of speech and is a word which is used to describe an action.
There are three main types of verbs which are detailed below.
Examples:

Walk, is, seem, realize, run, see, swim, stand, go, have, get, promise, invite, listen, sing, sit, laughed,
walk…
Verb example sentences:
 Don’t try to run before you can walk.
 Did you kiss anybody?
 Leave me alone!
The Action Verb

An action verb does exactly what you might expect, it describes an action.

 The man walked down the street.

15 |Structure in English
  I laughed at his joke.
The Linking Verb

A linking verb is used to show a state of being rather than a physical action.
 Sarah feels cold.
 I am very tired.
The Modal Verb

A modal verb is used to ‘help’ the main verb and can show the speakers thoughts or attitude about
what they are saying. For example, words such as might, must, could and can are all modal verbs.

I might walk to the park this afternoon.
 He can eat the last slice of cake.
The Pronoun (pron.)
A pronoun is one which replaces a noun, and once again there are various different types of pronouns
within the English language. Each one is used in a different way, let’s take a look at some examples of
this.
Examples:

I, me, we, you, he, she, yours, himself, its, my, that, this, those, us, who, whom
Pronoun example sentences:

 Richard isn’t at work this week; he‘s gone on holiday.

 Don’t tell her the truth.
 She tried it herself.
 You can’t blame him for everything.
 The woman who called yesterday wants to buy the house.
The Reflexive Pronoun

A reflexive pronoun is used to refer to self, for example myself or yourself.

 I am going to keep this last cupcake for myself.
 Peter always puts himself first.
The Indefinite Pronoun
This type of pronoun is used to refer to a non specific person or item, you might see words such as
anything, few, everyone or all.

 Can you take all of these?

 I need to speak to someone about this rash on my arm.
The Possessive Pronoun

A possessive pronoun is used to show possession or ownership of something, for example my, his,
their or yours.
 Is this your bag?
 I have been looking after his daughter.
The Relative Pronoun

A relative pronoun is used to introduce an adjective clause. You might recognise these as words such
as who, which, that or whose.
 This is the woman who will be working with you.
 Is this the book that everyone is raving about?
The Adjective (adj.)
An adjective is a word which describes a noun or pronoun, there are thousands of adjectives within the
English language.
Examples:

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 Beautiful, seven, cute, second, tall, blue, angry, brave, careful, healthy, little, old, generous, red, smart,
two, small, tall, some, good, big, useful, interesting…
Brown dog, red car, tall boy, fat cat, big garden.
Adjective example sentences:
 This is a blue car.
 The small squirrel ran up the tree.
 During the thunderstorm, we saw some heavy rain.
 My mother has short hair.
 The documentary on TV last night was very interesting.
 My son has an impressive collection of toy soldiers.
 The weather is hot and sunny today.
 My vacation was exciting.
 The leaves on that tree are green and large.
The Adverb (adv.)
An adverb is used to modify, or further explain an adjective, verb or another adverb. They can add
more information to a sentence making it more clear and easier for the listener to imagine what is being
described in detail. Most of the time, adverbs will end in the letters -ly but there are some exceptions to
this rule such as the words very and never.
Examples:

Neatly, in the market, every day, tomorrow, very, badly, fully, carefully, hardly, nearly, hungrily, never,
quickly, silently, well, really, almost…
Adverb example sentences:

 This is an extremely attractive photograph.

 I have a very large pet dog.
 My car drives quickly.
 When I am running late for work, I eat my breakfast rapidly.
 The boy is crying loudly.
 She carefully preserved all his letters.
The Conjunction (conj.)
A conjunction is used as a way of joining two or more ideas or words together. Most commonly you will
see the words for, and, not, but, or, yet and so used as a conjunction.
Examples:

And, however, still, but, or, so, after, since, before, either, neither, because, unless…
Conjunction example sentences:

 My boyfriend and I are going on a date.

 I will go to the shop but not before I have had something to eat.
 This is a gift for my friend.
 I was tired yet I still went to the gym.
The Preposition (prep.)
A preposition is used in English to show a relationship between two words or phrases. You might
recognise a preposition as being words such as in, before, on, at, to, between etc.
Examples:

In, on, at, about, apropos, according to, after, along, above, except, from, near, of, before, since,
between, upon, with, to, after, toward…
Preposition example sentences:
 The cat is sitting on the wall.
 I am going to the salon after my dinner.
 The boy ran along the street for an hour.

17 |Structure in English
  You will find the theatre in the town centre.
 I saw that news in the newspapers.
The Interjection (interj.)
An interjection could also be thought of as a exclamation. They are used to emotion, reaction or
excitement and have no grammatical link to anything else within the sentence they appear.
Examples:

Ahem!, aha!, gosh!, aw!, great!, hey!, hi!, hooray!, oh!, yeah!, oops!, phew!, eh!, oh!, ouch!, hi!, well!…
Interjection example sentences:

 Phew! That was a close call.

