Name: Akmal Abbas Roll No: BZ637024

Program: B. Ed (1.5 years) Smester: Spring 2021

Code: 8609 Code Name: Philosophy of Education

Assignment No.1

Q. 1 What is meant by philosophy? Explain its definitions provided by

the different philosophers.
Answer:
What is Philosophy?
Quite literally, the term "philosophy" means, "love of wisdom." In a broad sense,
philosophy is an activity people undertake when they seek to understand fundamental truths
about themselves, the world in which they live, and their relationships to the world and to each
other. As an academic discipline philosophy is much the same. Those who study philosophy are
perpetually engaged in asking, answering, and arguing for their answers to life most basic
questions. To make such a pursuit more systematic academic philosophy is traditionally divided
into major areas of study. Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as
those connected with reality, existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.
Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally
systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument. The word "philosophy" comes from
the Ancient Greek (philosophia), which literally means "love of wisdom".

Historical overview:
In one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom, intellectual culture, and a
search for knowledge. In this sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions,
such as "how are we to live" and "what is the nature of reality." A broad and impartial conception
of philosophy, then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as reality, morality, and life in all
world civilizations.
Western philosophy:
Western philosophy is the philosophical tradition of the Western world, dating back to
pre-Socratic thinkers who were active in 6th-century Greece (BCE), such as Thales (c. 624 – c. 545
BCE) and Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BCE) who practiced a 'love of wisdom' (Latin: philosophia)
and were also termed 'students of nature' (physiologoi).

Western philosophy can be divided into three eras:

1. Ancient (Greco-Roman)
2. Medieval philosophy (referring to Christian European thought)
3. Modern philosophy (beginning in the 17th century)

Islamic philosophy:
An Iranian portrait of Avicenna on a Silver Vase. He was one of the most influential
philosophers of the Islamic Golden Age. Islamic philosophy is the philosophical work originating
in the Islamic tradition and is mostly done in Arabic. It draws from the religion of Islam as well as
from Greco-Roman philosophy. After the Muslim conquests, the translation movement mid-
eighth to the late tenth century resulted in the works of Greek philosophy becoming available in
Arabic. Early Islamic philosophy developed the Greek philosophical traditions in new innovative
directions. This intellectual work inaugurated what is known as the Islamic Golden Age. The two
main currents of early Islamic thought are Kalam, which focuses on Islamic theology, and Falsafa,
which was based on Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. The work of Aristotle was very influential
among philosophers such as Al-Kindi (9th century), Avicenna (980 – June 1037) and Averroes
(12th century). Others such as Al-Ghazali were highly critical of the methods of the Islamic
Aristotelians and saw their metaphysical ideas as heretical. Islamic thinkers like Ibn al-Haytham
and Al-Biruni also developed a scientific method, experimental medicine, a theory of optics and
a legal philosophy. Ibn Khaldun was an influential thinker in philosophy of history.

Islamic thought also deeply influenced European:

Islamic thought also deeply influenced European intellectual developments, especially
through the commentaries of Averroes on Aristotle. The Mongol invasions and the destruction
of Baghdad in 1258 is often seen as marking the end of the Golden Age. Several schools of Islamic
philosophy continued to flourish after the Golden Age however, and include currents such as
Illuminations philosophy, Sufi philosophy, and Transcendent theosophy. The 19th- and 20th-
century Arab world saw the Nahda movement (literally meaning 'The Awakening'; also known as
the 'Arab Renaissance'), which had a considerable influence on contemporary Islamic philosophy.

Different philosophers:
According to Aristotle:
"Philosophy is a science which discovers the real nature of supernatural elements".
According to Levison:
"Philosophy is mental activity".

According to Karl Marks:

"Philosophy is the interpretation of the world in order to change it".

According to Hegel:
"Philosophy is that which grasps its own era in thought. “Kant Immanuel Regards
philosophy as "the science and criticism of cognition."

According to Russel:
"Philosophy proper deals with matters of interest to the general educated public, and
loses much of its value if only a few professionals can understand it."

According to Henderson:
"Philosophy is a rigorous, disciplined, guarded analysis of some of the most difficult
problems which men have ever faced."

