Cost Accounting

Written By:

Mubashir Hassan Khan

Sap ID: 20441

Master of Commerce

Riphah School of Leadership

Faculty of Management Sciences

Riphah International University

Islamabad, Pakistan
2021
1
 Cost Accounting

Submitted To:

“Sir Zafar Akhtar”

Faculty Of Management Sciences
Riphah International University, Isb

Master of Commerce

Riphah School of Leadership

Faculty of Management Sciences

Riphah International University

Islamabad, Pakistan
2021
 Project Report
ON
POTATO CHIPS MANUFACTURING UNIT
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirement for the award of the degree
of

Master
In
Commerce

Submitted By

Mr.
Mubashir
Hassan
Khan

Under the guidance of

Mr. Zafar Akhtar

Department of Management sciences

Riphah school of Leadership

Table of Contents
Topic Page No

Acknowledgment..................................................................……….07
Executive Summary………………………………………………...08
Cost Accounting ……………………………………….....................08
Cost Classifications………………………………………………….08

4
Characteristics Of Good Cost System……………………………...11

Importance Of Cost Accounting to Business Concerns…………...12

Project Investment (Cost & Financing)……...…………………….14

Potato Whole - Sale Price Trends…………………………………..15
Production Process…………………………………………………..16

Machinery Requirements…………………………………………...16
Fixed Assets Requirements…………………………………………17
Raw Material Requirements………………………………………..18
Land & Building Requirements…………………………………....19
Human Resource Requirements……………………………………20

Key Assumptions…………………………………………………….21

Operating Assumptions……………………………………………..22
Revenue Assumptions……………………………………………….22
Expense Assumptions……………………………………………….23
Turnover Assumptions……………………………………………...23

Projected Income Statement………………………………………..24

Projected Balance Sheet…………………………………………….24

References…………………………………………………………....26

5
6
 Acknowledgement

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my

respected teacher Mr. Zafar Akhtar who gave me the
golden opportunity to do this project which also helped me
in doing a lot of research and i came to know about many
new things.

I would also like to thanks my parents and friends who

helped me in finishing this project within the limited
time period.

THANKS AGAIN TO ALL WHO HELPED ME.

7
Executive Summary:

“The study of this plan is primarily to facilitate potential entrepreneurs in project

identification for investment. The project may form the basis of an important investment
decision and in order to serve this objective, the document/study covers various aspects of
project concept development, start-up, production, marketing, finance and business
management. The document also provides sectoral information, brief on government
policies and international scenario, which have some bearing on the project itself. The
purpose of this document is to facilitate potential investors in potato chips manufacturing by
providing them a macro as well as a micro view of snacks business with the hope that such
information as provided herein will aid the potential investors in crucial investment
decisions. The need to come up with pre-feasibility reports for undocumented or minimally
documented sectors attains greater imminence as the research that precedes such reports
reveal certain thumbs of rules; best practices developed by existing enterprises by trial and
error, and certain industrial norms that become a guiding source regarding various aspects
of business set-up and it’s successful management. This particular Plan is regarding “Chips
Manufacturing Unit” which comes under the “Snacks Food” Sector”.

Cost Accounting: [1]

Cost accounting is a method of managerial accounting which aims to capture the total
production cost of a business by measuring the variable costs of each production phase as
well as fixed costs, such as a lease expense.

Cost Classifications
Costs are classified into fixed costs, variable costs or mixed costs (based on
behavior); product costs or period costs (for external reporting); direct costs or
indirect costs (based on traceability); and sunk costs, opportunity costs or
incremental costs (for decision-making).

Cost Classification Diagram

The following diagram summarizes the different categories into which costs are classified
for different purposes:

8
Product Costs vs Period Costs

9
Product costs (also called inventoriable costs) are costs assigned to the manufacture of
products and recognized for financial reporting when sold. They include direct materials,
direct labor, factory wages, factory depreciation, etc.

Period costs are on the other hand are all costs other than product costs. They include
marketing costs and administrative costs, etc.

Breakup of Product Costs

The product costs are further classified into direct materials, direct labor
and manufacuturing overhead costs:

 Direct materials: Represents the cost of the materials that can be identified directly
with the product at reasonable cost. For example, cost of paper in newspaper printing,
etc.
 Direct labor: Represents the cost of the labor time spent on that product, for example
cost of the time spent by a petroleum engineer on an oil rig, etc.
 Manufacturing overhead costs: Represents all production costs except those for
direct labor and direct materials, for example the cost of an accountant's time in an
organization, depreciation on equipment, electricity, fuel, etc.

