Self-Regulated Learning: Theories, Measures, and Outcomes

Barry J Zimmerman, City University of New York Graduate Center, NY, USA
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Abstract

Self-regulated learning refers to how students become masters of their own learning processes. Neither a mental ability nor
a performance skill, self-regulation is instead the self-directive process through which learners transform their mental abilities
into task-related skills in diverse areas of functioning, such as academia, sports, music, and health. This article will define
self-regulated learning and describe the intellectual context in which the construct emerged, changes in researchers’ emphasis
over time as well as current emphases, methodological issues related to the construct, and directions for future research.

Defining Self-Regulated Learning Definitions

Self-regulated learning involves metacognitive, motivational, Self-regulation of Involves personal efforts to control adverse
and behavioral processes that are personally initiated to performance behaviors and/or emotions during learning,
such as impulsivity or anxiety.
acquire knowledge and skill, such as goal setting, planning,
learning strategies, self-reinforcement, self-recording, and Self-regulation Measures of self-regulation that are applied
self-instruction. A self-regulated learning perspective shifts the events during efforts to learn, such as think-aloud
focus of educational analyses from students’ learning abilities protocols or personal logs.
and instructional environments as fixed entities to students’
self-initiated processes for improving their methods and
environments for learning. This approach views learning as an Most contemporary self-regulation theorists have avoided
activity that students do for themselves in a proactive way, absolute distinctions between internal and external control of
rather than as a covert event that happens to them reactively learning and have envisioned self-regulation in broader, more
as a result of teaching experiences. Self-regulated learning interactive terms. Students can self-regulate their learning not
theory and research is not limited to asocial forms of educa- only through covert cognitive means but also through overt
tion, such as discovery learning, self-education through behavioral means, such as selecting, modifying, or constructing
reading, studying, programmed instruction, or computer- advantageous personal environments or seeking social support.
assisted instruction, but can include social forms of learning A learner’s sense of self is not limited to individualized forms of
such as modeling, guidance, and feedback from peers, coaches, learning but includes self-coordinated collective forms of
and teachers. The key issue defining learning as self-regulated is learning in which personal outcomes are achieved through the
not whether it is socially isolated but rather whether the learner actions of others, such as family members, teammates, or
displays personal initiative, perseverance, and adaptive skill in friends, or through use of physical environment resources, such
pursuing it. as tools. Thus, covert self-regulatory processes are viewed
as reciprocally interdependent with behavioral, social, and
Definitions environmental self-regulatory processes.
Self-regulation Self-initiated cognitions or emotions that can Self-regulation is defined as a variable process rather than as
processes affect learning and performance positively or a personal attribute that is either present or absent. Even the
negatively, such as setting effective or most helpless learners attempt to control their functioning, but
ineffective goals. the quality and consistency (i.e., quantity) of their processes are
Self-regulation Self-initiated methods designed to enhance
low. (Self-regulatory processes are self-initiated cognitions or
strategies learning, such as multistep plan to solve emotions that can affect learning and performance positively or
story problems in mathematics. negatively, such as setting effective or ineffective goals.)
Novice learners rely typically on naive forms of self-
Self-regulation A description of self-regulation processes that
regulatory processes, such as setting nonspecific distal goals,
phases are used before, during, and after efforts to
learn.
using nonstrategic methods, inaccurate forms of self-
monitoring (Self-monitoring is metacognitive tracking of one’s
Self-monitoring Metacognitive tracking of one’s self-regulatory self-regulatory processes or outcomes during learning and
processes or outcomes during learning and performance.), attributions to uncontrollable sources of
performance.