According to John Dewey:

"Philosophy is not a panacea (remedy for all kinds of diseases/troubles) for the problems
of men, but is that which emerges out of the methods employed by them to solve their
problems."

According to Socrates:
"Philosophy is a daily activity".

According to Phenix:
"Science attempts only at the discovery of facts. Philosophy is not interested in the
discovery of facts. Rather, it is interested in facts insofar as to provide an attitude towards them.
It tries to organize, interpret, clarify and criticize the already discovered facts of science.

According to Plato:
"He who has a taste for every sort of knowledge and who is curious to learn and is never
satisfied may be justly termed as a philosopher."

According to G.T.W Patreck:

 "Between science and philosophy the very closest relationship exists. They spring from
the same root, the love of knowledge and they aspire to the same end, the knowledge of reality.
While science describes the facts, philosophy interprets them."

According to Brubacher:
"Science is interested in the proximate or efficient causes of the facts, while philosophy
is concerned with its ultimate or final causes."

According to Ludwig Wittgenstein:

"The object of philosophy is the logical clarification of thoughts. Philosophy is not a
theory, but an activity. A philosophical work consists essentially of elucidations. The result of
philosophy is not a number of ‘philosophical propositions’, but to make propositions clear.
Philosophy should make clear and delimit sharply the thoughts which otherwise are, as it were,
opaque and blurred."

According to Raymont:
"Philosophy is an unceasing effort to discover the general truth that lies behind the
particular fact, to discover also the realities that lies behind appearance."

According to Carlies Lamont:

"philosophy is the tenacious attempts of reasoning men to think through the most
fundamental issues of life, to reach reasonable conclusions on first and last things to suggest
worthwhile goals that can command the loyalty of individuals and groups."

According to Kilpatric:
"Philosophy is a point of view, outlook on life."

According to Dr. Radhakrishnan:

"Philosophy is a view of life. It gives a direction to life, offers a design for living."

According to Existentialists:
"Philosophy is not a search for truth, but a trail of truth".

According to Hiryana:
"Philosophy is a emerged as a result of reflection over the experiences and problems of
everyday living."

According to Cicero, Marcus Tullius:

 "Philosophy is the mother of all arts and "the true medicine of the mind."

According to George Berkeley:

"Philosophy, being nothing but the study of wisdom and truth..."

According to Brightman:
"Philosophy may be defined as an attempt to think truly about human experience or a
whole or to make out whole experience intelligible."

Kant regards philosophy as:

"the science and criticism of cognition."

According to Fichte:
"Philosophy is the science of knowledge."

According to John Armstrong:

"Philosophy is the successful love of thinking."

According to Marilyn Adams:

"Philosophy is thinking really hard about the most important questions and trying to
bring analytic clarity both to the questions and the answers."

According to Edger S. Brightman:

"Philosophy is essentially a spirit or method of approaching experiential rather than a
body of conclusions about the experience."

According to Richard Bradley:

"Philosophy is 99 per cent about critical reflection on anything you care to be interested
in.”

According to Bramold:
"Philosophy is a persistent effort of both ordinary and persistent people to make life as
intelligible and meaningful as possible."

According to Herbert Spencer:

"Philosophy is concerned with everything as a universal science."
Q. 2 Define the term ‘Idealism’. Which aims does idealism achieves
through education?
Answer:
What is meant by the term idealism?
1) a: The practice of forming ideals or living under their influence.
b: something that is idealized.
2) a: A theory that ultimate reality lies in a realm transcending phenomena.
b: A theory that the essential nature of reality lies in consciousness or reason.

Definition of Idealism:
Idealism is a very old philosophical thought and it has exercised a potent influence on the
mind of man throughout the ages. Even in modern times when people are not inclined towards
accepting any dogmatic creed or philosophy, idealism has certain attractions which appeal to the
human mind and thereby exercise a great influence on human thinking. In education the
influence of idealism has gone a long way to restrict some of the radical thinking and establish
the worth of the eternal ideals and values of life.