Direct Costs vs Indirect Costs

The product costs that can be specifically identified with each unit of a product are called
direct product costs. Whereas those which cannot be traced to a specific unit are indirect
product costs. Thus direct material cost and direct labor cost are direct product costs
whereas manufacturing overhead cost is indirect product cost.

Prime Costs vs Conversion Costs

Prime costs are the sum of all direct costs such as direct materials, direct labor and any
other direct costs.

Conversion costs are all costs incurred to convert the raw materials to finished products and
they equal the sum of direct labor, other direct costs (other than materials) and
manufacturing overheads.

Fixed Costs vs Variable Costs

Fixed costs are costs which remain constant within a certain level of output or sales. This
certain limit where fixed costs remain constant regardless of the level of activity is called
relevant range. For example, depreciation on fixed assets, etc.

Variable costs are costs which change with a change in the level of activity. Examples
include direct materials, direct labor, etc.

Sunk Costs vs Opportunity Costs

10
The costs discussed so far are historical costs which means they have been incurred in past
and cannot be avoided by our current decisions. Relevant in this regard is another cost
classification, called sunk costs. Sunk costs are those costs that have been irreversibly
incurred or committed; they may also be termed unrecoverable costs.

In contrast to sunk costs are opportunity costs which are costs of a potential benefit
foregone. For example the opportunity cost of going on a picnic is the money that you
would have earned in that time.

Characteristics of a Good Costing System [2]

An ideal system of cost accounting must possess some characteristics which bring all the
advantages, discussed above; to the business, in order to be ideal and objective. The main
characteristics are:

1. Simplicity: It must be simple, flexible and adaptable to the changing conditions. And it
must be easily understandable to the personnel. The information provided must be in the
proper order, in right time and to the right persons so as to be utilized fully.

2. Flexibility and Adaptability: The costing system must be flexible to accommodate

the changing conditions and circumstances. The expansion, contraction of changes must be
adopted in the existing system with minimum changes.

3. Economy: The costing system must suit the finance available. The expenditure must be
less than the benefits derived from the system adopted.

4. Comparability: The management must be able to make comparison of the facts and

figures with the past figures, figures of other concerns, or other departments of the same
concern.

5. Minimum Changes to the Existing one: When introducing a costing system, it

may cause minimum change to the existing set up of the business.

6. Uniformity of Forms: Forms of different colors can be used to distinguish them.

Forms must be uniform in size and quality. Form should contain instructions to fill, to use
and for disposal.

7. Less Clerical Work: Printed forms will involve less labor to fill in, as the workers
may be a little educated. They may not like to spend much time in filling the forms.

8. Efficient Material Control and Wage System: There must be a proper

procedure for recording the time spent on different jobs, by workers for the payment of
11
wages. A systematic method of wage system will help in the control of labor cost. Since the
cost of material forms a great proportion to the total cost, there must be an efficient system
of stores control.

9. A Sound Plan: There must be proper and sound plans to collect, to allocate and to
apportion overhead expenses on each job or each product in order to find out the cost
accurately.

10. Reconciliation: The systems of costing and financial accounting must be facilitated

to reconcile in the easiest manner.

11. Overall Efficiency of Cost Accountant: The work of the cost accountant under a

good system of costing must be clearly defined as to his duties and responsibilities to the
firm are very essential.

12. Suitability to the Business: A costing system should be so devised as to

suit the conditions, requirements, nature and size of the business. A costing
system which serves the purposes of the business and supplies necessary
information for running the business successfully is an ideal system for that
business.

Importance of Cost Accounting to Business Concerns [3]

Management of business concerns expects from Cost Accounting a detailed cost
information in respect of its operations to equip their executives with relevant information
required for planning, scheduling, controlling and decision making. To be more specific,
management expects from cost accounting – information and reports to help them in the
discharge of the following functions:

(a) Control of material cost

Cost of material usually constitute a substantial portion of the total cost of a product.
Therefore, it is necessary to control it as far as possible. Such a control may be exercised by
(i) Ensuring un-interrupted supply of material and spares for production. (ii) By avoiding
excessive locking up of funds/capital in stocks of materials and stores. (iii) Also by the use
of techniques like value analysis, standardization etc. to control material cost.

