Cement compounds

Silicates
Alite (C3S)
Belite (C2S)
Aluminates*
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A)
Ferrite (C4AF)
–
Sulfates (CS)
Stages of Hydration
Gypsum (dihydrate)
Plaster (hemihydrate)
Anhydrite

Products of hydration Stage 1: Mixing Stage 2: Dormancy Stage 3: Hardening Stage 4: Cooling Stage 5: Densification
Calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H)
Calcium hydroxide (CH)
–
Ettringite (C-A-S-H)
– Within minutes of mixing cement and water, the aluminates start For about two to four hours after mixing, there is a dormant This stage is dominated by C3S hydration and the resulting After final set, the rate of C3S reactions begins to slow and the This stage is critical for continued development of concrete
Monosulfate (C-A-S-H)
– to dissolve and react, with the following results: period, during which these events occur: formation of C-S-H and CH crystals: amount of heat generated peaks and begins to drop. strength and reduction of concrete permeability. The concrete
Carboaluminate (C-A-C-H) – must be kept moist as long as possible for the following reasons:
• Aluminate* reacts with water and sulfate, forming a • The C-A-S-H is controlling aluminate* reactions. Little heat is • When the solution becomes supersaturated with calcium ions During this stage, several things are occurring:
(portland-limestone cements only) –
Carboaluminate is a minor compound gel-like material (C-A-S-H). This reaction releases heat. generated, and little physical change occurs in the concrete. from dissolving C3S primarily, fiber-like C-S-H and crystalline • The concrete is gaining strength, as the amount of C-S-H and • As long as C3S remains and there is water in the concrete, the
– The concrete is plastic. CH start to form. These hydration products nucleate on cement C3S will continue to hydrate. As the volume of hydration
formed in portland-limestone cement. • The C-A-S-H gel builds up around the grains, limiting water’s CH increases. However, the concrete is still somewhat porous
access to the grains and thus controlling the rate of aluminate • During dormancy, as silicates (C3S and C2S) slowly dissolve, grains, SCM particles, and also ground limestone particles in and should carry only light construction traffic. products grows, concrete porosity and permeability decreases,
* In the Stages of Hydration chart, “aluminate” reaction. This gel formation occurs after an initial peak of rapid calcium ions and hydroxyl (OH) ions accumulate in solution. portland-limestone cement (PLC). These hydration reactions and the concrete gains strength. Eventually, the
generate heat. Meshing of C-S-H with other solids causes the • Tensile stresses may be building faster than tensile strength.
refers generically to tricalcium aluminate (C3A). hydration and heat generation. products—particularly C-S-H—will combine into a solid mass.
Ferrite (C4AF) hydration does not contribute mixture to stiffen At some point, stress will exceed strength, causing the
concrete to crack. Unless joints are sawed to control crack • C2S, which reacts more slowly than C3S, also produces C-S-H.
significantly to concrete properites. • The increasing heat and stiffening of the cement paste mark After several days, in the presence of water, most of the C3S
location, random cracking will occur.
the beginning of hydration acceleration, which lasts several – has reacted and the rate of C2S hydration begins to be
hours. Initial set occurs early in this stage. • Sometime after the temperature peaks, CS, which has
noticeable. It is important to maintain sufficient moisture long
continued reacting with aluminate* (see Stages 1 and 2), will
• Final set—about when the concrete is hard enough to walk enough for C2S reactions to occur.
be depleted. Any remaining aluminate* now reacts with
on—occurs before heat energy peaks from C3S reactions • Hydration products will continue to develop, permeability will
ettringite to form monosulfate, which may be associated with a
begin to slow. continue to decrease, and strength will continue to increase
brief increase in heat.
• After final set, tensile stresses start to develop. slowly for days, weeks, even years.