Idealism Theory:
"Theory of ideas" redirects here. For Plato's theory, see Theory of forms. In philosophy,
idealism is a diverse group of metaphysical views which all assert that "reality" is in some way
indistinguishable or inseparable from human perception and/or understanding, that it is in some
sense mentally constructed, or that it is otherwise closely connected to ideas. In contemporary
scholarship, traditional idealist views are generally divided into two groups. Subjective idealism
takes as its starting point that objects only exist to the extent that they are perceived by
someone. Objective idealism posits the existence of an objective consciousness which exists
before and, in some sense, independently of human consciousness, thereby bringing about the
existence of objects independently of human minds.

According to George Berkeley:

In the early modern period, George Berkeley was often considered the paradigmatic
idealist, as he asserted that the essence of objects is to be perceived. By contrast, Immanuel Kant,
a pioneer of modern idealist thought, held that his version of idealism does "not concern the
existence of things", but asserts only that our "modes of representation" of them, above all space
and time, are not "determinations that belong to things in themselves" but essential features of
our own minds. Kant called this position "transcendental idealism" or sometimes "critical
idealism", holding that the objects of experience relied for their existence on the mind, and that
the way that things in themselves are outside of our experience cannot be thought without
applying the categories which structure all of our experiences. However, since Kant's view affirms
the existence of some things independently of experience namely, "things in themselves", it is
very different from the more traditional idealism of Berkeley.

Contributions of idealism to education:

Idealistic philosophy in education emphasizes ‘the exaltation of personality’, which is the result
of self-realization, achieved by spiritual knowledge, self-discipline and dignified teacher. Idealism
assigns a very important place to the teacher who is respected as a guide, and philosopher. They
emphasize the importance of moral and spiritual education and points out the values of
humanities, social sciences, art and literature. It emphasizes man’s perfection in various facets of
life-physical, spiritual, intellectual, moral, esthetic and social.

Aims of Education According to Idealism: -

Idealism and aims of education:
Idealism prescribes certain fundamental aims of education which are directly influenced
by the aims and principles of life. In this context Ross puts forth the view, “The function of
education is to help us in our exploration of the ultimate universal values so that truth of the
universe may become our truth and give power to our life.’’ Some of the important aims of
education as laid down by idealists are given below

idealism: Aim # 1.
Self-Realization:
The aim is to enable each child to realize soul, recognize his real form and proceed
towards self-knowledge. Self-realization means full knowledge of the self or the soul. Man has a
soul. Beyond soul there is supreme soul. Human soul is a part of this soul. Man achieves
perfection when he realizes self. So that idealist philosophers have advocated that liberation or
nirvana or mukti is the ultimate aim of life.

Idealism: Aim # 2.
Spiritual Development:
Man converts his original nature to spiritual nature where man can realize spiritual values
like truth, beauty and goodness in life. One has to enjoy intellectual, aesthetic and moral values
through spiritual development of mind.
Idealism: Aim # 3.
Cultivation of Moral Values:
According to idealism, man is essentially a moral being. Therefore, moral, intellectual
and aesthetic aspects of his personality should be promoted. According to Dr. Perm Nath “The
process of education must lead to the deepest spiritual insight and to the highest moral and
spiritual insight and to the highest moral and spiritual insight and to the highest moral and
spiritual conduct.” Moral values enable one to achieve perfection in life. One has to express his
moral values through all activities in life. Intellectual values solve all human problems what he
faces in life time. So that idealism cultivates moral values in order to make life perfect, noble one.

Idealism: Aim # 4.
Conservation, Promotion and Transmission of Culture:
According to idealism aim of education should be related to preserve, promote and
transmit culture from time to time, person to person and place to place. Moral, intellectual and
aesthetic activities of man help in preserving, promoting and transmitting culture from
generation to generation. Cultural heritage of mankind should be preserved. In addition to this
spiritual and moral values not only contribute the human society by promoting culture but also
transmit the same to the oncoming generation.

Idealism: Aim # 5.
Development of Physical Health:
Idealist philosophers advocate that education should be religious, moral, intellectual,
aesthetic and physical. Emphasis should be given on physical health i.e. sound health through
spiritual values. Education should aim at developing child into a complete man with full mental,
intellectual, moral and cultural uplift. So sound health provides sound mind where creative values
are produced for the well-being of human society.

Idealism: Aim # 6.
Universal education:
Education according to idealism should be universal in nature. The universe is
regarded as a thought process. Education should be based on the teaching of Universal truth
from the stand-point of rationality of the Universe.