 Wow! Did you see how big that bird was?
 Oh, I forgot to tell you that I saw your father last week.
 Hooray! You passed your exam!
 Well, what did he say?
 Yeah! She’s going with us tonight!

Parts of Speech in English | Pictures

In the English language, there are eight different parts of speech and each one serves its own purpose.
Without them, we would not be able to form coherent sentence and so it is important that we are
familiar with what each of them are. In these images, we are going to look at each of the different parts
of speech, what they are used for and some examples of how they work within a sentence.

18 |Structure in English
19 |Structure in English
 9. How do we form the plural nouns, gender nouns, and special nouns? Give examples as
many as you can.
Formation of plural nouns
The plural noun is generally formed by adding -s to the singular.

Cow (singular), cows (plural)

Boy, boys
Girl, girls
Book, books
Tree, trees
Dog, dogs
Pen, pens

Nouns ending in -s, -sh, -ch or -x form the plural by adding -es to the singular.

Class (singular), classes (plural)

Brush, brushes
Kiss, kisses
Match, matches
Dish, dishes

Most nouns ending in -o also form their plural by adding -es to the singular.

Mango (singular), mangoes (plural)

Hero, heroes
Potato, potatoes
Volcano, volcanoes

Note that a few nouns ending in -o merely add -s.

Dynamo (singular), dynamos (plural)

Piano, pianos
Photo, photos
Logo, logos
Kilo, kilos

Nouns ending in a consonant + y form their plural by changing -y into -i and adding -es.

Baby (singular), babies (plural)

Lady, ladies
City, cities
Story, stories

The following nouns ending in -f or -fe form their plural by changing -f or -fe into v and adding -
es.

20 |Structure in English
 Thief (singular), thieves (plural)
Wife, wives
Leaf, leaves
Half, halves
Self, selves
Calf, calves
Loaf, loaves
Knife, knives
Elf, elves
Wolf, wolves
Shelf, shelves

Most other nouns ending in -f or -fe add -s.

Chief (singular), chiefs

Gulf, gulfs
Safe, safes
Proof, proofs

A few nouns form their plural by making some changes to inside vowels.

Foot (singular), feet (plural)

Man, men
Woman, women
Tooth, teeth
Mouse, mice
Goose, geese

10. What are the common errors in the use of nouns and pronouns?

1. Run-on Sentence or Comma Splice

A run-on sentence is a sentence that joins two independent clauses without punctuation or the
appropriate conjunction. A comma splice is similar to a run-on sentence, but it uses a comma to join
two clauses that have no appropriate conjunction. Fixing a run-on sentence or a comma splice can be
accomplished in one of five different ways.

Incorrect sentence: “Rachel is very smart, she began reading when she was three years old.”

 Solution 1: Separate the clauses into two sentences. “Rachel is very smart. She began reading
when she was three years old.”
 Solution 2: Replace the comma with a semicolon. “Rachel is very smart; she began reading
when she was three years old.”
 Solution 3: Replace the comma with a coordinating conjunction. “Rachel is very smart, for she
began reading when she was three years old.”
 Solution 4: Replace the comma with a subordinating conjunction. “Rachel is very smart because
she began reading when she was three years old.”

21 |Structure in English
  Solution 5: Replace the comma with a semicolon and transitional word or phrase. “Rachel is
very smart; as a result, she began reading when she was three years old.”

2. Pronoun Disagreement

Some of the most common grammar mistakes are pronoun errors. They occur when pronouns do not
agree in number with the nouns to which they refer. If the noun is singular, the pronoun must be
singular. If the noun is plural, the pronoun must be plural as well.

For example:

 Incorrect: “Every girl must bring their own lunch.”

 Correct: “Every girl must bring her own lunch.”

Pronoun errors are common in modern English, as writers try to avoid awkward phrasing or the
implication of sexist language. Although this is an admirable goal, it is still important to learn the correct
grammar and use it in more formal situations.

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3. Mistakes in Apostrophe Usage

Apostrophes are used to show possession. However, you do not use an apostrophe after a possessive
pronoun such as my, mine, our, ours, his, hers, its, their, or theirs.

For example:

 Incorrect: “My mothers cabin is next to his' cabin.”

 Correct: “My mother's cabin is next to his cabin.”

In the case of it's, the apostrophe is used only to indicate a contraction for “it is.”

For example:

 Incorrect: “Its a cold day for October.”

 Correct: “It's a cold day for October.”