causation, and defensive self-reactions. By contrast, expert
Self-efficacy Involves motivational beliefs regarding learners display powerful forms of self-regulatory processes,
personal competence to accomplish a task, especially during the initial phase of learning. Students’ efforts
such as correcting a sentence for to self-regulate their learning have been analyzed in terms of
grammatical errors. three cyclical learning phases. (Self-regulation phases are
Continued a description of self-regulation processes that are used before,

International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2nd edition, Volume 21 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.26060-1 541
542 Self-Regulated Learning: Theories, Measures, and Outcomes

during, and after efforts to learn.) Forethought phase processes views of how self-perceptions influenced learning to hierar-
anticipate efforts to learn and include self-motivational beliefs, chical, domain-specific views and began developing new self-
such as self-efficacy (Self-efficacy involves motivational beliefs concept tests to assess functioning in specific academic
regarding personal competence to accomplish a task, such as domains. The research of Hattie, Marsh, Shavelson, and others
correcting a sentence for grammatical errors.), outcome was especially influential in gaining new currency for the role
expectations, intrinsic interest, as well as task analysis skills, of academic domain self-concepts in learning. During this era,
such as planning, goal setting, and strategy choice. Performance social learning researchers, such as Bandura, Schunk, and
phase processes seek to optimize learning efforts and include Zimmerman, shifted their emphasis from modeling to
use of time management, imagery, self-verbalization, and self-regulation and renamed the approach as social cognitive.
self-observation processes. Self-reflection phase processes They identified a new task-specific motive for learning,
follow efforts to learn and provide understanding of the self-efficacy belief, and they linked it empirically to other social
personal implication of outcomes. They include self-judgment cognitive processes, such as goal setting, self-observation,
processes, such as self-evaluation and attributions, and self- self-judgment, and self-reaction. During this era, researchers,
reactive processes, such as self-satisfaction and adaptive/ such as Corno, Gollwitzer, H. Heckhausen, Kuhl, and others,
defensive inferences. Because novice learners fail to use effec- resurrected volitional notions of self-regulation to explain
tive forethought processes proactively, such as proximal goal human efforts to pursue courses of learning in the face of
setting and powerful learning strategies, they must rely on competing events. In their view, self-regulatory control of
reactive processes occurring after learning attempts that action can be undermined by ruminating, extrinsic focusing,
often have been unsuccessful. Such unfortunate experiences and vacillating which interfere with the formation and
will trigger negative self-evaluations, self-dissatisfaction, implementation of an intention.
and defensive self-reflections – all of which undermine Also during the 1970s and 1980s, suppressed writings of
self-motivation necessary to continue cyclical efforts to learn. Vygotsky were published in English that explained more fully
By understanding self-regulation in this cyclical interactive way, how children’s inner speech emerges from social interactions
qualitative as well as quantitative differences in process can be and serves as a source of self-control. Cognitive behaviorists,
identified for intervention. such as Meichenbaum, developed models of internalization
training on the basis of Vygotsky’s description of how overt
speech becomes self-directive. During this same era, cognitive
Intellectual Context for Self-Regulated Learning constructivists shifted their interest from cognitive stages to
Research metacognition and the use of learning strategies to explain
self-regulated efforts to learn. The research and theory of Flavell
Interest in students’ self-regulated learning as a formal topic played a major role in effecting this transition by describing
emerged during the 1970s and early 1980s out of general self-regulation in terms of metacognitive knowledge,
efforts to study human self-control. Promising investigations self-monitoring, and control of learning.
of children’s use of self-regulatory processes like goal setting, Research on self-regulation was also influenced by the
self-reinforcement, self-recording, and self-instruction, in such emergence of goal theories during the 1970s and 1980s. Locke
areas of personal control as eating and task completion and Latham showed that setting specific, proximal, challenging
prompted educational researchers and reformers to consider but attainable goals greatly influenced the effectiveness of
their use by students during academic learning. Interest in learners’ efforts to learn. Theorists such as Ames, Dweck, Maehr,
self-regulation of learning was also stimulated by awareness of Midgley, and Nicholls identified individual differences in goal
the limitations of prior efforts to improve achievement that orientations that affected students’ efforts to learn on their
stressed the role of mental ability, social environmental own. These researchers found that learning or mastery goal
background of students, or qualitative standards of schools. orientations facilitated persistence and effort during self-
Each of these reform movements viewed students as playing directed efforts to learn, whereas performance or ego goal
primarily a reactive rather than a proactive role in their own orientations curtailed motivation and achievement. During
development. In contrast to prior reformers who focused on this same period, another perspective emerged that focused on
how educators should adapt instruction to students based on the role of intrinsic interest in learning. Deci, Harackiewicz,
their mental ability, sociocultural background, or achieve- Lepper, Ryan, Vallerand, and others demonstrated that
ment of educational standards, self-regulation theorists perceptions of personal control, competence, or interest in a
focused on how students could proactively initiate or task were predictive of intrinsic efforts to learn on one’s own.