Idealism: Aim # 7.
Preparation for a holy life:
Idealism prepares an individual for a holy life. Froebel says. “The object of education is
the realization of a faithful, pure, inviolable and hence holy life.’’
Idealism: Aim # 8.
Development of intelligence and rationality
Idealism wishes that education should develop the mind fully. It makes a person
rational as well. Only the highly developed mind can understand the all-pervading force. The
idealists believe that education must help in the full evolution of mind, the emancipation of
spirit, self-realization and the realization of higher values of life and to train the whole man
completely and fully for manhood and not some part of man.

Conclusion:
Idealism may be considered to be outmoded in the prevailing scientific world view. Idealistic
concepts like ‘spirit’, ‘mind’, ‘soul’, and ‘the cosmos’ have little relevance in the class-room
teaching. There is too much emphasis on good manners and modesty which may be mistaken. It
neglects child’s psychological nature. Idealism does not contribute to methods of teaching. It sets
unobtainable goals. Idealistic scheme of education, by and large, pays attention to physical,
industrial, social and electronic environment of today. It neglects social aspects of life. It over
emphasizes humanity and under rates science and technology. In all, we can say that idealistic
approach to education has its own merits and shortcomings. It should, therefore, be
supplemented by other philosophy or philosophies of education.

Q. 3 Compare the curriculum based on idealism with that of

pragmatism.
Answer:
Difference Between Pragmatism and Idealism: -
Pragmatism vs Idealism:
Pragmatism and idealism are two opposing philosophical approaches. Pragmatism is a
philosophical approach that evaluates theories or beliefs in terms of the success of their practical
application. Idealism, on the other hand, refers to any philosophy that asserts that reality is
mentally constructed or immaterial. The key difference between pragmatism and idealism is that
pragmatism considers practical consequences of an action as its main component whereas
idealism considers mental entities or thoughts and ideas as its main component. Idealism and
pragmatism are very much needed in any startup. Well, there is an obvious difference between
idealism and pragmatism, especially in the business world. Idealism and pragmatism can hold
different perspectives as well. Idealism is what you need as motivation to start a business to
change the world, but pragmatism is what will keep your startup into becoming a part of the
world to drive sustainable change. Therefore, in this article, we will discuss what actually idealism
and pragmatism is and what are the major differences between these philosophies.

What is Pragmatism?
Pragmatism is a philosophical approach that evaluates theories or beliefs in terms of the
success of their practical application. This philosophical tradition developed in the United States
in the late nineteenth century. Charles Sanders Peirce is considered to be the founder of this
tradition. William James, George Hubert Mead and John Dewey are also considered as its major
proponents. For pragmatists, thought is a guide to prediction, problem-solving and action. The
practical consequences of an action or thought are the main components of pragmatism.

Pragmatism is acting realistically with the current circumstance:

People who are pragmatic normally only consider the practicality of life and spends their
lives based on practicality. They reject idealism when it feels that idealism is hindering their way.
Since pragmatism is all about focusing on what is practical that is why the pragmatics or the
pragmatic leaders in business focus on what they have in their hands right now. They don't ask
the dealers to change their cards at a poker game, they work on maximizing their cards. They
utilize the best option that is available at the moment. Therefore, the pragmatic leaders in
business focus to achieve shorter-term goals as a means to an end. Due to this, they at times
create a negative picture of them.

According to pragmatists:
According to pragmatists, most philosophical topics such as nature of knowledge,
concepts, science, beliefs, and language can be viewed in terms of their practical applications.
Pragmatism emphasizes on this practical application of thoughts by acting on them to test them
in human experiments.

Principles of Pragmatism: -
Important Fundamental Principles of Pragmatism are given below:

1. No Ultimate Values:
The main principle of pragmatic philosophy is that man creates his own values during the course
of activity. There are no fixed values for all times to come. Even truths are man-made products.
There is nothing like absolute truth.

2. Emphasis on Experimentation:
Pragmatism lays a special stress on the value of experimentation. It stands for testing
every statement by finding out its practical implications. If these implications are desirable, the
statement is accepted, otherwise rejected. Man is always carrying out various experiments in his
life.