4. Lack of Subject-Verb Agreement

Confusion over subject-verb agreement can be the source of many grammatical errors. When speaking
or writing in the present tense, a sentence must have subjects and verbs that agree in number. If the
subject is singular, the verb must be singular. If the subject is plural, the verb must be plural as well.

For example:

 Incorrect: “These recipes is good for beginning chefs.”

 Correct: “These recipes are good for beginning chefs.”

5. Misplaced Modifiers

22 |Structure in English
 To clearly communicate your ideas, you should place a modifier directly next to the word it is supposed
to modify. The modifier should clearly refer to a specific word in the sentence. Misplaced modifiers can
create confusion and ambiguity.

For example:

 Incorrect: “At eight years old, my father gave me a pony for Christmas.”
 Correct: “When I was eight years old, my father gave me a pony for Christmas.”

6. Sentence Fragments

Sentence fragments are also common grammar mistakes. A sentence needs to have a subject and a
verb. A fragment often happens after another related idea has been expressed.

For example:

 Incorrect: “Sharon stayed home from school the other day. Because she was sick.”
 Correct: “Sharon stayed home from school the other day because she was sick.”

7. Missing Comma in a Compound Sentence

A compound sentence expresses two complete and related ideas, and it usually includes
a conjunction to connect these two parts. There should be a comma before the conjunction to indicate
the two ideas are related. If that’s missing, it’s a mistake readers will notice.

For example:

 Incorrect: “Jim went to the store and Ella went with him.”
 Correct: “Jim went to the store, and Ella went with him.”

8. No Clear Antecedent

An antecedent is a word that comes before a pronoun and helps the reader understand what the
pronoun means. Generally, you can clear up this confusion by rearranging the wording.

For example:

 Incorrect: “The dad found the boy, and he was happy.”

 Correct: “The dad was happy when he found the boy.”

9. Ending a Sentence in a Preposition

Another common grammar mistake is ending a sentence with a preposition. A preposition, by its nature,
indicates that another word will follow it. In casual conversation, this type of error is no big deal, but you
should avoid this mistake in your writing.

For example:

 Incorrect: “What reason did he come here for?”

 Correct: “For what reason did he come here?”

10. Mixing Up Spellings

23 |Structure in English
 There are words that sound the same but have different spellings and meanings. If you mix these up, it
can be an embarrassing mistake. These are a few of the most commonly confused words:

 “You’re” vs. “your”

 “To” vs. “two” vs. “too”
 “Weather” vs. “whether”
 “There” vs. “their”

For example:

 Incorrect: “There father went to school there.”

 Correct: “Their father went to school there.”

11. Mixing Up Similar Words

Sometimes, it’s not a matter of mixing up the spelling as much as an error in word choice. There are
many words that sound similar but have different meanings and spellings. These include the following:

 “Affect” and “effect”

 “Except” and “accept”
 “Comprise” vs. “compose”
 “Further” vs. “farther”

For example:

 Incorrect: “The rain had a good affect on the farmer’s field.”

 Correct: “The rain had a good effect on the farmer’s field.”

12. Unnecessary Commas

While commas are important for clarity and give the reader a chance to pause in the sentence, it’s
possible to use commas when you don’t need them. These unnecessary commas can be confusing to
read, and they make writing look less professional. Before you use a comma, think about why you’re
using it. If you aren’t sure it’s needed, double check by reviewing comma rules.

For example:

 Incorrect: “She had a stomach ache, because she ate too much ice cream.”
 Correct: “She had a stomach ache because she ate too much ice cream.”

13. Mixing Up Possessives and Plurals

People often get confused when adding an “s” to the end of a word. When do you need an apostrophe?
In general, you use an apostrophe before an “s” to show possession or as a contraction, like “that’s” for
“that is.” If you’re just trying to say something is plural, you don’t need the apostrophe. Like most rules
in the English language, this has some variation. However, if you keep the general guidelines in mind,
you’ll be correct most of the time.

For example:

 Incorrect: “The dogs dish was full of bone’s.”

 Correct: “The dog’s dish was full of bones.”

24 |Structure in English
 14. Mistakes With Well and Good

One of the most common grammatical errors is mixing up “well” and “good.” In general, “well” is an
adverb, while “good” is an adjective. When you aren’t sure which one to use, simply ask yourself
whether an adjective or an adverb is appropriate for the situation.

For example:

 Incorrect: “I am doing good in math.”

 Correct: “I am doing well in math.”

15. Comparisons That Are Incomplete

When you use a word that has a comparative aspect, you need to compare it to something else. These
common grammatical errors may appear in advertisements or market slogans, but it does not work well
in papers or other writing. If the word requires a comparison, you should always provide it.