12
(b) Control of labour cost
It can be controlled if workers complete their work within the standard time limit.
Reduction of labor turnover and idle time to help us, to control labor cost.

(c) Control of overheads

Overheads consists of indirect expenses which are incurred in the factory, office and sales
department; they are part of production and sales cost. Such expenses may be controlled by
keeping a strict check over them.

(d) Measuring efficiency

For measuring efficiency, Cost Accounting department should provide information about
standards and actual performance of the concerned activity.

(e) Budgeting
Now-a-days detailed estimates in terms of quantities and amounts drawn up before the start
of each activity. This is done to ensure that a practicable course of action can be chalked out
and the actual performance corresponds with the estimated or budgeted performance. The
preparation of the budget is the function of Costing Department.

(f) Price determination

Cost accounts should provide information, which enables the management to fix
remunerative selling prices for various items of products and services in different
circumstances.

(g) Curtailment of loss during the off-season

Cost Accounting can also provide information, which may enable reduction of overhead, by
utilizing idle capacity during the off-season or by lengthening the season.

(h) Expansion:
Cost Accounts may provide estimates of production of various levels on the basis of which
the management may be able to formulate its approach to expansion.
13
(i) Arriving at decisions
Most of the decisions in a business undertaking involve correct statements of the likely
effect on profits. Cost Accounts are of vital help in this respect. In fact, without proper cost
accounting, decision would be like taking a jump in the dark, such as when production of a
product is stopped.

Project Investment: [4]

Total Initial Cost of the Project is worked out as follows:

Table : Project Cost

Rupees

Capital Investment Requirement 33,730,170

Working Capital Requirements 14,283,349

Total Project Investment Requirement 48,013,509

The proposed plan is based on the assumption of 50% Debt and 50% Equity. However this
composition of Debt and Equity can be changed as per the requirement of the Investor.

Table: Project Financing

Rupees
Debt @ 50 % 24,006,754
Equity @ 50 % 24,006,754
Total Project Investment 48,013,509
Requirement

14
Table: Project Viability
IRR % - age 23.41 %
NPV @ 20 % Rs. 4,662,111
Pay Back Period 4-Years

Proposed Location: The said project can be started in any Industrial Area. It is
recommended to establish the Project in an area where Raw Material is easily available. It
may have any Industrial Area of Islamabad. The location of this proposed plan
recommended at Humak Model Town, Islamabad.

MARKET INFORMATION ABOUT POTATOES:

Pakistan is a large Potato producing Country yet it has very limited adequate Storage and
Processing facilities. Due to the lack of adequate Storage facilities a substantial proportion
of Production is wasted. The combination of inadequate Storage facilities and an under-
developed Processing Industry leads to volatility in prices as not all excess production can
be Stored or Processed for consumption during the Off-season. The following Analysis will
illustrate the current state of the Potato production in Pakistan along with the potential that
exists in both Farming and Processing of Potatoes.

Potato Whole - Sale Price Trends:

In the absence of adequate Storage facilities, at the time of harvest, there is a huge supply of
potatoes, which drives prices down. If Storage facilities are available price volatility could
be stabilized through consistent supply year around.

15
PRODUCTION PROCESS:

Production Process Flow:

The following figure shows the production process flow of Potato Chips Manufacturing
Unit:

Washing Of Peeling the Slicing the peeled

Fresh Potatoes Washed Potatoes potatoes

Washing and
rinsing of potato
Flavoring/ salt chips in hot
Potato Frying
on fried chips water for
excessive starch
removal

Packing of
Crisps into
packets of
different sizes

Machinery Requirement:
Following table shows the machinery & equipment requirement for setting up a Potato
Chips Manufacturing Unit imported from China. (HS Codes 84.38.)
Machine Price $ Make Unit RUPEES
Description
Washing Machine 2,450 China 1 146,982
Peeling Machine 2,723 China 1 163,350
Slicing Machine 1,991 China 1 119,460
Chips Washing 5,240 China 1 314,424
Machine
16
 Frying Machine 13,885 China 1 833,118
Flavoring machine 5,280 China 1 316,800
Chips Cooling 4,574 China 1 274,428
Machine
Packing Machine 5,718 China 1 343,068
Gas Burning 17,992 China 1 1,079,496
Boiler
Frozen Machine 51,051 China 1 3,063,060
Total 110,903 6,654,186
Other charges
Income Tax 6% 399,251
Freight & 5% 352,672
Handling Charges
as % of CIF price
Installation 1% 74,061
Charges as % of
Price
Cost of Imported 7,480,170
Machinery
Cold Storage 3,000,000
Equipments &
Accessories
TOTAL 10,480,170