Physical Changes in
Cement Particles
Gypsum _ Calcium silicate hydrate Calcium hydroxide
Alites Belites Calcium hydroxide
(sulfate)(CS) Gel-like substance Calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) (CH)
(C3S) (C2S) (C-S-H) (CH)
Aluminate
(C3A)

Ferrite Ions
(C4AF)

Unhydrated cement

Hydration Heat Curve Conventional sawing window

Early sawing
window
Check for
Cement conventional sawing
Water
Aggregate Final set Check for early sawing
Heat

Initial set
Dormancy
− − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − Strength/Stress development − − − >

− − − − − − − − − − − − Hydration acceleration − − − >

Lasts about 15 min Lasts about 2–4 hr Lasts about 2–4 hr Can continue for years

Effects of Supplementary Stage 1: Mixing Stage 2: Dormancy Stage 3: Hardening Stage 4: Cooling Stage 5: Densification
Cementitious Materials
SCMs, like fly ash and slag cement, are included in more If the SCMs contain large amounts of calcium (e.g., Class C fly Like portland cement, during dormancy the silicates in SCMs Silicates in the SCMs react with the CH from the cement The magnitude of the primary heat peak is often reduced in Silicates in SCMs chemically combine with CH from cement
than 60 percent of concrete mixtures in the US. In ash), the calcium may be in the form of aluminate*, which will are slowly dissolving and releasing calcium ions and OH ions. reactions to form additional C-S-H, thus reducing porosity of systems containing SCMs due to slower hydration rate. This hydration to form additional C-S-H.
–
general, SCMs consist of the same basic elements— increase the risk of flash set if there is insufficient CS in the Contributions of ground limestone to PLC may slightly reduce the system and increasing strength and durability. These generally results in less shrinkage later and, thus, potentially Strength development may be slower initially but continues
oxides of silicon, aluminum, and calcium—and perform solution. the duration of the dormant period. reactions are slow and may only be noticeable in Stage 5. They less stress. A secondary peak may be observed as the SCMs longer, normally leading to higher long-term strength.
basically the same function as cement. Pozzolans require Fly ashes with high loss-on-ignition (LOI) may interfere with will continue for a long time and generally lead to higher hydrate. Permeability is often significantly reduced, thus improving
a source of CH to hydrate, usually provided by hydrating development of the air-void system because high LOI fly ashes long-term concrete strengths. Generally, as a result of reducing the rate and heat of potential durability.
portland cement. SCMs are used in concrete to achieve contain unburned carbon that adsorbs air-entraining admixture In mixtures with SCMs, note the following: hydration, SCMs influence the duration and timing of the
desired workability, strength gain, and durability. Portland-limestone cements may result in higher early
(AEA). Higher and more variable dosages of air-entraining • Setting time may be delayed, and working time may be saw-cutting window. The influence depends on the system strengths. Slightly reduced later strengths are possible at high
agents may be required. extended. Heat and rate of hydration are often reduced, and chemistry and the environment. If SCMs are being used for limestone contents.
Mixtures with SCMs may require less water to achieve the duration of hydration is extended. the first time or if sources change, then close attention is
required to prevent random cracking. Systems containing slag cement and fly ash are reportedly
workability. • Cold weather construction may increase these effects. more prone to frost damage.
Mixtures using PLC may have a slight variation in water In mixtures using PLC, note the following: Low-calcium fly ash and slag cement are effective in reducing
demand as compared to portland-only cements; it may alkali reactivity of mixtures for three reasons:
increase or decrease (Tennis et al. 2011). • Setting time may slightly increase.
• The heat of hydration may be higher in the early stages of • Mixture’s alkali content
hydration but equal or lower at later stages of hydration. • Concrete permeability
• System’s calcium/silica ratio

Fly Ash Slag High-calcium fly ashes may have the same effect, and they
should be tested using the materials under consideration.