For example:

 Incorrect: “My hair is smoother and softer.”

 Correct: “My hair is smoother and softer than it was a month ago.”

16. Mixing Up Adverbs and Adjectives

If you mix up adverbs and adjectives, this can be an embarrassing grammar mistake. This is the kind
of error that can annoy a teacher or make the difference between a great grade on an essay and
getting marked down. This happens most often with words that end in “-ly.”

For example:

 Incorrect: “Susan gave me a real nice bouquet of flowers.”

 Correct: “Susan gave me a really nice bouquet of flowers.”

17. Confusion Between Fewer and Less

Many people mix up “fewer” and “less.” If you’re talking about the amount of something, you need to
decide whether the item is all one thing or a group of many things. If it’s a group of many smaller things,
you should use “fewer.” If it’s one thing, you should use “less.”

For example:

 Incorrect: “The store was almost out of dog food. There were less cans on the shelves than
there were yesterday.”
 Correct: “The store was almost out of dog food. There were fewer cans on the shelves than
there were yesterday.”

18. Title Capitalization Problems

Knowing when to capitalize the words in a title can be very confusing. In general, you should capitalize
the first and last words, all nouns and pronouns, all verbs, and all adjectives and adverbs. However,
there are specific title capitalization rules depending on the style you are using.

25 |Structure in English
 For example:

 Incorrect: “Around the world in 80 days”

 Correct: “Around the World in 80 Days”

11. Verb and Changes : Tenses of Verbs (Regular verbs and irregular verbs -how it change
from present to past to future tense)
A verb is a word or a combination of words that indicates action or a state of being or condition. A verb
is the part of a sentence that tells us what the subject performs. Verbs are the hearts of English
sentences.
Examples:
o Jacob walks in the morning. (A usual action)
o Mike is going to school. (A condition of action)
o Albert does not like to walk. (A negative action)
o Anna is a good girl. (A state of being)
Verbs are related to a lot of other factors like the subject, person, number, tense, mood, voice, etc.

Basic Forms of Verbs

There are six basic forms of verbs. These forms are as follows:
o Base form: Children play in the field.
o Infinitive: Tell them not to play
o Past tense: They played football yesterday.
o Past participle: I have eaten a burger.
o Present participle: I saw them playing with him today.
o Gerund: Swimming is the best exercise.

Different Types of Verbs

Finite verbs are the actual verbs which are called the roots of sentences. It is a form of
a verb that is performed by or refers to a subject and uses one of the twelve forms of tense and
changes according to the number/person of the subject.
Example:
o Alex went to school. (Subject – Alex – performed the action in the past. This
information is evident only by the verb ‘went’.)
o Robert plays hockey.
o He is playing for Australia.
o He is one of the best players. (Here, the verb ‘is’ directly refers to the subject itself.)

Non-finite Verbs are not actual verbs. They do not work as verbs in the sentence rather they
work as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, etc. Non-finite verbs do not change according to the
number/person of the subject because these verbs, also called verbals, do not have any direct
relation to the subject. Sometimes they become the subject themselves.

The forms of non-finite verbs are – infinitive, gerund, and participle (participles become finite
verbs when they take auxiliary verbs.)

Example:
o Alex went abroad to play (Infinitives)
o Playing cricket is his only job. (Present participle)
o I have a broken bat. (Past participle)
o Walking is a good habit. (Gerund)

Action verbs indicate what the subject of a sentence performs. Action verbs can make the
listener/reader feel emotions, see scenes more vividly and accurately.
26 |Structure in English
 Action verbs can be transitive or intransitive.
Transitive verbs must have a direct object. A transitive verb demands something/someone to
be acted upon.
Example:
o I painted the car. (The verb ‘paint’ demands an object to be painted)
o She is reading the newspaper. (The verb ‘read’ asks the question “what is she
reading?” – the answer is the object)
Intransitive verbs do not act upon anything. They may be followed by an adjective, adverb,
preposition, or another part of speech.
Example:
o She smiled. (The verb ‘smile’ cannot have any object since the action of ‘smiling’
does not fall upon anything/anyone)
o I wake up at 6 AM. (No object is needed for this verb)

Note: {Subject + Intransitive verb} is sufficient to make a complete sentence but {Subject +
Transitive verb} is not sufficient because transitive verbs demand a direct object.

A linking verb adds details about the subject of a sentence. In its simplest form, it connects the
subject and the complement — that is, the words that follow the linking verb. It creates a link
between them instead of showing action.

Often, what is on each side of a linking verb is equivalent; the complement redefines or restates
the subject.