3. Belief in Practical Philosophy:

Pragmatism believes that philosophy is not simply wisdom of the past. True philosophy is
one that helps in the solution of practical problems of life. John Dewey says, “Philosophy in order
to be philosophy should have meaning and utility in the solution of human problems.

4. Human Development according to Environment:

Pragmatism believes that growth of human personality takes place because of interaction
with environment. Man tries to adjust himself to his environment and this result in his growth.

What is Idealism?
Idealism is a term that refers to many philosophical positions such as subjective idealism,
objective idealism, absolute idealism, and transcendental idealism. Idealism can basically refer
to any philosophy that believes fundamental reality is made of ideas or thoughts. This also implies
that reality or large portions of it are mentally constructed, and physical world is an illusion. Thus,
according to idealists, it is mental entities, not physical entities that are real things. Idealism is
monism, but it stands in direct contrast to other beliefs such as materialism, physicalism and
realism. In general speech, idealism can also refer to a person’s high ideals; this is usually taken
as impractical or unrealizable. Idealism is pursuing often unrealistic ideals that are often
unrealistic at the time of chasing.

Idealists are often driven by a set of strong moral beliefs:

Idealists are often driven by a set of strong moral beliefs and those moral principles are
a must to be adopted and accepted to become a part of our life. The idealists focus on their end
goal and seek a higher vision for their goal. They are always ready to go and take on risks to reach
their vision because they think that their vision is well worth it. They are ready to suffer for a
better future because they say that the decisions they have made are always right. They are
determined to achieve long-term goals and that is why in the business world the idealist leaders
always create a long term vision for their big idea. They are always working hard to attain long-
term goals and sustain their business for a longer-term. They could be rigid and determined. It
can be a bit difficult to please or to convince the idealistic leaders for any tweaks to their vision.

Principles of Idealism:
1. True reality or ultimate reality is mental or spiritual in nature. The material world is nothing
but an outward manifestation of ultimate reality.
2. The material world is mortal and changing. Ultimate reality which consists of ideals and values
is eternal and unchanging.
3. Human body is false as it is mortal: soul is true as it is immortal.
4. Nothing exists except what exists in the Absolute Mind of which our finite minds are parts.
5. What mind projects into the world is the only reality.
6. Mind is beyond everything. Mind evolves and brings progressive changes in man and in the
environment. The full evolution of mind enables a man to know the truth and avoid the error and
the evil. Mind is the creator of the new and the explainer of the existing phenomena.
7. Man is essentially a spiritual being and his spirituality alone distinguishes him from animal. His
spirit alone enables him to control his environment. Hence, the idealists aspire to emancipate
the spirit.
8. Ideas and purposes are the realities of existence.
9. Personality the union of ideas and purposes is the ultimate reality.
10. Man is a free agent, free to choose of his ends and means to realise them.

What is the difference between Pragmatism and Idealism?

 Pragmatism is a philosophical doctrine that evaluates theories or beliefs in terms of the
success of their practical application.

 Idealism refers to any philosophy that asserts that reality, or reality as we can know it, is
mentally constructed or immaterial.

 Idealism follows long-term visions and goals and pragmatism focus on short-term goals.

 Idealists are rigid and would fight for the ideal situation for their work, whereas Pragmatics
go with whatever is in their hands.

 Idealists could be pretty similar to extremists as they follow all or nothing. They could have a
rigid way of getting things done. Pragmatics considers going with the flow and are pretty
accommodating.

Major Components:
Pragmatism:
Considers practical consequences of an action as its main component.
Idealism:
 Considers mental entities or thoughts and ideas as its main component.

Thought:
Pragmatism:
Considers thought as a guide to prediction, problem-solving and action.
Idealism:
Considers thoughts and ideas as the only real entities.

Conclusion:
Idealism and pragmatism could be opposites but they could both be applied in a startup.
If you are an idealist and your cofounder is a pragmatic kind of guy, instead of coming up with
conflicts, you should find a solution to work together. We cannot ignore practicality as well as
morality in our companies as they are both important.

Q. 4 Explain the different forms of naturalism?

Answer:
Meaning of Naturalism:
Naturalism is a philosophical doctrine. It is opposed to idealism in its interpretation of
reality. Naturalism is concerned with “natural self” or “real self”. It contends that the ultimate
reality is matter, and not mind or spirit. Naturalism does not believe in spiritualism. It denies the
existence of a spiritual universe the universe of ideas and values.