Effects of Chemical Water reducers work by dispersing clusters of cement grains Retarders: Retarders work by forming a layer around cement grains, which causes the cement to dissolve more slowly. This delays initial set and the start of the acceleration period.
Admixtures and releasing water trapped in the clusters. Water reducers
may increase initial workability but may not slow slump loss
The amount of heat generated may occur slightly later and be slightly lower, but heat generation may be extended longer.
Mixtures containing retarders tend to have a finer, less-permeable microstructure, leading to better long-term strength and durability.
with time. Polycarboxolate water reducers may increase air
entrainment. Accelerators: Accelerators shorten the dormant period, leading to earlier setting, and often result in a higher temperature peak. The mechanism behind the acceleration is not fully understood, although silicate hydration is faster.
Type A water reducers increase the rate of aluminate* Chloride-based accelerators increase the risk of corrosion of any noncoated steel embedded in the concrete.
hydration and, therefore, the risk of flash set. They also slow
the rate of C3S hydration, slowing strength gain. High-range
(Type F) water reducers are less prone to incompatibility.
Air Entrainers: Air-entraining admixtures work by stabilizing
small air bubbles in the paste. The greater the slump, the
easier it is for air to be entrained.
Accelerators: Accelerators will shorten the time required to
reach initial set, and this fact should be considered when
hauling freshly mixed concrete.
Retarders: Set-retarding admixtures may increase air content.

Implications of Transport, place, finish, and texture the concrete during the After stiffening begins, do not work, vibrate, or consolidate the To prevent random cracking due to build-up of tensile
If using dump trucks or agitator trucks, mix the materials and Keep concrete thoroughly covered and protected with
Cement Hydration place the mixture into the transport vehicle. Watch for dormant period, before initial set, while the concrete is cool,
plastic, and workable.
concrete. Segregation of the ingredients at this point will be
permanent.
stresses, saw joints during the sawing window: curing compound as long as possible, at least for the first
stiffening during transportation (see early stiffening under • The sawing window begins when the concrete is strong 72 hours after mixing.
for Construction Incompatibilities below). Use transport methods and equipment that will prevent Thoroughly apply curing compound to the concrete surface enough not to ravel when sawed and ends before the The longer the curing compound remains in place (i.e., the
segregation. and edges as soon as possible after finishing to reduce the concrete cracks in front of the saw, no later than 24 hours
Practices If using ready-mix trucks, place materials into truck and mix
during transport. If visible bleeding occurs, finish the surface after bleeding has rate of water evaporation from the concrete. Protecting the after placement.
concrete remains protected from equipment and
construction traffic), the more moisture will be retained in
stopped and bleed water has evaporated. Do not work bleed concrete with curing compound is critical because it allows • Using conventional saws, the sawing window generally the concrete for hydration, increasing strength
In both cases, ensure adequate mixing is provided in for continued hydration, which results in stronger, less
accordance with applicable specifications. water back into the surface because it increases porosity and begins after final set but before the concrete heat reaches a development and reduction of permeability.
permeability of the surface layer. In hot weather, bleeding may permeable concrete. maximum.
be helpful in reducing plastic shrinkage cracking. During this stage, prepare joint sawing equipment. Beginning at • For early-age saws, the window may begin at final set (Stage
If necessary (e.g., in hot, windy weather) apply a polymeric final set, start checking concrete for readiness for saw cutting. 3) and will end earlier than for conventional sawing.
evaporation retarder before finishing to reduce the potential Cover the slab, especially if temperatures will cool
for plastic shrinkage cracking. significantly during the first night, to prevent curling, warping,
and related cracking.