Generally, linking verbs are called ‘be’ verbs which are - am, is, are, was, were. However, there
are some other verbs which can work as linking verbs. Those verbs are:
Act, feel, remain, appear, become, seem, smell, sound, grow, look, prove, stay, taste, turn.
Some verbs in this list can also be action verbs. To figure out if they are linking verbs, you
should try replacing them with forms of the be verbs. If the changed sentence makes sense, that
verb is a linking verb.
Example:
o She appears ready for the game. (She is ready for the game.)
o The food seemed delicious. (The food was delicious.)
o You look happy. (You are happy.)

Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs. An auxiliary verb extends the main verb by
helping to show time, tense, and possibility. The auxiliary verbs are – be verbs, have, and do.
They are used in the continuous (progressive) and perfect tenses.
Linking verbs work as main verbs in the sentence, but auxiliary verbs help main verbs.

Do is an auxiliary verb that is used to ask questions, to express negation, to provide emphasis,
and more.
Example:
o Alex is going to school.
o They are walking in the park.
o I have seen a movie.
o Do you drink tea?
o Don’t waste your time.
o Please, do submit your assignments.

A modal verb is a kind of an auxiliary verb. It assists the main verb to indicate possibility,
potentiality, ability, permission, expectation, and obligation.
27 |Structure in English
 The modal verbs are can, could, must, may, might, ought to, shall, should, will, would.
Example:
o I may want to talk to you again.
o They must play their best game to win.
o She should call him.
o I will go there.

Verb Tenses
Verbs come in three tenses: past, present, and future. The past is used to describe things that have
already happened (e.g., earlier in the day, yesterday, last week, three years ago). The present tense is
used to describe things that are happening right now, or things that are continuous. The future tense
describes things that have yet to happen (e.g., later, tomorrow, next week, next year, three years from
now).

The following table illustrates the proper use of verb tenses:

Simple Present Simple Past Simple Future

Last night, I read an entire I will read as much as I can this
I read nearly every day.
novel. year.
Present Continuous Past Continuous Future Continuous
I am reading Shakespeare at I was reading Edgar Allan Poe I will be reading Nathaniel
the moment. last night. Hawthorne soon.
Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect
I have read so many books I I had read at least 100 books I will have read at least 500 books
can’t keep count. by the time I was twelve. by the end of the year.
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous Future Perfect Continuous
I had been reading for at least I will have been reading for at
I have been reading since I was
a year before my sister learned least two hours before dinner
four years old.
to read. tonight.

Simple Present Tense Examples.

1.He drinks tea at breakfast.
28 |Structure in English
 2.She only eats fish.
3.They watch television regularly.
4.We catch the bus every morning.
5.It rains every afternoon in the hot season.
6.They drive to Monaco every summer.
7.Water freezes at zero degrees.
8.The Earth revolves around the Sun.
9.Her mother is Peruvian.
10.Open the packet and pour the contents into hot water.

Simple Past Tense Examples

1.I saw a movie yesterday.
2.I didn't see a play yesterday.
3.Last year, I traveled to Japan.
4.Last year, I didn't travel to Korea.
5. I studied Fren Shauna studied Japanese for five years.
6.They sat at the beach all day.
7.He played the violin.
8.He didn't play the piano.
9.She washed her car.
10.He didn't wash his car.

Simple Future Tense Examples

1.Bob will go to the library tomorrow.
2.We will go shopping in that market this Monday.
3.We will watch a movie in this Cineplex on next Friday.
4.You will shop at that market tomorrow.
5.I will sing different kinds of songs, especially modern.
6.I will attend a program of my varsity on Friday.
7.Jeff will travel around the world in March.
8.They will play hockey in that field on Thursday.
9.The poet will write a romantic poem for this program.
10.The lyricist will write a realistic song.

Present Continuous Tense Examples

1.I am writing articles on different topics.
2.He is reading various kinds of books.
3.They are playing football now.
4..She is drinking coffee.
5.He is going to the library.
6.We are coming for shopping in this market.
7.We are watching a movie in this Cineplex.
8.You are shopping in that market.
9.I am singing different kinds of songs, especially modern.
10.I am listening to melodious songs.

Past Continuous Tense Examples

1.The sun was shining every day that summer.
2.As I spoke, the children were laughing at my cleverness.
3.The audience was applauding until he fell off the stage.
4.I was making dinner when she arrived.
5.At 6 o'clock, I was eating dinner.
6.She was talking constantly in class in those days.
7.I was not watching the cricket match on television.

29 |Structure in English
 8.He was practicing to sing the song for the program.
9.I was helping him to do the task.
10.We were enjoying the program thoroughly.