substantially supplement experiences designed to educate This focus on intrinsic motivation was accompanied by a
themselves. resurgence of research on the role of various forms of interest in
Interest in self-regulation of learning emerged from many self-directed learning by a host of scholars in North America,
theoretical sources during the 1970s and 1980s. For example, Europe, as well as elsewhere, such as Eccles, Hidi, Krapp,
operant researchers adapted the principles and technology Renninger, Schiefele, Wigfield, and others. During these same
of Skinner for personal use, especially the use of environ- decades, research on self-regulation of learning was influenced
mental control, self-recording, and self-reinforcement. Their by cybernetic conceptions of how information is processed.
preference for single-subject research paradigms and time Researchers such as Carver, Scheier, and Winne demonstrated
series data was especially useful for individuals seeking greater the important role of executive processes, such as goal setting
self-regulation of learning. During this same time period, and self-monitoring, and feedback control loops in self-
phenomenological researchers shifted from monolithic, global directed efforts to learn.
 Self-Regulated Learning: Theories, Measures, and Outcomes 543

Changes in Emphasis over Time text (Schunk and Zimmerman, 2008). More than 13 sources
of motivation were linked to self-regulated learning theoreti-
Before the 1980s, researchers focused on the impact of separate cally and empirically in this research.
self-regulatory processes, such as goal setting, self-efficacy,
self-instruction, volition, strategy learning, and self-
Effects of Self-Regulation Training
management with little consideration for their broader impli-
cations regarding student learning of academic subject matter. A second issue that has attracted considerable attention during
Interest in the latter topic began to coalesce in the mid-1980s the last decade is the acquisition of self-regulatory skills in
with the publication of journal articles describing various deficient populations of learners. Training programs for these
types of self-regulated learning processes, good learning skills have been conducted with diverse populations and age
strategy users, self-efficacious learners, and metacognitive groups of students. These interventions have involved a variety
engagement, among others. By 1991, a variety of theories and of formats, such as separate strategy or study skill training
some initial research on self-regulated learning and academic classes, strategy training linked explicitly to subject matter
achievement was published in special journal issues and edited classes, such as in mathematics or writing, or personal trainer
textbooks (Zimmerman and Schunk, 2001). services in classrooms and counseling centers.
These accounts of academic learning, which described One of the most systematic efforts to teach self-regulated
motivational and self-reactive as well as the metacognitive learning processes for writing has been undertaken by Harris,
aspects of self-regulation, spurred considerable research. By the Graham, and their colleagues. Their intervention, named the
mid-1990s, a number of edited texts had been published Self-regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) model, was
chronicling the results of this first wave of descriptive research designed to teach various genres of writing skill to learning
and experimental studies of self-regulated learning. The success disabled students who ranged in educational level
of these empirical studies stimulated interest in systematic from elementary to high school. This instructional approach
interventions to students’ self-regulated learning and the results sought to instill self-regulatory processes, such as goal
of these implementations emerged in journal articles and setting, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, self-instruction, self-
textbooks by the end of the 1990s. reinforcement, by using instructional processes such as modeling
and fading of cognitive scaffoldings. More than 40 experimental
and quasi-experimental studies have been conducted using this
Emphases in Current Theory and Research model, and a meta-analysis revealed that the effect size of SRSD
training was large (Graham and Perin, 2007).