According to naturalism:
The material world is the only real world. It is the only reality. This material world is being
governed by a system of natural laws and the man, who is the creation of the material world,
must submit to them. The naturalists have regard for actual facts, actual situations and realities.
For them nature is everything. It is the whole reality. Behind everything there is Nature. It denies
the existence of anything beyond nature. Naturalism believes that everything comes from nature
and returns to nature.

Nature, according to naturalism:

Nature, according to naturalism, is a self-sufficient entity. It is self-determined and
governed by its own laws. The naturalists see things as they are. They apprehend reality as it is
in its own nature. They do not believe that there are any spiritual values or absolute truths.
Naturalism takes recourse to such concepts as appetites, emotions, instincts and evolution.
According to naturalists, instincts are responsible for all our activities biological, psychological or
social. To them there is no absolute good or evil in the world. Values of life, according to
naturalism, are created by the human needs. Man creates them when he reacts to or interacts
with his environment. He must adapt himself to the environment.

According to the naturalists:

There is inherent goodness in man. In man there is an innate capacity for morality. Man
is born rational. The naturalists, thus, have idolized man. Nature, according to the naturalists, is
complete in itself, having its own laws. It does not, therefore, require us to have insight or
intuition to understand Nature. Naturalism believes that mind is an accident in the process of
evolution and it can be explained in terms of nature. Mind is a function of the brain which is
material in nature. Mind is not the source of knowledge; all knowledge is acquired from without,
and senses are the gateways of all knowledge.

Nature of Naturalism:
Naturalism explains all the natural phenomena on the basis of natural laws. According to
this view, Nature itself is the ultimate reality. Nature has been explained by means of motion and
energy. The different phenomena in nature occur due to the motion and waves of electricity.
Naturalism also accepts the principle of motion. It is also known as energism because of its
acceptance of energy. According to energism, all the natural things are only different forms of
energy. Naturalism is also known as positivism. Positivism means that the natural phenomena
come within the scope of some or the other positive sciences and can be explained by means of
scientific laws. In modern times, positivism was established by a French thinker August Comte.

According to naturalism:
The natural laws are universal and necessary. Thus, the naturalists believe in the principle
of uniformity of nature. According to it the different natural phenomena occur mechanically
without any purpose.

Philosophical Presuppositions:
In metaphysics:
The ultimate reality, according to naturalism, is the Nature and Nature is material. In
epistemology, the naturalists are empiricists. They believe that knowledge is acquired through
sense organs and with the help of the brain. They do not accept the rationalist’s position that
all knowledge is innate. In modern Western philosophy John

Locke, Bishop Berkeley and David Hume:

The British philosophers were empiricists. They believed in the possibility of direct
knowledge. In axiology, the naturalists believe in living according to Nature as the best type of
life. 'Follow Nature' is their slogan. Be natural is their motto. They are pluralists since Nature
has made all persons different.

Philosophical Forms of Naturalism

From the standpoint of philosophical principles, the following three forms of naturalism
are distinguished:

1. Naturalism of physical world:

This principle seeks to explain human actions, individual experiences, emotions and
feelings on the basis of physical sciences. It seeks to explain the entire universe in the light of the
principles of physical sciences. It has little or no influence in the sphere of education, because all
that it has done is to place knowledge of science above every kind of knowledge. It points out
that not only is science one form of knowledge, but that it is the only form of valid knowledge. It
is a concept of positivism, and it holds that even philosophical knowledge is worthless.

2. Mechanical positivism:

According to this principle, the entire universe is a machine made of matter and is
possessed of a self-driving energy that ensures its functioning. This is materialism, for it suggests
that matter is the only reality, and anything that exists is a form of matter. The human being is
conceived of as nothing more than an active machine which is activated by certain environmental
influences. The impact of this kind of positivism led to the emergence of the behavioral school in
psychology which explained all human behavior in terms of stimulus and response.