Future Continuous Tense Examples

1.We will be watching a movie in this Cineplex on next Friday.
2.You will be shopping at that market tomorrow.
3.I will be singing different kinds of songs, especially modern.
4.I will be attending a program of my varsity on Friday.
5.Jeff will be traveling around the world in March.
6.They will be playing hockey in that field on Thursday.
7.The poet will be writing a romantic poem for the program.
8.The lyricist will be writing a realistic song for the film.
9.Will you be going to the concert of realistic songs?
10.I will not be attending the program because of my busy schedule.

Present Perfect Tense Examples

1. She has lived here all her life.
2.have written three letters already.
3. I have worked here since I graduated school.
4. He has finished his homework.
5. We have been to Canada.
6. She has forgotten her folder.
7.We have gone to the beach many times.
8.She has lived here all her life.
9.They have written three letters already.
10. I have worked here since I graduated school.

Past Perfect Tense Examples

1.She stayed up all night because she had received bad news.
2.They lost many of the games because they had not practiced enough.
3.Anthony had met Ryan before you introduced him to us at the party.
4.You had studied Italian before you moved to Rome.
5.She had established her company before 2008.
6.The teacher asked if we had studied for the exam.
7.The usher asked if we had purchased our tickets.
8.We wished we had purchased the winning ticket.
9.I wished I had told the truth.
10.he bus had just left when we got to the stop.

Future Perfect Tense Examples

1.You'll have studied the English tenses
2.She'll have cooked dinner
3.You will not have studied the English tenses
4.She will not have cooked dinner
5.He will not have arrived
6.I won't have finished this book
7.You won't have studied the English tenses
8.She won't have cooked dinner
9.He won't have arrived
10.They will not have left Japan

Present Perfect Continuous Tense Examples

1.He has been traveling around the world for a month.
30 |Structure in English
 2.They have been playing cricket in that field for five hours.
3.The poet has been writing romantic poems for several hours.
4.The lyricist has been writing realistic songs since the beginning of his career.
5.Have you been listening to realistic songs since morning?
6.I have not been watching the cricket match for an hour.
7.Have you been preparing the assignment for two hours?
8.I have been helping him to do the task for an hour.
9.My mom has been cooking for three hours.
10.I have been watching the concert for an hour.

Past Perfect Continuous Tense Examples

1.We had been watching a movie in this Cineplex for three hours.
2.You had been shopping in that market before you came home.
3.I had been singing different kinds of songs for an hour.
4.I had been listening to melodious songs for two hours.
5.Tom had been traveling around the world since the month of December.
6.They had been playing hockey on that field for three hours.
7.The poet had been writing romantic poems since morning.
8.The lyricist had been writing realistic songs since the beginning of his career.
9.Had you not been enjoying the concert for three hours?
10.I had not been watching the cricket match on television for two hours.

Future Perfect Continuous Tense Examples

1.I will have been singing different kinds of songs before you join us.
2.I will have been attending the program before I come here.
3.Jeff will have been traveling around the world before he comes to Bangladesh.
4.They will have been playing hockey in that field before you reach.
5.The poet will have been writing a romantic poem before the program starts.
6.The lyricist will have been writing a realistic song for the film.
7.Will you have been going to the concert of the realistic songs before I come?
8.I will not have been attending the program before I finish this job.
9.Robin will have been joining us at the meeting before you reach.
10.I will have been helping him to do the task before the class starts

Regular verbs

Many English verbs are regular, which means that they form their different tenses according to an
established pattern. Such verbs work like this:
3rd person
3rd person singular past
Verb singular present participle
present tense participle
past tense
he/she
laugh he/she laughs laughed laughing
laughed
love he/she loves he/she loved loved loving
boo he/she boos he/she booed booed booing

Irregular verbs

31 |Structure in English
 There are many irregular verbs that don’t follow the normal rules. Here are the forms of some of the
most common irregular verbs:
3rd person singular 3rd person singular
Verb past participle present participle
present tense past tense
be is was been being
begin begins began begun beginning
bite bites bit bitten biting
break breaks broke broken breaking
buy buys bought bought buying
choose chooses chose chosen choosing
come comes came come coming
dig digs dug dug digging
do does did done doing
drink drinks drank drunk drinking
eat eats ate eaten eating
fall falls fell fallen falling
feel feels felt felt feeling
find finds found found finding
get gets got got getting
go goes went gone going
grow grows grew grown growing
have has had had having
hide hides hid hidden hiding
keep keeps kept kept keeping
know knows knew known knowing
lay lays laid laid laying
lead leads led led leading
leave leaves left left leaving
lie lies lay lain lying
lose loses lost lost losing
make makes made made making
meet meets met met meeting
put puts put put putting

32 |Structure in English
 read /ri:d/ reads read /red/ read /red/ reading

ride rides rode ridden riding

ring rings rang rung ringing
rise rises rose risen rising
run runs ran run running
say says said said saying
see sees saw seen seeing
sell sells sold sold selling
set sets set set setting
sing sings sang sung singing
sit sits sat sat sitting
stand stands stood stood standing
stick sticks stuck stuck sticking
take takes took taken taking
teach teaches taught taught teaching
think thinks thought thought thinking
wake wakes woke woken waking

Note that sometimes the spelling doesn’t change but the pronunciation does (e.g. read). There are
many more irregular verbs in English than those listed here. If you aren’t sure how a verb behaves, it’s
best to look it up. All irregular verb forms are given in full at the main dictionary entry.