Role of Self-Motivation
A second meta-analysis was conducted with 48 training
There is much current interest in understanding the self- studies of nondisabled primary school children involving
motivational aspects of self-regulation as well as the meta- regular teachers or experimental trainers (Dignath et al., 2008).
cognitive aspects. Self-regulated learners are distinguished by Gains were reported in not only academic performance but also
their personal initiative and associated motivational charac- in strategic functioning and motivation. The size of the effect of
teristics, such as higher self-efficacy beliefs, mastery learning overall self-regulatory training on academic outcomes was
goal orientations, favorable self-attributions, and intrinsic medium. However, those studies that provided metacognitive
motivation, as well as by their strategic and self-monitoring training designed to control, monitor, regulate, and reflect on
competence. The sources of students’ self-motivation are of learning produced a large effect size. Interventions that gave
both practical as well as theoretical importance. On the motivational feedback regarding their strategic learning also
practical side, researchers often confront apathy or helpless- produced a large effect size, and studies that provided the
ness when they seek to improve students’ use of self-regulatory combination of metacognitive and motivational training
processes, and they need viable methods for overcoming strategies yielded a very large effect size. Interestingly, the
this lack of motivation. On the theoretical side, researchers meta-analysis revealed that experimental trainers were more
need to understand how motivational beliefs and accompa- effective than trained teachers in enhancing students’ achieve-
nying affect interact with learning processes in a way that ment. A subsequent study by Dignath and Büttner (2008)
enhances students’ initiative and perseverance. A number expanded the data base to include secondary school students
of self-regulation models have included motivational and as well as the primary school students. These researchers found
learning features as interactive components, such as Pintrich’s that the overall effect of self-regulatory training on secondary
self-schema model, Boekaert’s three-layered model, Kuhl’s students’ achievement was medium in size, albeit slightly
action–state control model, and Bandura, Schunk, and smaller than the effect on primary school youngsters. The effect
Zimmerman’s cyclical phase model. These models are of metacognitive training with secondary students was large,
designed to transcend conceptual barriers between learning but the effect of motivational training could not be tested due
and motivational processes and to understand their interac- to limited number of studies of secondary students that
tion. For example, causal attributions are not only expected to included this component. These meta-analyses established
affect students’ persistence and emotional reactions but also clearly that children as young as primary schoolers profited
adaptations in their methods of learning. Each of these significantly from self-regulatory training that focused on
models seeks to explain how learning can become self- metacognitive and motivational components of self-regulated
motivating and can sustain effort over obstacles and time. learning.
The role of motivation in these models of self-regulated A fourth meta-analysis was conducted by Sitzmann and Ely
learning was compared and contrasted in 2008 in an edited (2011) with 369 self-regulation work-related training studies
544 Self-Regulated Learning: Theories, Measures, and Outcomes

involving nondisabled college students or employees who There is recent evidence that event measures of
were taught job- or education-relevant knowledge and skills. self-regulatory processes derived from structured diaries can
Sixteen self-regulatory constructs were identified across these surpass the validity of summary measures obtained from
studies, and nine of these constructs were significant predictors interviews (Nandagopal and Ericsson, 2011). Diary measures
of students’ achievement: goal level, self-efficacy, meta- were more predictive than interview measures of differences in
cognitive strategies, attention, time management, environ- self-regulation processes between high-, average-, and low-
mental structuring, motivation, effort, and attributions. The achieving upper division college students majoring in science.
best predictors (i.e., goal level, persistence, effort, and More specifically, these researchers discovered that shifts in the
self-efficacy) jointly accounted for 17% of the variance in timing and the adaptation of self-regulatory processes by these
students’ achievement. The effects of self-regulatory training advanced students to varying class requirements (e.g., reading
generalized across trainee populations and differences in vs test preparation) were more predictive of their achievement
length of training in these studies. The researchers recom- than their overall use of these processes. However, there is other
mended future research that does not depend on self-reported research (Winne and Jamieson-Noel, 2002) indicating that
data but instead involves measures that can capture the even when diary measures focused on detailed learning events,
dynamic nature of self-regulated learning. the calibration of these self-reported measures with traces of the
students’ actual behavior could be a problem. Clearly further
research is needed that employs diverse methodologies for
Methodological Issues assessing self-regulated learning events. (Self-regulation events
are measures of self-regulation that are applied during efforts to
Initial efforts to measure self-regulated learning processes relied learn, such as think-aloud protocols or personal logs.)
on inventories in which students are asked to rate their use of
specific learning strategies, various types of academic beliefs
and attitudes, typical methods of study, as well as their efforts Future Directions for Research and Theory
to plan and manage their study time. Another method was the
Role of Computer Technology
use of structured interviews that involved open-ended ques-
tions about problematic learning contexts, such as writing The computer has been widely embraced as an ideal instrument
a difficult essay, completing math assignments, and motivating to study and enhance students’ self-regulation of learning.