Incompatibilities: Early –
If solution has insufficient CS for the amount of aluminate*, If calcium is consumed by poorly controlled aluminate reactions earlier in Stage 1, then supersaturation of calcium ions will be slowed
Stiffening/Retardation uncontrolled aluminate hydration may cause rapid, permanent and C3S hydration retarded. This retardation can potentially continue for several days, severely delaying or even preventing setting. It is
stiffening or flash set. This is characterized by a temperature possible to have a mixture that exhibits false set, followed by severe retardation.
The risk of incompatibilities occurring is higher rise. Aluminate hydration is accelerated by some Type A C3S hydration is accelerated by high temperatures, high alkali contents (from cementitious materials), and high cement fineness. This
–
• When using finer cementitious materials water-reducing admixtures and high temperature; more CS accelerates setting, which can accelerate the start of, and shorten the duration of, the saw-cutting window.
may be needed to maintain an adequate shell around the
• At low water/cementitious materials ratios C3S hydration is retarded by some Type A water-reducing admixtures and low temperatures, slowing setting and thus delaying the
aluminate* particles to control flash set.
– beginning of the saw-cutting window.
• At high temperatures Excess CS in solution results in gypsum crystals being
deposited out, prematurely stiffening the system, resulting in
(temporary) false set. The gypsum eventually dissolves as the
mixture is mixed, which is why false set is temporary.

Implications of Cement
Hydration for Cracking
Cement paste changes with temperature variations more than Because chemical reaction rates generally increase at higher Drying, and the consequent shrinkage, any time before final set may result in plastic shrinkage cracking. Drying, and the consequent restrained shrinkage, before After concrete has set, it tends to dry and cool more quickly at
aggregate and also shrinks as it sets; drying will exacerbate this temperatures, an increase in the initial mixing temperature sufficient strength gain may result in random cracking. the top surface, setting up differential stresses through the
shrinkage. Objects that are restrained when they shrink or significantly increases the amount of heat generated, and If setting is delayed, concrete may crack because it dries while thickness of the slab. This will cause the top and bottom
When concrete sets at high temperature, stresses can develop
expand will be stressed, leading to cracking if the stresses corresponding stress development, in Stage 3. the concrete is still too soft to start saw cutting. surfaces to expand or contract different amounts, resulting in
because the concrete cools and shrinks more than concrete
exceed the material strength. It is desirable to reduce paste curvature known as warping and curling. Depending on the
that sets at a lower temperature. The increased stresses may Faster setting may result in the concrete cracking before sawing
content within a given mixture, while still achieving workability support conditions and the extent of the curvature, stresses on
increase the potential for random cracking. can be completed because the sawing window is shorter than
and filling all the voids between aggregate particles. the curved/warped slab from dead weight or traffic loadings
the time required for sawing. may result in cracking.
The volume of aggregate is significantly larger than the volume
Cementitious systems with high alkali content, aluminate*
of paste, and it tends to control the amount of thermal movement
content, and fineness may shrink more than other systems,
of concrete. If aggregate with a low coefficient of thermal
therefore increasing the risk of random cracking.
expansion (CTE) is used, the risk of cracking problems will
decrease. Concrete with high paste content and high fines Modeling programs like HIPERPAV can be used to predict the
content will be at higher risk of cracking. sawing window more accurately for a given set of
circumstances, helping to reduce random cracking.

Implications of Cement
The air-void system develops during mixing. It is more difficult to The stability of the air-void system (i.e., the ability to prevent The air-void system has been formed at this stage and is unlikely to change.
Hydration for the entrain air in systems at high temperature, with low slump, and bubbles from breaking during handling) depends on the
with very fine SCMs that have high loss on ignition (LOI) and low chemistry of the AEA. Some air entrainers are more sensitive
Air-Void System alkali contents. An increased AEA dosage may be required for than others to the presence or dosage of other chemical
such systems. Set-retarding admixtures may increase air content. admixtures or SCMs.
A good air-void system is a uniform distribution of small, Increased handling (e.g., transportation, placing, vibration,
stable bubbles in the finished concrete, and it is necessary finishing) of unstable systems may reduce the air content and
for concrete durability. affect the quality of the in-place air-void system. Air content of
See Effects of Chemical Admixtures above. concrete should be tested at the delivery point and after
placing to assess the stability of the air-void system.

From Integrated Materials and Construction Practices for Concrete Pavement: A State-of-the-Practice Manual, May 2019