Explain the entire range of human activity:

All processes of the mental faculty such as imagination, memory, winking, etc., are
explained in physiological terms. This school also makes no distinction between human and
animal, because both can be explained in terms of stimulus and response. Behaviorism thus seeks
to explain the entire range of human activity as a mechanical process. As naturalism it has had a
tremendous impact on education.

3. Biological naturalism:

It is naturalism in this form, as biological naturalism, which has had the greatest impact
upon education. It has elaborated the theory of the natural man, and has explained that the
evolution of man and animal is a single process. It refuses to admit the spiritual nature of man
and expounds that his nature is the heritage he has received from his ancestors. That is why it
traces many similarities between human and animal behavior. Biological naturalism contends
that all the processes of Nature and the entire existence of the universe cannot be explained in
terms of mechanical and physical processes, because in the biological world, evolution is a more
important phenomenon.

Reason life evolves from lower forms to higher:

All living beings have an instinct to live and for this reason life evolves from lower forms
to higher and more complex ones. One can find all the characteristics of evolution in man's life.
The principles underlying evolution can explain the form that a human being will ultimately
assume and the manner in which he will progress. At the animal level, the process of evolution
stops at the material or physical level, but in the case of human beings it is also manifested in the
mental, moral and spiritual levels. This instinctive evolution is found not only in individual human
beings but also in groups of human beings, because these groups also evolve to a stage of greater
complexity. But this evolution is also governed by the same principles which govern the
individual's evolution. In this process of evolution, the principles of struggle for existence and
survival of the fittest have been considered the most important by Charles Darwin, because in
his opinion the principle of self-preservation is the strongest law of nature.

Q. 5 What are the limitations of natural knowledge? It is of any use to

Muslims today?
Answer:
limitations of natural knowledge: -
Truth is all around us:
It is something concrete and is not able to be changed. For one to come to truth one
must have a knowledge of that truth. In this case there is natural and supernatural knowledge.
Man is a creature of reason, and it is through this reason that man differentiates himself from
lower creature. However, there are limitations to natural knowledge, and to understand divine
truths, or supernatural knowledge, the grace of Allah must be present.

For one to know any element of truth:

Allah must first move the intellect to do so. Supernatural grace is not something needed
to know natural knowledge. This can be seen in many places in sacred scripture, but probably
most famously in Romans chapter one. One of the verses in question is Romans 1:20 which
states, “Ever since the creation of the world his eternal power and divine nature, invisible though
they are, have been understood and seen through the things he has made. So they are without
excuse” (NRSV). Natural knowledge, great as it may be, is limited in scope. Through natural
knowledge we can know that Allah exists, and we can come to a know the end of things, scientific
processes, and we are to relate to each other.

Grace changed things and allows us to obtain supernatural knowledge:

This does not mean that we will be understand all things about the divine, but Allah
touches us and raises us up. We become fully dependent on Allah and Allah works through us.
This supernatural knowledge brought about by grace gives a reinforcement “to the power of the
soul over the body, of reason over the passions, of man over the world, belongs to the sphere of
preternatural gifts, which we might call miraculous”. Furthermore, this supernatural knowledge
of knowing that we are fully dependent on Allah and understanding that we cannot do anything
apart from him, helps us persevere in grace and charity.

Basic themes of Locke's epistemology:

One of the most basic themes of Locke's epistemology is that since we cannot know
everything, we would be well-advised to observe and respect the extent and limitations of human
knowledge. Given the basic definition of knowledge as perception of the agreement of our ideas,
it follows that we fall short of knowing whenever we lack ideas or fail to perceive their agreement.
Thus, intuition extends only to the identity and diversity of ideas we already have; demonstration
extends only to ideas between which we are able to discover intermediaries; and sensitive
knowledge informs us only of the present existence of causes for our sensory ideas. Awareness
of our limitations, Locke proposed, should forestall haste, laziness, and despair in our natural
search for the truth about the most vital issues into which human knowers can fruitfully inquire.

Severe Restrictions:
Applying the human faculty of reason to the pursuit of knowledge, properly defined,
reveals the limitations within which we must work: We cannot achieve knowledge of things such
as infinity or substantial real essences for which we lack clear, positive ideas. Indeed, having ideas
will not be enough to secure knowledge if as in the case of human actions they are obscure,
confused, or imperfect. Given faulty memories, we may also fail to achieve knowledge because
we are incapable of tracing long chains of reasoning through which two ideas might be
demonstrably linked. In a more practical vein, rational knowledge cannot be established upon
false principles such as those borrowed from conventional wisdom. Finally, in the effort to
achieve philosophical or scientific certainty our efforts to employ reason are commonly
undermined by the misuse or abuse of language.