12. Differentiate Passive to Active Voice. Write 10 examples for each.

33 |Structure in English
 Active Voice Examples Passive Voice Examples
Harry ate six shrimp at dinner. At dinner, six shrimp were eaten by Harry.
Beautiful giraffes roam the savannah. The savannah is roamed by beautiful giraffes.
Sue changed the flat tire. The flat tire was changed by Sue.
We are going to watch a movie tonight. A movie is going to be watched by us tonight.
I ran the obstacle course in record time. The obstacle course was run by me in record time.
The crew paved the entire stretch of highway. The entire stretch of highway was paved by the crew.
Mom read the novel in one day. The novel was read by Mom in one day.
I will clean the house every Saturday. The house will be cleaned by me every Saturday.
The company requires staff to watch a safety video The staff are required by the company to watch a safety
every year. video every year.
Tom painted the entire house. The entire house was painted by Tom.
The teacher always answers the students' The students' questions are always answered by the
questions. teacher.
The choir really enjoys that piece. That piece is really enjoyed by the choir.
A forest fire destroyed the whole suburb. The whole suburb was destroyed by a forest fire.
The two kings are signing the treaty. The treaty is being signed by the two kings.

34 |Structure in English
14. Modal Auxiliary Verbs Examples

Modal Auxiliary Verbs

-auxiliary verbs help to form the various tenses, moods, and voices of verbs.
The modal auxiliary verbs are auxiliary verbs that specifically affect the mood of the verb. Remember
that verb mood is about the attitude in which the action or state is expressed-as a statement of fact or
opinion, as a wish, as a possibility, or as a command.

Examples of Modal Auxiliary Verbs:

List of modal auxiliary verbs:

can will shall may
could would should might must

The modal auxiliary verbs are never used as a main verb. In addition, they do not have the five forms
that main verbs have. While other auxiliary verbs (be and have) can be used as a main verb and have
the five forms, these modal auxiliary verbs do not.

Examples of modal auxiliary verbs in a sentence:

1) I can run a mile in 8 minutes. (expresses a fact or possibility)
2) You must clean your plate before you have dessert. (expresses a command)
3) I might go to the park after school today. (expresses a possibility)
4) It would be nice if a rainbow appeared. (expresses a wish)
5) Do you think it will rain today? (expresses a possibility or a wish)
6) Grandma could arrive any minute! (expresses a possibility)
7) You should try some of this spaghetti. (expresses a statement of opinion)
8) Will you give me some money? (expresses a wish or possibility)

15. Adjectives/adverbs – Kinds and examples for each

Adjectives - word order: When there are two or more adjectives before a noun there are some complicated
"rules" for the order in which they should appear. These are the most important:

1. opinion adjectives come before fact adjectives

2. fact adjectives appear as follows: size - age - colour - origin - material

Here are some examples:

a silly old man (an old silly man )

a beautiful blue butterfly (a blue beautiful butterfly )
an interesting historical film (a historical interesting film)
a huge metal box (a metal huge box )
a new red dress (a red new dress )
little Russian dolls (Russian little dolls )

You will need to consult a good reference grammar for full details on the order of adjectives, and how they
should be punctuated.

35 |Structure in English
Adjectives: -ed or -ing? English contains numerous -ed or -ing adjective pairs derived from verbs. To avoid
mixing these up, remember that the -ed adjectives are used to describe how you feel, and the -ing adjectives
are used for what it is that makes you feel that way.

Here are some examples:

I feel tired. - Working in the garden all day is very tiring.

I am bored. - This grammar lesson is boring.
She was disappointed. - Her math test score was disappointing.
I'm interested in Ancient Egypt. - I think Ancient Egypt is interesting.
He was shocked. - He found your behaviour shocking.
I'm very confused by this film. - This film is very confusing.

Adjective or adverb? In English most (but not all) adverbs have a different form (spelling) than their
corresponding adjective. It is important, therefore, that you know whether you need an adjective or an adverb
in the sentences you want to say or write. Generally, adjectives are used to describe nouns and adverbs are
used with verbs to say how things are done. In the following examples, the adjectives are red and
the adverbs are blue:

Examples:
He's a beautiful singer. - He sings beautifully.
She's a very quick runner. - She can run very quickly.
He's a careless writer. - He writes carelessly.
She's a good worker. - She works well.