oneself to study under challenging circumstances. The latter Software program menus can be faded when they are no longer
form of assessment requires students to create their own needed and students’ performance processes and outcomes can
answers and requires trained coders to recognize and classify be logged in either hidden or overt files. Computers can
various qualitative forms of self-regulatory strategies. (Self- provide invaluable feedback to the experimenter or the learner
regulatory strategies are self-initiated methods designed to because performance outcomes can be stored, analyzed, and
enhance learning, such as multistep plan to solve story prob- graphed in countless ways to uncover underlying deficiencies.
lems in mathematics.) Although both of these approaches have Three notable efforts to employ computer technology to study
reported substantial correlations with measures of academic self-regulation of students’ learning have emerged to date.
success, they are limited by their retrospective or prospective Winne has developed a specially designed computer envi-
nature. As such, they depend on recall or anticipatory ronment to assess and facilitate self-regulation by students
knowledge rather than on actual functioning under taxing during studying. This software, which is labeled gStudy,
circumstances. provides learners with self-regulatory tools, such as note-taking,
To avoid these limitations, recent research efforts have that can be used to study different topics. For example, an
focused on studying self-regulation during actual learning assigned reading for a history course can be downloaded into
‘events’ using measures such as trace logs, think-aloud proto- gStudy, and as the student reads the text, key passages can be
cols, direct observations, structured diaries, and microanalysis highlighted, cut and pasted to a separate text file, table, or
(Zimmerman and Schunk, 2011). Trace logs refer to environ- diagram. The software also provides a menu of templates for
mental indicators of cognition, such as computer records of diagramming or organizing the notes. The purpose of gStudy is
requests for information when learning online. Think-aloud to teach students how to ‘bootstrap’ higher levels of
protocols involve recordings of students’ verbalizations of self-regulation during studying.
their thoughts and cognitive processes while learning, such Azevedo and his associates have cautioned that learning in
as self-directed comments about changes in strategies. Direct contemporary hypermedia settings is especially challenging to
observations pertain to records of students’ actions and educators because it is nonlinear, multirepresentational, and
comments gathered by trained coders, such as the frequency of open-ended. To learn effectively in these environments,
requests for help. Structured diaries refer to prescribed records students need to use self-regulatory processes, such as plan-
that are completed by the learner themselves, such as the ning, knowledge activation, metacognitive monitoring, and
quality and quantity of their studying. Microanalysis focuses on reflection. To implement these processes, the researchers
answers to specific questions that are posed to assess well- developed MetaTutor, a hypermedia environment designed to
established self-regulatory processes and motivational beliefs model, trace, and foster students’ self-regulation of learning.
or feelings at key points before, during, and after feedback Toassess the effectiveness of MetaTutor training, the investiga-
cycles. These event measures seek to provide a window on tors have developed think-aloud protocols that can be related
students’ self-regulatory actions and reactions as they occur in to computer traces (e.g., accessing specific hyperlinks) as well as
real time and dynamic environmental settings. to electronic measures of science achievement.
 Self-Regulated Learning: Theories, Measures, and Outcomes 545

Anastasia Kitsantas and Nada Dabbagh (2010) published their children’s initiation and problem solving activities. These
a teacher’s manual for teaching self-regulation via supportive researchers reported the results of several correlational studies
computer learning technologies, such as Skype, Weblogs, indicating a significant predictive path from parental processes
Wikis, Facebook, and blackboard. Six self-regulatory processes to their children’s achievement via their children’s motivational
were taught: goal setting, task strategies, self-monitoring and beliefs. These researchers advanced the hypothesis that
self-evaluation, time management, and help seeking. A four- children’s self-regulatory motives are developed by their
level sequential training model was employed involving parents before they enter school and continue to be supported
observation, emulation, self-control, and self-regulation. For afterward. A 3-year longitudinal study of parental involvement
example, goal setting was taught initially through modeling was conducted with third, fourth, and fifth grade elementary
and emulation before it was practiced and adapted to the school students. It was found that parents that increased their
students’ learning context. Although research has been involvement over time had children who increased in personal
supportive of the effectiveness of these computerized efforts, competence motivation, increased reading and math grades,
meta-analytic studies of their relative effects are needed. and decreased their learning problems over time. Clearly there
is a growing body of research regarding the important role of
parents on children’s self-regulation of learning, but future
Role of Teachers
research is needed on the impact of peers, especially classmates,
There is growing research that teachers play an important role on students’ self-regulation of their learning.