Major Suppliers:

Serial # Suppliers WEB ADDRESS

1 Alisha Machines www.alishamachines.com
(Private) Limited
2 Campbell Wrapper www.campbellwrapper.com
Machinery
3 Xuzhi Equipment Co. www.lucy.168.com
Limited
4 Seoju Engineering Co. www.ec21.net/foodmachinery.com
Ltd.
5 Mundra Engineering www.mundraengineering.com
works

Other Fixed Assets Requirement:

Following additional fixed assets are required for factory and management offices.
Items No. Cost/I Total Cost
tem (Rs.)
(Rs.)

17
Office Equipment
Computers 6 3 180,000
0
,
0
0
0
Printers 3 2 75,000
5
,
0
0
0
Photocopy Machine 1 10 100,000
0,
00
0
Fax Machine 1 1 10,000
0
,
0
0
0
Telephone Sets 10 5 5,000
0
0
370,000

Fittings &
Installations
Air Conditioners 4 2 80,000
0
,
0
0
0
Generator 1 1,50 1,500,000
0,00
0
Air Compressor 1 1,20 1,200,000
0,00

18
 0
Transformer 1 450, 450,000
000
Electric Installations 300,000
& Charges
Water Pump 500,000
including boring
4,030,000
Furniture & Fixtures
Office Furniture 1 250, 250,000
000

TOTAL 4,650,000

Motor Vehicles:
The proposed project will also be using two Loader truck for transportation purposes.
The truck will be costing Rs. 1,100,000 and the depreciation will be charged at the
rate of 20% on written down value basis. In addition to the above the proposed project
will also be using two Cars costing Rs. 1,000,000/- each.

Raw Material Requirement:

Pakistan is a Potato growing country and has a major advantage of availability and
lower prices. Potatoes produced in Pakistan are appropriate and ideal to produce
Quality Potato Chips.

Raw material used in Potato Chips Manufacturing includes:

 Potatoes
 Vegetable Ghee / Cooking Oil
 Flavors

A detailed requirement of Raw Material composition is attached as

"Annexure B".

LAND & BUILDING REQUIREMENT:

Land Requirement:
19
Building for the proposed business can be acquired on rent but it is recommended
that it should be purchased or built as machinery will be installed. Total land
required for the Potato Chips Manufacturing Unit is approximately 22,449 -Sq. ft
or 5 kanals. Land price per kanal is taken to be Rs. 600,000 (Humak Road,
Islamabad). The break up of the required area and construction cost of the
building is given below.
Building Requirement:
Following Table shows the detailed Machinery Requirements for the Project.
Building & Space Cost Total Cost Rs.
Reqd. Rs. Per Sq.
Civil works Sq. ft Ft.
Plant Area 4,000 800 3,200,000
Generator Area 600 800 480,000
Air Compressor 600 800 480,000
Room
Management Office 200 900 1,080,000
Accessories Store 600 800 480,000
Potato Store 1,500 800 1,200,000
Finished Goods 1,500 800 1,200,000
Store
Toilets 600 800 480,000
Loading, unloading 1,800 800 1,440,000
Bay
Grounds 9,000 40 360,000
Water Tank - - 400,000
Total Space 21,400 - 10,800,000
Requirement
(sq.ft)
Boundary wall 600 x 10 100 600,000
Total 11,400,000
Infrastructure
Cost

Utilities Requirement:

20
 Utilities required for a Chips Manufacturing Unit are Electricity, Water and
Telephone.

HUMAN RESOURCE REQUIREMENT:

Following table shows the requirements of Human Resources in the Potato

Chips Manufacturing unit. Salaries and wages are assumed to grow at 10%
per annum.