Adverbs are also used to give extra information about adjectives (or other adverbs), as in the following
examples:

I am extremely happy in my new job.

She's in hospital with a seriously injured neck.
It's incredibly easy to make a mistake when knitting.
The girl climbed dangerously high up the tree.
Because of the thick fog I drove extremely carefully.

After certain verbs (e.g. be, become, seem, look, taste, smell, etc.) the adjective, not the adverb, is
used:

She doesn't seem happy today.

Don't be stupid!
This meat tastes bad.
Those flowers smell strange.

16.Comparison of Adjectives

As well as serving as modifying words like beautiful and big, adjectives are also used for indicating the position
on a scale of comparison. The lowest point on the scale is known as the positive form, the middle point is
known as the comparative form, and the highest point is known as the superlative form. Here are some
examples:

36 |Structure in English
Positive Comparative Superlative

This book is long. This book is longer than that This is

book. the longest book.

The airport is far. The airport is farther than the This is

train station. the farthest airport.

My mom is My mom is a better cook than My mom is

a good cook. your mom. the best cook.

The comparative form

When two objects or persons are being compared, the comparative form of the adjective is used. The
comparative adjective can be formed in two ways:

Adding –er to the positive form of the adjective.

Adding the word more before the adjective.

For example:
My essay is longer than yours.
She is more beautiful than her sister.
Here are the rules for choosing and forming the right form:

Add When Example Forming and Exceptions

 Words ending with ‘e‘, add

–er Words of This is a ‘r‘ to the end of the word
one syllable longer book. (e.g., lame → lamer).
 Words with one vowel and
one consonant at the end,
double the consonant and
add –er to the end of the
word (e.g., big → bigger).
 Words with more than one
vowel or more than one
consonant at the end, add
–er to the end of the word

37 |Structure in English
 (e.g., hard → harder).

–er Words of two This doll is prettier. Change ‘y‘ to ‘i‘, and add –er to the
syllables end of the word.
ending with
‘y‘

more Words of two He Insert more before the adjective

syllables not is more charming
ending with than his friend.
‘y‘

more Three This is Insert more before the adjective

syllable a more powerful
words or cable.
longer

When comparing two things, the word than is positioned between the adjective and the thing being compared.
For example:
Apples are tastier than oranges.
This painting is more interesting than that painting.

Superlative Form

The superlative is used to say what thing or person has the most of a particular quality within a group or of its
kind. The superlative can be formed in two ways:

1. Adding –est to the Positive form of the adjective.

2. Adding the word most before the adjective.

For example:

1. This is the most beautiful dress I have ever seen.

2. The biggest table in the room.

Here are the rules for choosing and forming the right form:

38 |Structure in English
Add When Example Forming and Exceptions

 Words ending with ‘e‘,

–est Words of one syllable This is the add ‘st‘ to the end of
longest book. the word (e.g., large
→ largest).
 Words with one vowel
and one consonant at
the end, double the
consonant and add
–est to the end of the
word (e.g., big →
biggest).
 Words with more than
one vowel or more
than one consonant at
the end, add –est to
the end of the word
(e.g., blue → bluest).

–est Words of two This doll is the Change ‘y‘ to ‘i‘, and add
syllables ending with prettiest. –est to the end of the word.
‘y‘

most Words of two He is Insert most before the

syllables not ending the most charming adjective
with ‘y‘ boy at school.

most Three This is Insert most before the

syllable the most powerful adjective
words or story.
longer

Superlatives are usually preceded by the word the.

39 |Structure in English
 Positive form

The positive form is used in cases where there are no differences between the two compared things or
persons. To form the positive, we use the word as before and after the positive form of the adjective.
For example:
Danny is as smart as Phillip.
She is as beautiful as her older sister.

This can also be applied in a negative context to indicate that the compared objects are not similar:
Danny is not as smart as Phillip.
She is not as beautiful as her older sister.

Exceptions (irregular forms)

Certain adjectives have irregular forms in the comparative and superlative degrees:
Positive Comparative Superlative

Good better best

Bad worse worst
Little less least
Much/many some more most

Examples of comparing adjectives

This house is bigger than that one.

1.This flower is more beautiful than that.
2.He is taller than Mr. Hulas.
3.He is more intelligent than this boy.
4.Jonathan is the most handsome man on campus.
5.This is the prettiest dress in the window.
6.I lost my most comfortable shoes.
7.My job is worse than yours.

40 |Structure in English