Most particularly:
Most particularly, on Locke's view, it is difficult to secure the reality of human knowledge
in any evidence of its conformity with the nature of things themselves. We readily assume that
passively-received simple ideas must be providentially connected with their objects, and since
complex abstract ideas are of our own manufacture, it is our own responsibility to ensure their
reality by a consistent use of the names by which we signify their archetypes. But complex ideas
of natural substances are intended to represent the way existing things are independently of our
perception of them, and of this the content of our ideas never provides adequate evidence. These
difficulties trouble all four types of knowledge.

Islamic view of nature versus western view of nature:

In Islam the purpose of nature is for man ‘to study nature in order to discover Allah and
to use nature for the benefit of mankind’. Nature can be used to provide food for mankind and
its bounty is to be equally distributed among all peoples. All activities that cause harm to mankind
and in turn destroy nature are forbidden. Destruction of the natural balance is discouraged, for
example, unnecessary killing of animals or removal of vegetation may in turn lead to starvation
due to lack of food. This view is an extension of the idea that ‘Man’ has been placed on earth as
Allah’s representative (Faruqi, 2006a; Zaidi, 1991; Said, 1989). Modern-day Muslims scholars
advocate that scientists and scholars are best motivated by these underlying values when
undertaking scientific endeavors. The Islamic view of nature has its roots in the Quran, the very
word of Allah and the basis of Islam. The following passages from the Quran illustrate the
relationship between nature and man and how this relationship inspires Muslim scholars to study
natural phenomenon, in order to understand Allah (Wersal, 1995). The following verses also
show the way the Quran presents the whole universe:

Islamic view of nature and values:

We created not the heavens, the earth, and all between them, merely in (idle) sport; we
created them not except for just ends. But most of them do not understand (Surah Al Dukhān 44:
38-39, [Ali, 1989, p. 1289]). Behold! In the creation of the heavens and the earth; In the
alternation of the night and the day; In the sailing of the ships through the ocean for the profit of
mankind; In the rain which Allah sends down from the skies And the life which He gives therewith
to an earth that is dead; In the beasts of all kinds that He scatters through the earth; In the change
of the winds and the clouds which they trail like their slaves between the sky and the earth -
(here) indeed are Signs for a people that are wise (Surah Ad-Baqarah 2: 164 [Ali, 1989, p. 64-65]).
Thus mankind is inspired to study, understand and mould the natural forces for its own purposes.
The point to note is the general empirical attitude of the Quran that engendered in its followers
a feeling of reverence and thus made them founders of an enlightened society (Iqbal, 1986).

Development of Islamic science in the golden age of Islam:

In the so-called ‘Golden Age of Islam’ inspiration for the development of sciences was
found in the Quran. Moreover, scientific activities were undertaken for the betterment of
mankind; therefore, the sciences that initially attracted the attention of Islamic scholars were
medicine, mathematics, pharmacy, and pharmacology (Faruqi, 2006b). In addition, major
scientific works were carried out under the patronage of rulers whose primary interests lay in the
benefits derived from these scientific works for the peoples they ruled (Sabra, 1996). In Islam it
must be understood that there is no ‘philosophy’ as recognized by Western standards. For
traditional Muslims, answers to questions pertaining to Allah, the creation of the universe, and
the destiny of mankind, could be sought in the Quran, (Faruqi, 2006a&b). Some orthodox
Muslims subjected Quranic verses to Kalam or a theological discipline involving rational
dialectical examinations (a form of Muslim scholastic theology). Philosophers like Al-Kindi (800-
870), Al-Farabi (d. 950) were inspired by the translations of the works of Aristotle. They
attempted to reconcile Aristotelian and Platonic ideas with revelation thus trying to build a bridge
between belief and reason (Taton, 1963). Al-Farabi’s works illustrated that Aristotelian logic had
scriptural support in the Quran and the prophetic hadith (Bakar, 1999).