Descriptio Shifts Employees Salary per A

n Month n
Rs. n
u
a
l
Salary
Rs.
Production Staff
Production Manager 1 1
40,000 480,000
Technical 2 1
supervisor 18,000 432,000

Quality Incharge 1 1 15,000 180,000

Store Supervisor 2 1 8,000 192,000
Machine Operator 2 1 6,500 156,000
Fryer Supervisor 2 2 8,000 384,000
Skilled Labor 2 10 4,000 960,000
Un-skilled Labor 2 20 3,000 1,440,000
Total Direct Labor 4,224,00
0
Administrative Cost
Admin. Manager 1 1 30,000 360,000
21
Finance Manager 1 1 25,000 300,000
Accounts Officer 1 2 8,000 192,000
Purchase Officer 1 1 10,000 120,000
Purchasers 1 2 6,000 144,000
Office Boys 1 2 3,000 72,000
Driver 1 2 4,500 108,000
Security Guard, 3 1 4,500 162,000
Gate Keepers
Sweeper 1 2 1,000 24,000
Total Administrative 1
Salaries ,
4
5
8
,
0
0
0
Marketing Cost
Marketing Manager 1 1 45,000 540,000
Senior Sales Officer 1 1 18,000 216,000
Assistant Sales 1 1 8,000 96,000
Officer
Sales 1 20 5,000 1,200,000
Representatives
Total Marketing Cost 2,052,00
0
Total Human
Resource Cost
Direct Labor
Factory Wages 4,224,000
Other Benefits 468,000
4,692,00
0

Administrative Cost 1,458,000

22
 Marketing Cost 2,052,000
Other Benefits 524,000
TOTAL 2,576,000

KEY ASSUMPTIONS:

Project Assumptions

Projected Life of the Project in Years 6

Debt 5
0

%
Equity 5
0

%
Annual Mark Up Rate (Short Term & Long Term) 1
5

%
Debt Tenure in Years 5
General Inflation Rate 5

Operating Assumptions:

No of Working Days in One Year 300

No. of Shift 2
No. of hours in one shift 8
Break Down time in one shift (hours) 1
Annual installed production capacity 150
kgs
per
hour
Initial year capacity utilization 70 %
Capacity growth rate 5%

23
 Maximum capacity utilization 95 %

Revenue Assumptions

Distribution Distributi
price to on price
to
Retailer
Consume
r
Rs. Rs.
Sales Price per
15 gm packet 3.75 5

Sales Price per 7.5 10

25 gm packet
Sales Price per 15.5 20
55 gm packet

Raw Material Costs during the 1st Year of Operation Cost (Rs./kg)

Potatoes per Kg 18
Frying Oil per Liter 60
Flavors per kg 392

Region wise Average Annual wholesale prices of Potato (Rs. per 40 kgs)

*
Potato price per kg is Rs. 18 average out by taking different Mandi rates. [Source Market Committee]

Packing Material Costs during the 1st Year of Operation

Cartons - rate per unit 15.00

Packing Film per Kg 410.00
Gum Tape per Roll 46.00

Expense Assumptions

Salaries, wages growth rates 5% of Salaries & Wages

Communication expense 10% of admin expenses
Office expenses 10% of admin expenses
Promotional expense 10% of Revenue
24
 Machinery & equipment insurance rate 10%
Office vehicles insurance rate 10%
Repair &Maintenance 20% of Cost of Sales
Professional fees 10% of Revenue
Marketing Expenses 10% of Revenue
Freight and Custom Clearance Charges 10% of Cost of Sales
Office Vehicle Running Expense 10% of admin expenses
Depreciation rate on Machinery 10% Written Down Value
Depreciation rate on furniture and office equip 10% Written Down Value

Turnover Assumptions

Raw Material Inventory 30 Days

Stores and Spares Inventory 2 Months
Finished Goods 15 Days
Accounts Payable 30 Days
Accounts Receivable 30 Days

FINANCIAL ANALYSIS:
Projected Income Statement:
2 2 2 2 2 20
0 0 0 0 0 26
2 2 2 2 2
1 2 3 4 5