in children’s self-regulation during class as well as with
homework. Meta-analytic research (Dignath et al., 2008) has
Self-Regulated Learning versus Self-Regulation of
revealed regular teachers were less effective than experimental
Performance Processes
trainers in conveying self-regulated learning processes.
However, there is evidence (Stoeger and Zigler, 2008) that A final issue requiring further research involves the distinction
regular school teachers could be trained to convey self-regulated between self-regulation of learning processes and self-
learning skills to fourth graders as part of their regular mathe- regulation of performance (Self-regulation of performance
matics assignments during an intensive 5-week intervention. In involves personal efforts to control adverse behaviors and/or
research conducted with older at-risk students enrolled in basic emotions during learning, such as impulsivity or anxiety.)
mathematics courses at a technical college, instructors who were processes. The former construct refers to personal efforts to
trained to provide self-regulatory instruction produced signifi- acquire advantageous knowledge and skill, such as proficiency
cant results (Zimmerman et al., 2011). Compared to students in writing or sport. The latter construct refers to personal efforts
of untrained instructors, students who received self-regulatory to control adverse behaviors, such as impulsivity, failures in
training displayed more accurate self-judgments and higher volition, and the inability to control emotions or addictions.
achievement on periodic exams during the semester and on The latter deficiencies in performance have been attributed to
a final departmental exam. Clearly, teachers can be trained to a lack of self-control or self-discipline and have been the focus
convey self-regulated learning processes to students ranging of study by developmental and clinical researchers.
from elementary to collegiate level, but research on long-term These behaviors have been defined operationally as ‘self-
effects of such instruction is limited to date. This issue is in controlled’ when they are diminished through conscious effort,
need of further research. such as delay of gratification and relapse prevention. Although
the context differs between learning settings (acquiring positive
behaviors) and performance settings (avoiding negative ones),
Out-of-School Influences
there is no inherent reason why measures of self-control
There is well-established research showing that out-of-school should not be predictive of students’ academic achievement.
factors such as peer groups, families, and part-time employ- There is research (Duckworth and Seligman, 2005) indicating
ment strongly affect school, but there is only limited evidence that students’ self-discipline measures are significant predictors
to date that these social groups have a significant influence on of students’ academic achievement, but there is also evidence
students’ self-regulatory development. However, Brody and his that self-regulated learning measures may predict better
colleagues found that parental monitoring and setting stan- (Zimmerman and Kitsantas, 2014). Future research needs to
dards regarding their children’s performance was very address the relation between learning and performance
predictive of the children’s academic as well as behavior measures of self-regulation.
self-regulation, which in turn was predictive of their cognitive
and social development. Another study of parental processes
by Martinez-Pons found that parental modeling and support Conclusion
for their children’s self-regulation was predictive of the
youngsters’ success in school. There is additional research After more than three decades of research, self-regulated
regarding the psychosocial origins of self-regulatory compe- learning has emerged as a widely studied construct assessing
tence in academic learning. self-initiated and self-sustained efforts to acquire metacognitive
Grolnick and her colleagues have studied the effects of knowledge and task-related skill. At the outset, self-regulation
parental autonomy support and involvement on their researchers focused on separate processes such as goal setting,
children’s sources of motivation, such as perceived compe- but successful findings led them to consider the interaction of
tence, control understanding, and self-regulation beliefs. these processes with others in more complete models.
Autonomy support refers to parents’ valuing and supporting In addition to metacognitive processes, integrative models
546 Self-Regulated Learning: Theories, Measures, and Outcomes

included self-motivational processes. Various integrative Dignath, C., Büttner, G., Langfeldt, H., 2008. How can primary school students
self-regulatory models were compared in a series of edited learn self-regulated learning strategies most effectively? A meta-analysis on
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