Sales/Revenu 106,174, 122,154,10 135,249,9 149,686,04 165,726,9 183,505,595

e 347 0 63 8 92
Cost of Sales 85,741,96 95,666,233 104,706,5 114,867,44 126,213,2 137,036,766
7 93 9 06
G 20,432,38 26,487,868 30,543,37 34,818,599 39,513,78 46,468,829
r 0 0 6
o
25
s
s
P
r
o
f
i
t
Operating
Expenses:
Administrati 4,872,844 4,550,644 4,625,176 4,739,035 4,887,067 5,065,284
ve Expenses
Marketing 7,231,259 7,703,872 5,883,232 5,821,555 6,303,711 6,834,082
Expenses
12,104,10 12,254,517 10,508,40 10,560,591 11,190,77 11,899,366
3 8 8
Operating 8,328,277 14,233,351 17,817,83 21,429,363 25,379,50 31,507,652
Profit 0 3
Other 3,122,721 2,908,049 3,016,898 3,041,763 3,072,025 3,163,907
Income
11,450,99 17,141,400 20,834,72 24,471,126 28,451,52 34,671,559
7 7 8
Financial 3,255,000 2,655,000 2,013,000 1,380,000 742,000 298,000
Charges
Profit before 8,195,997 14,486,400 18,821,72 23,091,126 27,709,52 34,373,559
Taxation 7 8
Taxation @ 2,868,599 5,070,240 6,587,605 8,081,894 9,698,335 12,030,746
35%
Profit after 5,327,398 9,416,160 12,234,12 15,009,232 18,011,19 22,342,813
Taxation 3 3
Projected Balance Sheet:
2 2 2 2 2 202
0 0 0 0 0 6
2 2 2 2 2
1 2 3 4 5

Tangible Fixed 30,258,145 27,272, 24,696,2 22,465,646 20,527,54 18,837,520

Assets 423 09 2

Long Term 400,000 400,00 400,000 400,000 400,000 400,000

Deposits - 0
Electricity etc.

* Pre- 7200,000 5400,000 3600,000 1800,000

Operating
Expenses

Current
Assets:
Stock in 6,494,226 7,346,6 8,080,70 8,897,996 9,809,325 10,822,260
Trade 90 9
26
 Stores & 1,979,913 2,830,2 3,121,93 3,445,748 3,804,076 4,199,922
Spares 64 1
Advances, 537,000 590,70 649,770 714,747 786,222 864,844
Deposits & 0
Other
Receivables
Accounts 8,726,659 10,040, 11,116,4 12,302,963 13,621,39 15,082,652
Receivable 063 35 7
Cash in 64,243 8,064,2 17,272,1 28,630,897 42,332,72 62,281,375
Hand / Bank 38 73 7

Total 55,660,185 61,944, 68,937,2 78,657,997 91,281,28 112,488,572

378 28 8
Assets

Owner’s
Equity:
Capital 22,000,000 27,341, 36,995,6 47,179,089 59,957,56 75,495,816
Introduced 483 64 3
Profit for the 5,327,398 9,654,1 14,183,4 17,178,474 20,378,25 24,891,002
Year 82 24 3
27,341,483 36,995, 51,179,0 64,357,563 80,335,81 100,386,818
664 89 6
Less ; - - 4,000,00 4,400,000 4,840,000 5,324,000
Drawings 0
27,341,483 36,995, 47,179,0 59,957,563 75,495,81 95,062,818
664 89 6
Long Term 13,200,000 8,800,0 4,400,00 - - -
Loan 00 0

Current
Liabilities:
Current 4,400,000 4,400,0 4,400,00 4,400,000 - -
Portion of 00 0
Long Term
Loan
Accounts 5,728,202 6,259,1 6,919,63 7,658,077 8,478,879 9,388,502
Payable 63 3
Provisions & 4,990,501 5,489,5 6,038,50 6,642,357 7,306,593 8,037,252
Accrued 51 6
Charges

Total 55,660,185 61,944, 68,937,2 78,657,997 91,281,28 112,488,572

Liabilities
378 28 8
& Equity

27
References:
[1] https://xplaind.com/209931/cost-classifications#:~:text=In%20managerial%20accounting%2C%20costs%20are,
(for%20decision%2Dmaking).

[2] https://freebcomnotes.blogspot.com/2017/03/an-ideal-costing-system-characteristics.html

[3] https://www.preservearticles.com/cost-accounting/importance-of-cost-accounting-to-business-concerns/3085

[4] http://amis.pk/pdf/feasibilities/potato%20chips%20manufacturing%20unit.pdf

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